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Two Modes of the Development of Chinese Ancient Civilization: On Two Modes of the Development of Chinese Ancient Civilization: on Observing of the Funeral Jades Unearthed from Large Graves of Hongshan Culture, Liangzhu Culture, and Yangshao Culture Two Modes of the Development of Chinese Ancient Civilization: on Observing of the Funeral Jades Unearthed from Large Graves of Hongshan Culture, Liangzhu Culture, and Yangshao Culture Li Boqian* Key words: Ancient Civilization–China Hongshan Culture Liangzhu Culture Yangshao Culture Burials Jades In the late Neolithic Age, ca. 5500–4500 BP, the as- of Archaeology in Liaoning 1986) and Guo Dashun’s pects of archaeological cultures in Chinese continent account in his article (1997), dozens of burials in cists underwent great changes. Various traces show that so- have been revealed in stone barrows at the Localities II, cial structure in those times was also in an intensive trans- III and V. Every barrow contains at least one major burial formation from the old to the new, and the process of in a large-sized elaborate pit and with rich grave goods, civilization entered a critical period. But the types, con- generally comprising exclusively jades, even pottery tents and major fields of change were diverse among seldom seen, which is clearly different from the tombs regions and cultures, which may have reflected still at other Hongshan Culture settlements. For example, in deeper issues involving different modes of the civiliza- Barrow-1 of Locality II at Niuheliang, a sleeve-shaped tion process. In this paper I will put forward my ideas jade was revealed beneath the tomb occupant’s skull of based on a comparison of the funeral jades from large- Burial M4, two pig-dragon-shaped jade ornaments side sized tombs of the Hongshan, Liangzhu and Yangshao by side on the chest; a hooked-cloud-shaped jade on the Cultures. tomb occupant’s chest of Burial M14, and a jade ring on I. A General Survey and Examples of the either wrist; 20 artifacts from Burial M21, which be- longed to the jade tortoise-shell, animal-mask plaque, Funeral Jades from Hongshan, Liangzhu and cong-tube, bi-disc and double bi. At Locality III, a sleeve- Yangshao Tombs shaped jade was found beneath the tomb occupant’s skull The Hongshan Culture is distributed mainly in present- of major Burial M7, a cong-shaped jade on the chest, day southeastern Inner Mongolia and western Liaoning and a jade bracelet on the right wrist. At Locality V, and chronologically ranges from 6000 to 5000 BP. In seven jades were uncovered at the large-sized major the 1970s and early 1980s, significant breakthroughs burial on the eastern side, i.e. a large bi on either side of were made through surveys of Hongshan Culture sites the tomb occupant’s skull, a hooked-cloud-shaped pen- across western Liaoning and excavations on the dant and a drum-and-sleeve-shaped object on the chest, Dongshanzui and Niuheliang Sites, which resulted in a bracelet on the right wrist, and a jade tortoise in either the discovery of the altar-temple-barrow complex and hand. other important remains. According to the preliminary The funeral jades of the Hongshan Culture show dis- report of the excavation on the Niuheliang site (Institute tinct features in assemblage. In addition to personal or- * School of Archaeology and Museology, Peking University, Beijing 100871 ([email protected]) 136 Chinese Archaeology Li Boqian naments belonging to the jue-earring, bead, tube, long axes, adzes, spades and chisels, and a few jade tools. In narrow spoon-shaped decorative object, etc., there are the mid and late phases, the settlement pattern and so- artifacts full of mysterious meanings and closely related cial structure were greatly changed, central settlements to religious and sacrificial activities, such as horse-hoof- and large-sized architectures appeared successively, and and sleeve-shaped objects, hooked-cloud-shaped high-ranked tombs brought about as a result of the so- pendants, jade pig-dragons, birds, cicadas, silkworms, cial developments. In 2005–2006, the Institute of deities and mythical animals, while battle-axes, such as Archaeology, CASS and the Henan Provincial Institute yue and qi, zhang spade-shaped scepters with the blade of Cultural Relics and Archaeology excavated on the at one end and other symbols of power were scarcely Xipo Site in Lingbao County, Henan, the 34 tombs re- recorded. covered in which belonged to the mid phase of the site The Liangzhu Culture was distributed largely around going back to 5300 BP. Of them the largest tomb M27 Taihu Lake in the lower Yangtze River Valley. It spanned is a rectangular earthen pit with primary soil second- the time ca. 5300 - 4300 BP, with the starting point a tier platforms and measures about 5m in length and little later than that of the Hongshan Culture. Its tombs about 3.4m in width at the opening. The tomb occupant feature strict hierarchy; and, like the Hongshan Culture is a male adult, but it is strange indeed that there are no burials built close to the temple, there exist graves struc- grave goods in the tomb chamber, only nine pottery ves- tured on the top of altars. The grave goods comprise sels in total of the large-mouthed vat, gui food vessel- generally only jade and stone artifacts and seldom shaped object, cauldron-on-stove, pot, bo-bowl and a pottery. But whether in the above-mentioned rather dis- cup are found in the foot pit. About 6m away from M27 tinctive graves or in burials of other ranks, if only con- is M29, also an earthen pit with primary soil second-tier sisting of jade and stone artifacts, these grave goods are platforms. It is about 4m long and about 3.3m wide for bound to include the tube, bead, pendant, bracelet, ring the opening, and about 1.85m deep. The pottery assem- and awl-shaped ornament, and often comprise the bi- blage consists of six vessels, of which five are in the disc, cong-tube, crown-shaped ornament, trident, plaque foot pit. The tomb occupant is a male and, like that of and yue battle-axe. For example, Tomb M20 in the north- M27, has no stone implements and jade artifacts buried ern row of the Fanshan Cemetery in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, as his grave goods. The burials with jades are medium- in addition to personal ornaments of the tube and bead or a litter larger in size. Among the 22 graves excavated types, yielded jades related to religious and sacrificial in 2005 six yielded pottery as well as jades, the latter rites, such as four cong, 41 bi, one crown-shaped numbering three from M6, M8 and M9 respectively and ornament, four semi-circular headgear ornaments, a tri- two from M17, a yue and a ring from M22 and three yue dent headgear ornament and 12 post-shaped objects, as from M11, which is unexpectedly a minor child’s burial. well as one jade yue with its jade pommel and 24 stone These tombs are also furnished with primary soil sec- yue symbolic of military and royal power. In large-sized ond-tier platforms and foot pits for the most and are simi- Tomb M9 in the southern row at the Yaoshan Altar, in lar in form to large tombs. addition to one stone yue, one jade-inlaid lacquer ware II. Different Features and Different Types and one pendant string composed of jade tubes, beads and awl-shaped artifacts, crown-shaped, trident crown- The Hongshan, Liangzhu and Yangshao cultures are all shaped and post-shaped objects with lids and various- archaeological cultures of Neolithic China. Although sized cong-tubes were found as major grave goods, almost all existed in the chronological frame of 5500- which are generally decorated with simple or complex 4500 BP, each of them has its own features in funeral “Human mask designs.” jades. The Yangshao Culture was principally distributed in 1. Assemblage of Funeral Jades. In the tombs of the Shaanxi, Henan, Shanxi, Hebei and Gansu in the Yel- Hongshan Culture, the jades commonly seen in the as- low River Valley, and dates from ca. 6000–4500 BP. Its semblages belong to the horse-hoof- and sleeve-shaped early phase left over no clear traces of differentiation in objects, hooked-cloud-shaped pendants, bi, rings, and settlement pattern and social structure, and the grave animal figures, such as pig-dragon, tortoise, bird, cicada goods comprise pottery vessels, jade-like turquoise or- and silkworm, but seldom include the yue, axe and other naments of the tube and bead, stone implements such as weapons of practical or ritual use and consist of no cong Volume 10 137 Two Modes of the Development of Chinese Ancient Civilization: on Observing of the Funeral Jades Unearthed from Large Graves of Hongshan Culture, Liangzhu Culture, and Yangshao Culture incised with“ deity emblems,” tridents and semi-disc- traces suggest that these tombs are not an organic com- shaped objects. ponent of usual settlement sites, but a sort of particular In the Liangzhu Culture, the popular jade grave goods remains of religious and sacrificial ceremonies. The comprise the cong, bi, crown-, trident-, semi-disc and large-sized Liangzhu Culture tombs, such as those at awl-shaped objects, bracelet, ring and yue (made of jade the Yaoshan Altar, are completely the same as those of or stone). They include seldom sleeve-shaped objects, the Hongshan Culture. The Liangzhu Fanshan cemetery, hooked-cloud-shaped pendants and jade tortoises, pig- despite its own distinctive features, consists of tombs dragons and other animal figures. also built on an artificial high platform with sacrificial The funeral jades of the Yangshao Culture are strongly traces remaining nearby.
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