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The Cortisol Stress Response to Social-Evaluative Threat in Competitive Ballroom Dancers

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The Cortisol Stress Response to Social-Evaluative Threat in Competitive Ballroom Dancers Stress on the Dance Floor: The Cortisol Stress Response to Social-Evaluative Threat in Competitive Ballroom Dancers Nicolas Rohleder Dresden University of Technology and University of British Columbia Silke E. Beulen University of Wuppertal Edith Chen University of British Columbia Jutta M. Wolf Dresden University of Technology and University of British Columbia Clemens Kirschbaum Dresden University of Technology The social self-preservation theory states that humans others evaluate that individual’s worth. Individuals who have a fundamental motivation to preserve the social self have higher social status are typically ones who possess and that threats to the social self perturb biological mark- attributes that are highly valued by the social group. ers such as cortisol. Five studies were designed to exam- Researchers have argued that the need to belong to a ine the cortisol response to competitive ballroom dancing social group is a fundamental human motivation and that as a paradigm for real-life social-evaluative threat. Com- humans are driven to behave in ways that further their petitive dancing produced substantial increases in cortisol belongingness to groups (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). compared to a control day. These increases were not due This could include behaviors such as presenting one’s val- to the physical strain of dancing and were greater than ued attributes to a social group. If so, it suggests that those found during social-evaluative laboratory stressors. humans are dependent on others to evaluate certain Responses did not habituate across competitions and attributes and that these evaluations from others can con- were mostly elevated under highly focused conditions of tribute to their sense of self, including self-esteem and threat (couple vs. group competition). These findings sup- self-identity (Crocker & Park, 2004; Leary & Kowalski, port the notion of a social self-preservation system that is 1990). physiologically responsive to threats to the social self. Some researchers have argued that similar to a moti- vation to preserve the physical self, humans also have a Keywords: ballroom dancing; psychosocial stress; social self- fundamental motivation to preserve the social self preservation; cortisol; social-evaluative threat; (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004; Kemeny, Gruenewald, & social evaluation Dickerson, 2006). This theory argues that there is a social self-preservation system that monitors the envi- ronment for threats to one’s social status and responds accordingly when such threats are perceived. Responses INTRODUCTION PSPB, Vol. 33 No. 1, January 2007 69-84 The social self refers to how an individual perceives DOI: 10.1177/0146167206293986 his or her social status and value and is shaped by how © 2007 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. 69 70 PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN to social threats include a set of both psychological and high (r ~ .90); hence, salivary cortisol provides an physiological responses, similar to responses to threats index of the biologically active fraction of this steroid to the physical self. hormone (Kirschbaum & Hellhammer, 2000). Thus, Perceptions of and responses to social-evaluative the measurement of cortisol in saliva is the method of threat appear to more likely occur under certain condi- choice in psychoendocrinology studies (Kirschbaum & tions that we summarize as the following: (a) A central Hellhammer, 1989). goal must be involved, (b) the situation requires the dis- Numerous studies have indicated that both physical play of an attribute or skill that the individual values, and psychological stress lead to a significant activation (c) the attribute or skill is evaluated by others, (d) the goal of the HPA axis. Stressors can override the negative may be threatened in the situation in that a negative feedback loop at the pituitary and hypothalamus, lead- evaluation could lead to a loss of social status, and ing to increased frequency and amplitude of cortisol (e) achieving the goal may be impeded by factors that are pulses. For example, marathon runs (Cook, Read, Walker, uncontrollable. The first two conditions highlight the Harris, & Riad-Fahmy, 1986) and exercising on a importance of an individual’s performance in a domain bicycle ergometer (Mason et al., 1973; O’Connor & that is significant to their self-identity. The third and Corrigan, 1987) are among the physical strains that are fourth conditions refer to the importance of social ties capable of activating the HPA axis. Psychological loads for this theory—that is, goals and performances that are can activate the HPA axis as much or more than physi- not evaluated by others will not evoke a social-evaluative cal stimuli do. In early work, Mason (1968) reported threat response. Lastly, elements of uncontrollability may that psychological influences are among the most potent increase social-evaluative threat because individuals per- natural stimuli known to affect HPA activity; his work ceive that their performance and its evaluation are not emphasized the importance of situational characteristics completely under their own control. as novelty, unpredictability, uncontrollability, anticipa- Psychologically, threats to the social self in impor- tion of negative consequences, and personal involve- tant domains can lead to loss of self-esteem and negative ment in activating the HPA axis. In addition, academic emotional states such as shame and are characteristic examinations (Kahn et al., 1992), public speaking of psychiatric disorders such as anxiety and depression (Bassett, Marshall, & Spillane, 1987), parachute jump- (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Dickerson, Gruenewalk, & ing (Cook et al., 1992; Deinzer, Kirschbaum, Gresele, Kemeny, in press; Ingram & Price, 2001; Leary, Tambor, & Hellhammer, 1997), hostage imprisonment (Rahe, Terdal, & Downs, 1995). Physiologically, the biological Karson, Howard, Rubin, & Poland, 1990), and psy- system that may be most sensitive to social-evaluative chosocial stress tasks in laboratory research all have threat is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. been found to stimulate the HPA axis. One tool for investigating moderate psychological stress in a labora- HPA Axis and Its Relationship to Stress tory setting is the Trier Social Stress Test (Kirschbaum, Pirke, & Hellhammer, 1993), which consists of an The HPA axis is responsible for the secretion of the anticipation period followed by a test period in which stress hormone cortisol. The secretion of cortisol is initi- the participants have to perform a free speech and ated at the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, mental arithmetic in front of an audience. Participation where corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) is produced. in this stress task induced considerable changes in the After being carried to the anterior pituitary, CRF cleaves concentration of ACTH and cortisol. Whereas psycho- the protein proopiomelanocortin into adrenocorticotropic logical stressors of short duration (i.e., 15 minutes; hormone (ACTH) and betaendorphin, which both are Kirschbaum et al., 1993) are capable of activating the released into the systemic circulation afterward. Each HPA axis, a physical strain will have to exceed certain pulse of ACTH that reaches the adrenal cortex results in thresholds to stimulate cortisol release. When exercising an increased synthesis of cortisol, which finally is released with 55% of maximal oxygen uptake (55% VO2max), into the bloodstream. Because it is bound rapidly to car- an exercise duration of 80 minutes is not sufficient to riers such as corticosteroid-binding globulin, albumin, activate the HPA axis (Tremblay, Copeland, & Van and erythrocytes, only a small fraction of 2% to 15% of Helder, 2005). Even when exercising with a high inten- released cortisol remains unbound (Kirschbaum & sity of 75% VO2max, the HPA axis is not activated Hellhammer, 2000). Only this “free“ hormone fraction is when exercise duration is shorter than 30 minutes biologically active (Mendel, 1989; Robbins & Rall, 1957). (O’Connor & Corrigan, 1987). Although blood contains both bound and unbound cor- Cortisol plays a particular role in maintaining the tisol, only the free hormone fraction is able to get into organism’s efficiency (McEwen, 1998). For example, saliva through passive diffusion. Correlations between enhanced cortisol levels due to acute stress lead to mobi- salivary cortisol and unbound blood cortisol levels are lization of energy-producing mechanisms on the one Rohleder et al. / BALLROOM DANCING AND CORTISOL 71 hand and to inhibition of less relevant organic functions skill that the individual values) are important for the on the other hand. This is thought to prepare the organ- elicitation of social-evaluative threat responses, this sug- ism for fight or flight. Although originally developed to gests the importance of identifying real-life stressors deal with physical stressors, this system may have evolved that are more central to an individual’s identity than the over time to respond to psychological threats as well, stressors that are typically used in laboratory studies. thus resulting in the associations found between psycho- For example, sport competitions, in which athletes are logical (nonphysical) stressors and cortisol. expected to show high levels of performance in front of judges and an audience, may be exemplary real-life sit- Cortisol and Social-Evaluative Threat uations that evoke social-evaluative threat. In contrast, although laboratory stressors such as giving
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