International Journal of Current Chinese Studies. 1 (2010): 113‐124 ISSN: 2171‐6374 JADE DISCS FROM THE FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND James C. S. Lin1 Four jade discs from different geographical and historical backgrounds illustrate when jades were commonly used in Chinese history: the Neolithic Liangzhu culture in Shanghai and its surrounding areas, the Warring States and Han periods in the eastern part of China and in the 18th century when Emperor Qianlong became obsessed with collecting jades. These jade discs were buried in tombs to represent the owners’ social status and may have served a protective function. One of these jade discs dates to the late Warring States period to the early Han (4th‐1st century BC) and was collected in a later period by Emperor Qianlong (r.1736‐95), who incised a poem on its edge in 1769. However, its original function was totally misunderstood; the poem describes it as an offering to the spirits. The grayish‐green colouring of the jade disc, with its brown speckling on the surface made the inscription almost invisible. This is why no‐one ever noticed the poem since it entered the Fitzwilliam Museum in 1946. These four discs are important in my study because they highlight different aspects of Chinese history. They were collected in ancient China for religious and political purposes, but were collected in modern times because of their value, beauty or even personal significance. Key words: Bi, disc, Zhou li, Zuo zhuan, cong, tube, Liangzhu Received 7 July 2009. Revised 15 January 2010. Accepted 11 April 2010. The jades from the Fitzwilliam Museum bequeathed by Oscar Raphael, form an important part of our collection. This is not only because of their large number and variety, covering the most important periods when jades were used in Chinese history, but also because some of them were collected by or made for the great collector, Qianlong Emperor (1711‐1799). Among these ancient jades, four discs are particularly interesting. The use of jade discs, bi, (large diameter with relatively small central hole) in China have a long history. However, before the archeological excavations of the 1 Fitzwilliam Museum, Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies. Cambridge University (England), [email protected] Correspondence to: James Lin, Applied Arts, Fitzwilliam Museum, Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Cambridge University. Cambridge, England. Number 1 (2010) 113 International Journal of Current Chinese Studies Lin J. 1980s our understanding of the function of jade discs was based on text records, such as Zhou li and Zuo zhuan, which refer to their use as offerings to Heaven or to spirits; neither of them mention their role in burials. The earliest evidence of the placing of jade discs on the body can be traced back to the Liangzhu period (c.3000‐2000 BC) in present‐day southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang. In tomb M3 at Sidun, Jiangsu province, 24 jade discs, bi, were placed on the corpse's chest and under his back and 33 jade tubes, cong, laid around him in a circle (fig.1). Judging from the burn marks on the occupant's thigh bones and some of the jades, some kind of ritual involving the use of fire was practised at the burial. The practice of using jade discs as burial objects was revived in the later Warring States period (475‐221 B.C.) and continued until the Han dynasty (202B.C.‐ A.D.220). (Fig.1) Tomb M3 at Sidun, Jiangsu province, Liangzhu culture (c.3000‐c.2000 B.C.). After Kaogu 1984.2, p.114, fig.5 The Liangzhu jade discs are usually thick and of varied colours. The Liangzhu disc in the Fitzwilliam Museum’s collection (fig.2) is dark brownish jade with traces of a paler yellow visible in places, smooth but with an uneven surface. Original carving marks can still be seen on the surface. A hole in the middle of the disc was drilled from both sides and has an uneven surface. Its diameter is 18.9 cm and it is 0.95 cm thick. It was bought from Tonying in 1920 by Oscar Raphael, 114 Number 1 (2010) Jade Discs from the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England who gave it to the museum in 1941. Discs of this size are commonly found in large numbers in Liangzhu tombs. (Fig.2) Liangzhu disc from the Fitzwilliam Museum’s collection. Diameter 18.9 cm (Accession no.: O.16‐1946). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge During the late Warring States period, especially in Qi, Lu and eastern Chu tombs, jade discs became much more numerous and were placed upon corpses. The phenomenon was focused in eastern China and lasted into the Western Han, even after jade suits were first used. For example, in tomb M2 at Changfeng Yanggongxiang, Anhui province, 36 jade discs were found on the body. In tomb M1 and M2 at Shangwang village, Linzi, Shandong province, 18 and 11 jade discs were found on the body of the tomb occupants respectively. In tombs M52 and M58 at Qufu, Shandong, 18 and 16 jade discs were placed on and under the corpses respectively. As Jessica Rawson has pointed out, this practice may have been copied from the Neolithic Liangzhu tombs that were discovered by chance at that time. (Rawson 1998c, p.127) In fact, ancient tombs, found by accident or by deliberate excavation in the Han period, were recorded in texts such as Hou Han shu (Hou Han shu, p.1450). During this period jade discs are much thinner, compared to those of the Liangzhu period, and usually incised with decoration. Decoration of discs with rows of small spirals in relief was widespread during this time (Fig. 3). Some discs have neat lines of raised bumps, created by a dense criss‐cross of lines in several directions (Fig. 6). The most impressive ones are those with hexagonal relief near Number 1 (2010) 115 International Journal of Current Chinese Studies Lin J. the central hole and the borders decorated with animal faces (Fig. 4). Rawson has argued that this animal face decoration probably developed from rectangular plaques dating to the 4th century B.C. and became a standard design during the 3rd‐1st century BC. (Rawson 1998, p.130). (Fig.3) Disc with rows of small spirals in relief. Diameter 16 cm. Late Warring States period to early Han (4th‐1st century BC). (Accession no.: O.1‐1946). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge The rectangular plaques from the tomb of King Cuo of Zhongshan feature a monster design with two views of its body (fig.7), or, on arc‐shaped pieces (fig.8), the face overwhelms the much slighter bodies either side of the head. The design also appeared on the borders of bi discs in Qi and Lu tombs in Shandong during the late Warring States period and later in the Liu family tombs in eastern China after unification. They are found in large numbers in Han tombs, for example, in Mancheng M1, where 13 discs were placed on Liu Sheng's chest, five under his back, inside his jade suit; in M2, 11 discs were put on Dou Wan's chest and four under her back, also inside her jade suit. In Nanyue Wang's case, 14 discs were placed around his body, on his chest and under his back within the jade suit. All these discs were of finer material than that of the jade shroud. 116 Number 1 (2010) Jade Discs from the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England (Fig.4) Large disc decorated with two animal heads surrounded by long intertwined scrolls and another two pairs of intertwined birds. Diameter 27.55 cm. Late Warring States period to early Han (4th‐1st century BC). (Accession no.: O.12‐ 1946). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge The finest and largest discs were usually placed on the face and chest of the deceased, while the smaller ones were found around the armpits and other parts of body. This green jade disc in the Fitzwilliam Museum’s collection is 27.55 cm in diameter and 0.5 cm thick, and has some altered areas and decomposition (fig.4). Discs of this size are usually divided into two zones by a striated band. However, what makes this disc different from others is that its inner zone is decorated with two animal heads surrounded by long intertwined scrolls and another two pairs of intertwined birds and the outer zone with rows of spirals in relief, arranged in rows and outlined by incised lines (fig.5). This is unusual, because in most other examples, the animal faces appear in the outer border of discs. In addition, this could be the only case in which the motifs combine animal faces and birds. Some larger discs from Nanyue Wang’s tomb have three zones and are decorated with animal faces on the inner and outer zones and rows of spirals in relief in the middle (fig.9). They were found in the main chamber room of the tomb, near the coffin. Number 1 (2010) 117 International Journal of Current Chinese Studies Lin J. (Fig.5) Details of jade disc from figure 4. Late Warring States period to early Han (4th‐1st century BC). (Accession no.: O.12‐1946). Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge In the Western Han, discs were not only placed surrounding the corpse, inside the jade suit, but were also found decorating the coffin or even placed on top of it. For example, 192 jade tiles were found inside Dou Wan's lacquer coffin and 26 jade discs were inlaid on its outer surface. In Shizishan, Xuzhou, although the tomb had been seriously looted, some jade discs were found and 1,800 jade tiles were inlaid in the lacquer coffin, creating a complete jade coffin (Wenwu 1998.8, pp.4‐33).