Sound in the Construction of Race: From Blackface to Blacksound in Nineteenth-Century America Matthew D. Morrison Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2014 © 2014 Matthew D. Morrison All rights reserved Abstract Sound in the Construction of Race: From Blackface to Blacksound Matthew D. Morrison This dissertation examines sound, and its embodied articulation through music and movement, as I consider pivotal ways in which race has been constructed through the history of blackface minstrelsy in the United States. I contend that the racialized sounds developed out of early blackface performance have both persisted and shifted throughout the history of American popular music, even after the disappearance of the blackface mask. I have neologized the concept of Blacksound to denote the racially coded sonic scripts that have developed out of the history of blackface performance. Blacksound refers to the histories and movements of the African American bodies, both real and imagined, on which its performance is based. The concept also suggests the scripting, manipulation, and absorption of these sonic performances by both black and non-black bodies as vehicles for imagining and self-expression, understood in relation to how ideals of citizenship vis-à-vis whiteness developed along the emerging color line throughout the long nineteenth century. Because Blacksound emerges out of the contexts of chattel slavery and minstrelsy, its commodified nature is always central to understanding how it sonically functions within the construction of identity in U.S. history. I examine how the masked receding of the sonic and corporeal tropes of blackface into Blacksound became the basis of contemporary popular sound and central to constructions of civic and racial identity in the United States. This approach is primarily developed through a comparative analysis of sheet music, imagery, and primary and secondary accounts of blackface performance rituals throughout the long nineteenth century. ` Table of Contents List of Examples and Figures ii Acknowledgements iii Dedication vi Introduction 1 Chapter One Racing Sound in Antebellum America 15 Chapter Two “Jigging” and “Ragging” in Late-Antebellum Minstrelsy: William Henry “Master Juba” Lane and the Improvisation of Blacksound 57 Chapter 3 Sentimentality and Sincerity: Stephen Foster, the Negro Spiritual, and Shifts in Blacksound from Abolitionism to Emancipation 87 Chapter 4 From Blackface to Blacksound 121 Works Cited 154 i ` Examples and Figures Example 1.1: “Zip Coon” lyrics; New York: Firth and Hall, 1834 43 Example 1.2: “Turkey in the Straw” 46 Example 1.3: “The Glasgow Hornpipe” 51 Example 1.4: “The Post Man” 52 Example 3.1: Cover to the Virginia Minstrels’ “Celebrated Negro Melodies,” 1843 90 Example 3.2: Call and Response in Foster’s “Camptown Races” 114 Figure 1.1: “Celebrated Ethiopian Melodies as Sung by the Boston Minstrels”; C. G. Christman, 1834 22 Figure 1.2: Cover: “Jim Crow”; W. C. Peters, c. 1831 24 Figure 1.3: “Jim Crow,” Sheet Music, as sung by T. D. Rice; W.C. Peters, c. 1831 25 Figure 1.4: Cover: “Zip Coon” (I); New York: Thos. and Birch, 1834 38 Figure 1.5: “Zip Coon” (II); New York: Firth and Hall, 1834 44 Figure 1.6: “Zip Coon” (II); New York: Firth and Hall, 1834 45 Figure 1.7: “Zip Coon” (I); New York: Thos. and Birch, 1834 47 Figure 1.8: “Zip Coon” (I); New York: Thos. and Birch, 1834 48 Figure 2.1: William Henry Lane in Almacks, Five Points, New York City 68 Figure 3.1: “Camptown Races”; F. D. Benteen and Co., 1852 116 Figure 4.1: Barney Fagan, “My Gal is a Highborn Lady”; Witmark & Sons, 1896 142 Figure 4.2: Chorus to Barney Fagan’s “My Gal is a High Born Lady” 145 ii ` Acknowledgements I am grateful to George Lewis, my dissertation advisor, and Ellie Hisama, my academic advisor, for their attention, guidance, and care. George Lewis has carefully pushed me to be critically attentive to how I consider and discuss sound, and to be as exhaustive as possible in my scholarly considerations. Ellie Hisama has thoughtfully encouraged and guided me to be the best scholar, teacher, and person that I can. These and many other significant lessons from my advisors will continue to guide me in the next phases of my professional and personal development. I am thankful to the members of my dissertation committee for their instruction and generosity over the years. Since I first entered Columbia, imagining that I would write a dissertation on Viennese Modernism, Walter Frisch has been unwavering in his support of my work. It was a course that I took with Daphne Brooks titled “Black Feminist Musical Subcultures” that convinced me of blackface performance’s centrality in shaping American popular music and identity. This course provided a foundation that will continue to shape my considerations of identity, performance, and music. The mentorship that Guthrie Ramsey has provided since I first entered the discipline of musicology is the reason that I am still a musicologist, and I am forever grateful to him for his continual support as a scholar, and “keep-it-real” guidance as a mentor. Giuseppe Gerbino, Susan Boynton, and Elaine Sisman each have given salient instruction, advice, and encouragement during my tenure as a graduate student. They have encouraged and provided me with the tools to push against and work within the boundaries of musicology. Karen Henson was especially influential upon how I came to understand performance and the body in music studies, and I am thankful for her iii ` passionate and thorough instruction. I have also been greatly influenced by the instruction, scholarship, and guidance of Aaron Fox, Ana María Ochoa, and Chris Washburne in ethnomusicology. Each of these professors has uniquely contributed to how I approach the study of music. In addition to my Columbia professors, the instruction and mentorship of my master’s advisor at Catholic University, Andrew Weaver, continues to shape almost every facet of how I have come to practice musicology. Additionally, Tamara Levitz has been critical to my professional development in ways that are beyond measure, and I am thankful for her continued belief in and support of my work and me. I would also like to thank the American Musicological Society and the Howard Mayer Brown Fellowship for providing the support that allowed me to complete my dissertation. There are a number of Columbia colleagues of mine whose friendship and feedback have kept me above water. Courtney Bryan has been a part of my graduate journey in every way imaginable, and I cannot imagine my time at Columbia without her, our conversations, collaborations, and genuine support for one another—I would not be the same person. Thank you to Aaron J. Johnson, who convinced me that Columbia was the place to be, and I followed him here. I am thankful for Jarvis McInnis, who has been a true friend, and also my writing buddy at the most critical moments of dissertation work. Nijah Cunningham, James Roane, Huewayne Watson, and Brian Alston inspire me to think outside the box, with the ancestors, and with my spirit, and I’m grateful for them. The two dissertation workshops that I participated in—the self-formed “Black Writers” and the Columbia Mellon Interdisciplinary Workshop—have graciously reviewed and edited my work in its various stages, and I am thankful for their thoughtful contributions. iv ` Casey Gerald has had to read and listen to my thoughts, analyses, and ramblings more than anyone over the years, and for some reason, decided to stick around—a true best friend indeed. Imani Uzuri has been a sister, a dear friend, and a spiritual guide at the most critical moments of my dissertation. Without these two as rocks, I would have been quite lost. Three of my life long friends, Tavius Bolton, Hosea Wood, and Jimmy Padgett, have kept me as grounded and sane as possible during my graduate career, and I’m thankful for their understanding and encouragement throughout. Without the support, care, and compassion of Asia Leeds, Brittney Taylor, and Raymond Miller, I would not have been able to complete my dissertation. I owe the biggest debt and gratitude to my family. My mother, Charmayne Morrison, has taught me invaluable lessons, incited my curiosity, encouraged me immeasurably, and sacrificed everything possible to see me to success. I could not ask for a more amazing, dedicated mother—there would be no dissertation without her. My dear grandparents, Rev. D. L. Morrison and Phyllis Morrison, have prayed for me, provided for me, and I could not imagine being where I am today without their matchless love and support. My uncles, David, Anthony, and Tremayne, and my aunt Tonya, have played a vital part in my ability to feel free to pursue my passions, and I am thankful for their dedication and belief in me. Finally, I would like to thank God and the ancestors for their charge, gifts, encouragement, and tools, and I pledge to continue honoring their legacy until I can no more. v ` To my mom, loved ones, and ancestors vi ` This page is intentionally left blank vii ` Introduction The history of popular sound in the United States illuminates how music, movement, and performance are key to a contemporary understanding of how individual and group identity has been composed throughout the nation’s history. Unpacking this sonic history reveals how identity is connected to how race is heard, both historically and at present. A consideration of the performance of vernacular sounds in the Colonial era, and their subsequent development in the first national form of North American popular music—Blackface Minstrelsy—will expand an understanding of how identity has been historically constructed along racial and ethnic lines in the United States.