International Journal of Current Chinese Studies. 1 (2010): 113‐124 ISSN: 2171‐6374
JADE DISCS FROM THE FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND
James C. S. Lin1
Four jade discs from different geographical and historical backgrounds illustrate when jades were commonly used in Chinese history: the Neolithic Liangzhu culture in Shanghai and its surrounding areas, the Warring States and Han periods in the eastern part of China and in the 18th century when Emperor Qianlong became obsessed with collecting jades. These jade discs were buried in tombs to represent the owners’ social status and may have served a protective function. One of these jade discs dates to the late Warring States period to the early Han (4th‐1st century BC) and was collected in a later period by Emperor Qianlong (r.1736‐95), who incised a poem on its edge in 1769. However, its original function was totally misunderstood; the poem describes it as an offering to the spirits. The grayish‐green colouring of the jade disc, with its brown speckling on the surface made the inscription almost invisible. This is why no‐one ever noticed the poem since it entered the Fitzwilliam Museum in 1946. These four discs are important in my study because they highlight different aspects of Chinese history. They were collected in ancient China for religious and political purposes, but were collected in modern times because of their value, beauty or even personal significance.
Key words: Bi, disc, Zhou li, Zuo zhuan, cong, tube, Liangzhu
Received 7 July 2009. Revised 15 January 2010. Accepted 11 April 2010.
The jades from the Fitzwilliam Museum bequeathed by Oscar Raphael, form an important part of our collection. This is not only because of their large number and variety, covering the most important periods when jades were used in Chinese history, but also because some of them were collected by or made for the great collector, Qianlong Emperor (1711‐1799). Among these ancient jades, four discs are particularly interesting.
The use of jade discs, bi, (large diameter with relatively small central hole) in China have a long history. However, before the archeological excavations of the
1 Fitzwilliam Museum, Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies. Cambridge University (England), [email protected]
Correspondence to: James Lin, Applied Arts, Fitzwilliam Museum, Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Cambridge University. Cambridge, England.
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1980s our understanding of the function of jade discs was based on text records, such as Zhou li and Zuo zhuan, which refer to their use as offerings to Heaven or to spirits; neither of them mention their role in burials. The earliest evidence of the placing of jade discs on the body can be traced back to the Liangzhu period (c.3000‐2000 BC) in present‐day southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang. In tomb M3 at Sidun, Jiangsu province, 24 jade discs, bi, were placed on the corpse's chest and under his back and 33 jade tubes, cong, laid around him in a circle (fig.1). Judging from the burn marks on the occupant's thigh bones and some of the jades, some kind of ritual involving the use of fire was practised at the burial. The practice of using jade discs as burial objects was revived in the later Warring States period (475‐221 B.C.) and continued until the Han dynasty (202B.C.‐ A.D.220).
(Fig.1) Tomb M3 at Sidun, Jiangsu province, Liangzhu culture (c.3000‐c.2000 B.C.). After Kaogu 1984.2, p.114, fig.5
The Liangzhu jade discs are usually thick and of varied colours. The Liangzhu disc in the Fitzwilliam Museum’s collection (fig.2) is dark brownish jade with traces of a paler yellow visible in places, smooth but with an uneven surface. Original carving marks can still be seen on the surface. A hole in the middle of the disc was drilled from both sides and has an uneven surface. Its diameter is 18.9 cm and it is 0.95 cm thick. It was bought from Tonying in 1920 by Oscar Raphael,
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Jade Discs from the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England who gave it to the museum in 1941. Discs of this size are commonly found in large numbers in Liangzhu tombs.
(Fig.2) Liangzhu disc from the Fitzwilliam Museum’s collection. Diameter 18.9 cm (Accession no.: O.16‐1946). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
During the late Warring States period, especially in Qi, Lu and eastern Chu tombs, jade discs became much more numerous and were placed upon corpses. The phenomenon was focused in eastern China and lasted into the Western Han, even after jade suits were first used. For example, in tomb M2 at Changfeng Yanggongxiang, Anhui province, 36 jade discs were found on the body. In tomb M1 and M2 at Shangwang village, Linzi, Shandong province, 18 and 11 jade discs were found on the body of the tomb occupants respectively. In tombs M52 and M58 at Qufu, Shandong, 18 and 16 jade discs were placed on and under the corpses respectively. As Jessica Rawson has pointed out, this practice may have been copied from the Neolithic Liangzhu tombs that were discovered by chance at that time. (Rawson 1998c, p.127) In fact, ancient tombs, found by accident or by deliberate excavation in the Han period, were recorded in texts such as Hou Han shu (Hou Han shu, p.1450).
During this period jade discs are much thinner, compared to those of the Liangzhu period, and usually incised with decoration. Decoration of discs with rows of small spirals in relief was widespread during this time (Fig. 3). Some discs have neat lines of raised bumps, created by a dense criss‐cross of lines in several directions (Fig. 6). The most impressive ones are those with hexagonal relief near
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International Journal of Current Chinese Studies Lin J. the central hole and the borders decorated with animal faces (Fig. 4). Rawson has argued that this animal face decoration probably developed from rectangular plaques dating to the 4th century B.C. and became a standard design during the 3rd‐1st century BC. (Rawson 1998, p.130).
(Fig.3) Disc with rows of small spirals in relief. Diameter 16 cm. Late Warring States period to early Han (4th‐1st century BC). (Accession no.: O.1‐1946). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
The rectangular plaques from the tomb of King Cuo of Zhongshan feature a monster design with two views of its body (fig.7), or, on arc‐shaped pieces (fig.8), the face overwhelms the much slighter bodies either side of the head. The design also appeared on the borders of bi discs in Qi and Lu tombs in Shandong during the late Warring States period and later in the Liu family tombs in eastern China after unification. They are found in large numbers in Han tombs, for example, in Mancheng M1, where 13 discs were placed on Liu Sheng's chest, five under his back, inside his jade suit; in M2, 11 discs were put on Dou Wan's chest and four under her back, also inside her jade suit. In Nanyue Wang's case, 14 discs were placed around his body, on his chest and under his back within the jade suit. All these discs were of finer material than that of the jade shroud.
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Jade Discs from the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England
(Fig.4) Large disc decorated with two animal heads surrounded by long intertwined scrolls and another two pairs of intertwined birds. Diameter 27.55 cm. Late Warring States period to early Han (4th‐1st century BC). (Accession no.: O.12‐ 1946). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
The finest and largest discs were usually placed on the face and chest of the deceased, while the smaller ones were found around the armpits and other parts of body. This green jade disc in the Fitzwilliam Museum’s collection is 27.55 cm in diameter and 0.5 cm thick, and has some altered areas and decomposition (fig.4). Discs of this size are usually divided into two zones by a striated band. However, what makes this disc different from others is that its inner zone is decorated with two animal heads surrounded by long intertwined scrolls and another two pairs of intertwined birds and the outer zone with rows of spirals in relief, arranged in rows and outlined by incised lines (fig.5). This is unusual, because in most other examples, the animal faces appear in the outer border of discs. In addition, this could be the only case in which the motifs combine animal faces and birds. Some larger discs from Nanyue Wang’s tomb have three zones and are decorated with animal faces on the inner and outer zones and rows of spirals in relief in the middle (fig.9). They were found in the main chamber room of the tomb, near the coffin.
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(Fig.5) Details of jade disc from figure 4. Late Warring States period to early Han (4th‐1st century BC). (Accession no.: O.12‐1946). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
In the Western Han, discs were not only placed surrounding the corpse, inside the jade suit, but were also found decorating the coffin or even placed on top of it. For example, 192 jade tiles were found inside Dou Wan's lacquer coffin and 26 jade discs were inlaid on its outer surface. In Shizishan, Xuzhou, although the tomb had been seriously looted, some jade discs were found and 1,800 jade tiles were inlaid in the lacquer coffin, creating a complete jade coffin (Wenwu 1998.8, pp.4‐33).
(Fig.6) Greyish green jade disc decorated with a criss‐cross pattern, forming faceted bumps, with Emperor Qianlong’s inscription on the edge. Diameter 16.3 cm. Late Warring States period to early Han (4th‐1st century BC). (Accession no.: O.38‐1946) . Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
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Jade Discs from the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England
As for the material, glass and pottery discs were also used in Han tombs as substitutes for jade discs. For example, glass and pottery discs were found in the storage room and the main coffin chamber respectively in Nanyue Wang's tomb; approximately 200 pottery discs were also found scattered on the top of the coffin in a Western Han tomb at Tongshan, Jiangsu province (Wenwu 1973.4, p.27). In order to produce the large numbers of discs needed for funerary purposes, pottery was probably the least costly option.
In lower status tombs, or where jade was less readily available, copies were made. For example, in Lady Dai’s tomb at Mawangdui, 32 wooden discs were found in the southern and western compartments, which were identified as storerooms. A painted banner, with Lady Dai's portrait above a large bi disc intertwined with two rising dragons, was placed between the two innermost coffins In several areas, including Shandong, Jiangsu and Sichuan, images of discs threaded with crossed cords were common elements in tomb designs.
(Fig.7) Rectangular plaque featuring a monster design with two views of its body, from the tomb of King Cuo of Zhongshan at Hebei Pingshan (c.327‐313 B.C.). After Beijing 1995, p.234, fig.101:16
Robert Thorp mentions that "irrespective of its other associations, the bi disc must have also played a part in funeral rite. The efficacy of the disc was apparently unaffected by the material it was made from. At Changsha, the bi discs were made of glass paste, steatite or stone rather than nephrite. (Thorp 1979,
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As with the jade suit, it would appear that the Han people hoped to use the discs as a defence against outside forces that threatened their body with decay. They believed that if the body could be protected from attack by demons it might be preserved eternally (Lin 2002, pp.38‐40). Belief that the body would be well preserved by discs is recorded in Baopuzi, and San guo zhi.
During the reign of Emperor Jing of Wu (r.259‐264AD) the soldiers guarding Jiangling dug out tombs in order to obtain slabs to build the city wall. They discovered a large tomb with double doors and stone door‐leaf inside; all were hinged. The surrounding perimeter had passages for chariots and were wide enough for horse riding. In addition, bronze was used to cast ten figures which were five feet tall, clothed and with tall hats and swords…..It seemed to be a prince’s or nobleman’s tomb. When the coffin was opened a body was found inside. His sideburns were white and bright and his face and body were lifelike. Inside the coffin was a piece of mica more than one foot thick. In addition, 30 white jade discs were laid on the body. When the soldiers removed the body, a piece of jade more than one foot long and shaped like a wax gourd fell from his clasped arms. Both the ears and nostrils were filled with pieces of gold that were as big as dates. This was to try to preserve the body from decay by using the power of objects. (Baopuzi, p.332; San guo zhi, p.1162)
(Fig.8) An arc‐shaped jade plaque decorated with monster face from the tomb of King Cuo of Zhongshan at Hebei Pingshan (c.327‐313 B.C.). After Beijing 1995, p.226, fig.98:2
The records about the use of jade discs, jade suits and orifice plugs in texts are confirmed by the archaeological finds from the Han imperial family members’
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Jade Discs from the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England tombs. Most of the Liu family members were found buried in jade suits and covered with jade discs.
However, the people making the jade discs were probably not from the same ethnic groups as the Liangzhu peoples, and their languages and beliefs were almost certainly different. In addition, differences in the decoration of the jades between the Liangzhu culture and the Warring States period also suggest a difference in religious rites.
Jade discs were rediscovered during later periods and were collected for different purposes. This greyish green jade disc (fig.6) with brown speckling, is decorated with a criss‐cross pattern, forming faceted bumps, which are embellished with incised scrolls. It is 16.3 cm in diameter and 0.55 cm thick with a central hole, which was drilled from one side. It is a typical late Warring States period to Han dynasty disc for burial purpose. However, what makes this jade disc even more unusual is the poem incised on the edge by Emperor Qianlong, dating it to 1769. It was bought from Bluett’s in 1930 and given by Oscar Raphael as part of his bequest in 1941. The inscription is executed in jin wen style, which was usually incised in ancient bronzes, with two small seals which could be read as gu xiang (antique sense) and tai pu (extremely simple). It is almost invisible on the translucent edge and is probably why no one noticed the inscription since it arrived at the museum six decades ago. The poem is recorded in the Complete Set of Poems by the Qing Emperor Gaozong (Taipei, 1976, juan 78) and can be reads as
I heard about Liu Rui which was passed down through Zhou Li
The Han dynasty continued to follow the old practices
I, of course, know how precious it is!
The fact that I have composed a poem on this object is a complete coincidence
Like those scholars in the early Qing period who were interested in kaoju xue (evidential scholarship) and jinshi xue (studies in metal and stone), the Qianlong Emperor’s understanding of jades was based on the study of surviving texts. Therefore, he regarded this disc as one of the liu rui (the six auspicious objects) referred to in the Zhou li. They are either gui (scepters) or bi (discs) and were allocated according to rank (Zhou li, p.192‐193). However, in the light of present archaeological evidence, it does not seem likely that these descriptions were accurate records.
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(Fig.9) Larger size discs from Nanyue Wang’s tomb have three zones, the inner and outer zones decorated with animal heads surrounded by long intertwined scrolls. After xi Han Nanyue wang mu, Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1991, p.184
In fact, the idea of “ritual” jades is probably spurious. The notion seems to have been derived from a comparison with bronze vessels and ritual jades may never have been a proper category of ritual object at all in the ancient times. Many jades have been found that have nothing to do with the kinds of ritual for which the bronzes were used. Also, we have no evidence of how or where offerings to Heaven and Earth were made in pre‐Han times, if at all. In fact, the ritual texts such as Zhou li contain an idealized prescription of how jades should be used, rather than a description of how jades were actually used.
The Qianlong disc is not the only example of a jade disc incised with an inscription on the edge. Similar discs can also be seen in the National Palace Museum’s collection in Taipei (Taipei, 1969, pl.16). An interest in the past stemmed, in part, from the Chinese rulers’ regard for the possession of antiquities as evidence of the authority bestowed upon them to rule (Ledderose 1978, p.35). Therefore, during his sixty‐year reign the Qianlong emperor composed thousands of poems, which he wrote on paintings, calligraphy and other objects. The disc may have been displayed as a studio ornament, like other jade discs and tablets that can be seen in the National Palace Museum, Taipei and the Palace Museum, Beijing.
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Jade Discs from the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England
These four jade discs came from different geographical and historical backgrounds, but arrived together at the Fitzwilliam Museum in 1946, when westerners started to become interested in Chinese jades. They were collected in ancient China for religious and political purposes, but were collected in modern times because of their value, beauty or even personal significance. These discs represent the different stages when jade discs played a most important role in Chinese history.
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Thorp RL. 1979. The Mortuary Art and Architecture of Early Imperial China, Ph.D. diss. University of Kansas. Wang Ming. 1980. Baopuzi neipian jiaoshi. Zhonghua shuju: Beijing.
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