PLATFORM
Volume 1 Number 2 Jul - Dec 2000
Facilitating Learning of Engineering Graphics 2 Instead of Learning CAD System A. Majdi Abd Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab, Rahmat Shaarani & Dr. Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz.
Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in Hydrocarbon Exploration 8 – Subsidence Monitoring of the Offshore Platform Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan
Influence Of Some Parameters On The Efficiency Of A Solar 12 Collector Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fauziah Sulaiman
The Tensile Characteristics Of Fibre Reinforced Bituminous Mixtures 17 Ir. Dr. Ibrahim Kamaruddin
Stratigraphic Position of Rangsi Conglomerate in Sarawak 25 Dr Ismail Che Mat Zin
Development Of Agriculture In Malaysia: 32 The Case of the Rice Sector Dr. Mohammed Halib
The Application Of Interference Optical Microscopy In Measuring 45 Window Thickness Of Rigid Polyurethane Foams Dr. Puteri S Megat-Yusoff & Prof. A. J. Ryan
Pinch And Exergy Analysis On A Brown-Boveri Steam 49 Turbine Power Plant M. Shuhaimi & D. Y. Lim
English for Academic Purposes – 54 An Investigation of Students’ Proficiency Sumathi Renganathan
Designing Computer Laboratories: 61 A Malaysian University’s Experience Suziah Sulaiman & Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
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Publisher Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Bandar Seri Iskandar 31750 Tronoh Perak Darul Ridzuan MALAYSIA UniversitiPlatform Teknologi Petronas • http://www.utp.edu.my Advisors Platform Dr Rosti Saruwono Contents Ir Dr Ahmad Fadzil Mohamad Hani
Editor-in-Chief Facilitating Learning of Engineering Graphics Instead of 2 Dr Puteri Sri Melor Megat Yusoff Learning CAD System by A. Majdi Abd Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab, Rahmat Shaarani & Dr. Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz. Co-Editors Suziah Sulaiman Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in Hydrocarbon 8 Zulqarnain Abu Bakar Exploration – Subsidence Monitoring of the Offshore Platform Yap Vooi Voon by Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan
Influence Of Some Parameters On The Efficiency Of A Solar 12 Editorial Board Collector by Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fauziah Dr Mohammed Halib Sulaiman Dr Abas Md Said Dr Mohamed Ibrahim Abdul Mutalib The Tensile Characteristics Of Fibre Reinforced Bituminous 17 Dr Abd Rashid Abd Aziz Mixtures by Ir. Dr. Ibrahim Kamaruddin Dr Mohd Noh Karsiti Ir Dr Ibrahim Kamaruddin Stratigraphic Position of Rangsi Conglomerate in Sarawak 25 Dr Nasiman Sapari by Dr Ismail Che Mat Zin Dr Azmi Mohd Shariff Azrai Abdullah Development Of Agriculture In Malaysia: The Case of the Rice 32 Sector by Dr. Mohammed Halib Address The Application Of Interference Optical Microscopy In 45 Editor-in-Chief Measuring Window Thickness Of Rigid Polyurethane Foams PLATFORM by Dr. Puteri S Megat-Yusoff & Prof. A. J. Ryan Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Bandar Seri Iskandar Pinch And Exergy Analysis On A Brown-Boveri Steam Turbine 49 31750 Tronoh Power Plant by M. Shuhaimi & D. Y. Lim Perak Darul Ridzuan Malaysia English for Academic Purposes – An Investigation of Students’ 54 Proficiency by Sumathi Renganathan http://www.utp.edu.my [email protected] Designing Computer Laboratories: A Malaysian University’s 61 Experience by Suziah Sulaiman & Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli Telephone +(60)5 367 8018 +(60)5 367 8019 +(60)5 367 8055 PLATFORM is a biannual, peer-reviewed journal of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. It serves as a medium for faculty members, students and industry professionals to share their knowledge, views, experiences and discoveries in their areas of interest and expertise. Facsimile +(60)5 367 8252 It comprises as collection of, but not limited to, papers presented by the academic staff of the university at various local and international conferences, conventions and seminars.
The entries range from opinions and views on engineering, technology and social issues to deliberations on the progress and outcomes of academic research.
Opinions expressed in this journal need not necessarily reflect the official views of the university. ISSN 1511-6794 All materials is copyright of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. Reproduction in whole or in part is not permitted without the written permission of the publisher.
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 1 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
Facilitating Learning of Engineering Graphics Instead of Learning CAD System
A. Majdi Abd. Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab, Rahmat Shaarani & Dr Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz. Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia. [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The advancement of computers in both hardware and software has led to the replacement of hand-held instruments with CAD system in engineering graphics course. The syllabus of engineering graphics courses has also shifted more towards learning the CAD system. This paper provides an in-depth examination of engineering graphic course content and proposed a well-balanced course content between fundamentals of graphics and CAD. It also includes a brief overview of scheduling and course evaluation methodology.
Keywords engineering graphics, CAD, facilitating learning, course content
INTRODUCTION A change in the drawing tools, from on learning the CAD software rather hand-held instruments to computers, than graphics fundamentals. The Graphics has been heralded as one of has inadvertently led to a shift in challenge to facilitate engineering the cornerstone in engineering, as an course objective and students interest graphics is further compounded by effective medium of communication [1]. The syllabuses of engineering the difficulty in scheduling an effective between engineers and other technical graphics courses have slightly diverted program. persons in engineering profession. from its main objective of teaching Almost all engineering schools related students so that they can read and The course content should be well in mechanical or chemical engineering write the graphic language clearly balanced between fundamentals of discipline provide for a course in using universally accepted symbols, graphics and computer-aided design. Engineering Graphics. This course conventions, standards and principles. In the development of an engineering used to be conducted in a classroom Lately, it was found that more often graphics course, it is necessary to or laboratory equipped with drawing the course content for engineering consider this new engineering boards, T-square, set-squares and graphics courses tend to focus more environment and formulate course other hand-held instruments. The on the need to learn the ropes of the objectives which will ensure that advancement of computers, hardware software. Facilitators and future engineers will be best prepared and software, has led to the demonstrators also tend to dwell on to efficiently use CAD tools to replacement of hand-held instruments the CAD software instead of focusing communicate their ideas and design with computer-aided design, CAD, as on the fundamentals of graphic solution [2]. a tool for facilitating learning. language. Thus, students tend to focus
This paper was presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education, ICEEE2000, Taipei,14-16 August, 2000.
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This paper provides an in-depth examination of the course content and Table 1. Course outline biased Table 2. Course outline of its implementation, scheduling, towards CAD Engineering Graphics coursework and evaluation criteria to accommodate the utilization of CAD Topics Topics as a tool to facilitate learning. Introduction to Engineering Introduction to Engineering COURSE CONTENT Graphics & CAD Graphics
Dr Raul Herrera [1] in his paper Command entry; Data entry; Sketching – Isometric; Oblique; acknowledge, “The usefulness of the Draw Commands Perspective CAD systems in the teaching-learning process and their utilization in the job Drawing Aids; Entity Selection Pictorials Drawing market is unquestioned. What remains to be studied is how much Construct; Modify Multiview / Orthographic and to what depth these systems Projections should be taught, so that students Display control; Layers; Linetype; attention stays focused on training Color Auxiliary view their minds to improve their visualization skills and on applying Text Details Drawings / Title Block graphical solutions to engineering problems.” Hatching Sectional Views
The concerns of many professors and Dimensioningu Dimensioning educators is the increasing number of engineering schools that are over 2D Graphics Threads & Fasteners emphasizing on learning the CAD system. A random survey was Surface Representation / Surface Gears & Cams conducted by visiting numerous Modeling engineering colleges’ website and Assembly Drawings/ BOM/ browsing through their course outline 3D Modeling Balloons for engineering graphics or similar courses offered. Among the various Solid Modeling / Parametric topics that can be categorized as CAD Modeling biased are listed in Table 1. Plotting and Printing The same exercise was conducted to identify topics that are considered within the circle of engineering At Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Petronas. Mechanical and chemical graphics fundamentals as shown in Malaysia, the approach adopted is to engineering students taking this Table 2. Traditional topics such as facilitate teaching-learning of course have already had an sketching, pictorial, orthographic, engineering graphics course by introductory course in computing, sectional views and dimensioning are designing the course to be well algebra and calculus. This course is among the more commonly balanced between fundamentals of offered 4 hours per week, to meet the incorporated. engineering graphics and minimum requirement set by the incorporating computer-aided design National Accreditation Board (LAN). as its tool (Refer Table 3). Engineering The guideline stipulated by the board Graphics, EMB 2013 is a 3 credit hour is that one credit hour is equivalent course offered during the 2nd year of a to an hour of lecture, or an hour and five year bachelor of engineering a half of tutorial, or two hour of programme at Universiti Teknologi practical laboratory work.
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 3 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
Table 3. Fundamentals of Engineering Graphics Balanced With Learning CAD as a Tool.
Sample Topics Engineering Graphics CAD tools
SKETCHING - introduction and importance of - None engineering graphics - lines; linetypes and lettering - sketching techniques - sketching isometric view -sketching oblique view
MULTIVIEW - multiview; front; side; plan; - introduction to CAD - orthographic projection; view selection - command entry; keyboard; menus; - geometric symbols toolbars -1st angle projections - data entry; coordinate system; absolute; -3rd angle projections incremental; polar - layout and drawing placements - draw lines; arcs; circles; polygons; ellipse; - lines representation; object; hidden; text center; construction - linetypes; layers; colors - line precedence - drawing aids; entity selection; - border; title - copy; offset; mirror; array - blocks - move; rotate; scale; trim; erase
SECTIONING - purpose and concept of sectioning - draw polyline & arrowheads - section view basics - draw and label cutting planes - cutting plane - hatching style - sectioning symbols - hatching pattern - type of sections -conventional breaks - hatching scale - application of sections - hatching angle manipulation - draw balloons
DIMENSIONING - basics of dimension - draw linear dimension - parts of dimension -rules and guidelines - draw aligned dimension -extension & dimension placements - - baseline and continuos grouping dimension -centerline and - circular dimensions center marks -dimensioning symbols - - leader lines dimensioning system - angular dimensioning - setting dimension styles; annotation; units; precision - setting dimension format and justification
Accordingly, for engineering graphics, solid hour is allotted for the lab- workstations available. This is to an hour of lecture is delivered on tutorial session. ensure effective learning, where each fundamentals and concept of student has a hands-on learning engineering graphics. Another full Lectures are conducted in the CAD experience when utilizing the CAD to hour is dedicated on demonstration laboratory so as to allow for continuity implement the fundamentals and with the CAD system adopted as a with the demonstration and lab- concept learned the previous hour. tool for completing classwork and tutorial session. The number of Effectiveness of the laboratory session homework assignments, while two students are limited by the number of can be ensured by the availability of
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one or two demonstrators depending years of experience, having the lights and demonstrations session. Instead, on the number of students in each turned off for the whole lecture the tutors ended having to repeat session. This is especially so when the session, while using LCD or overhead learning materials presented in the design of the CAD laboratory can be projector, will definitely put some of earlier session since most students obstructive to student’s view where the students to sleep. requires a relearning curve in the those seated at the back can hardly laboratory and tutorial session. Hence, focus details on the projected screen. The course starts with sketching from this year onwards the session for techniques, after a short introduction Engineering Graphics is block or Each lecture session should start with and importance of engineering continuos (Refer Table 5b), which is fundamental concepts, engineering graphics. These include sketching in more effective. Positive response from drawing principles, related isometric and oblique. Subsequently, students overweighs those complaints conventions, symbols and the basic concepts and fundamentals of session being too long. As abbreviations of that particular topic. of orthographic projections are mentioned earlier, short breaks were As an example, a topic on sectioning introduced together with CAD as a provided between session to refresh should begin with section view basics, tool. Students are gradually the students. purpose of performing sections, introduced to details drawing, title cutting plane concepts and symbols, block, text and numbering. Later, The materials selected for the lab- various hatching pattern, scale and its topics on sectioning, dimensioning, tutorial session should differ slightly representations, types of sectioning, thread and fasteners, gears and cams, from homework materials. While the and various sectioning applications. assembly drawings with balloons and exercise materials for lab-tutorial Basically this session describes the bill of materials, and finally completed session is more focus towards what has what and why issues. with working drawings. been learned in the current lecture session, the exercises meant as The demonstration session that In the future other than lecture and homework should try to follows immediately after the lecture lab-tutorial session video and CD- accommodate or incorporate as much session can clearly guide students the ROM’s presentation, invited as possible all materials learned the various commands, steps required, professional speaker and field trip will previous lectures. Utmost importance execution methodology, simple also be incorporated to improve is that these exercises are training examples, case example and student’s learning. students on applying graphical applications. This session solutions to engineering problems and demonstrates the how issues. SCHEDULING improving their visualization skills.
In the Engineering Workstation To ensure effective learning, blocking COURSEWORK AND Laboratory used for teaching or continuos session is adopted as EVALUATION engineering graphics at UTP, various shown in Table 4. Students are able teaching aids are provided. LCD is to apply the basic engineering Grades assigned in each used to present learning materials concepts as soon as they learn them. undergraduate course are intended to using electronic presentations. This is further enhanced with an hour reflect achievement relative to a Transparencies are used to support demonstration on its application on defined level of competence. While with various materials, while the CAD system and a two-hour most courses have a final examination marker-board is used for further laboratory and tutorial session. Even to assess student achievement, in clarification, explanation and though the continuos four-hour engineering graphics it is more feasible materials enhancement. Changing session is quite long, provision of to conduct a continuos assessment. from one teaching tool to another can refreshing breaks will allow for an Student accumulates grades points stimulate the student’s attention and optimum learning session. based entirely on coursework. avoid boredom. Changing from one delivery mode to another will also Initially it was thought that a split Lab-tutorial session forms an require switching on and off the session of two hours, as shown in Table important component of assessing lighting system, which create changes 5a, would allow students more time student ability to focus and absorb in environment and stimulates to grasp and absorb information learning materials while being guided students’ attention. Through many learned during the two-hour lecture and coerced by tutor. Homework
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 5 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
Table 4. Blocking or Continuous Session.
Length of Session One hour One hour Two hour Two hour
Session Lecture / Demonstration Lab & Tutorial Homework (lab) Contents engineering & application assignment concepts on CAD
Table 5a. Scheduling for Engineering Graphics in Year 1999.
8:00 am - 10:00 am 8:00 pm - 10:00 pm
Monday (Section 1) Lecture & Demo. Lab & Tutorial
Wednesday (Section 2) Lecture & Demo. Lab & Tutorial
Table 5b. Scheduling for Engineering Graphics in Year 2000.
8:00 am –10:00 am 10:00 am -12:00 pm
Tuesday (Section 1) Lecture & Demo. Lab & Tutorial
Thursday (Section 2) Lecture & Demo. Lab & Tutorial
assignment forms the other major To implement a final examination for To have examination using hand-held component of coursework, training engineering graphic course will instruments is perfectly easy. Using students to improve their visualization introduce numerous complications CAD laboratory for conducting a final skills and applying graphical solutions and controversies. Since the capacity can sometime turn into a complete to engineering problems. Quiz and for most CAD laboratories are design nightmare. Imagine after painstaking mid-term assessment are used for for between 30 – 40 students, an preparation and maintaining the assessing student’s comprehension on examination for any larger number of computers, to still have a student the subject matter. Instead of a final students will require some scheduling. facing computer breakdown during examination, which is very Quarantine will have to be finals. Even though technically all the cumbersome when using CAD as a implemented if the same set of computers are the same, students are tool, a final semester project is a more problems is meant for all the students. well aware of those particular stations reliable assessment of student’s ability. Alternatively, multiple set of exam that crawls, with corrupted files, The final semester project should be problems of “supposedly” similar missing menus, printing as close to an actual working drawing standard and difficulties have to be misconfigurations and various other used in industry complete with detail prepared. This approach almost hardware and system problems. drawings, assemblies and parts lists. always attract complains from The project selected should require students that the exam questions are students to apply most of the course of different difficulty levels. contents learned for that semester.
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CONCLUSION learning as conducted at UTP. A split REFERENCES session between lecture, [1] Raul Herrera, “Problems Encountered Development of a well balanced demonstration and lab-tutorial has when Substituting the Traditional engineering graphics course content been found to be less effective and Drawing tools for CAD systems in is critical in ensuring future engineers requiring a higher learning curve. The Engineering Graphics Courses,” IEEE will be prepared for the new nature of engineering graphics course pp.677, 1998. engineering environment. The course objectives with CAD as a tool calls for content should be balanced between a different method of assessment. [2] P. Agathoklis, “Some Aspects of Developing a Modern Engineering fundamentals of engineering graphics Instead of exam orientated it was Graphics Course,” IEEE Transactions on and computer-aided design. Time found that a project-orientated Education, vol 32, no 4, pp..439-442, allocated and depth of coverage in evaluation is more applicable. November 1989. these two focus areas will ensure that Continuos assessment of students’ lab- the course objectives to improve tutorials, homework assignments, [3] R.W. Bolton, J. R. Morgan, “Engineering Graphics in an Integrated Environment,” students’ visualization skills and to quizzes, mid-term assessment and IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference efficiently use CAD tools to project is a more accurate assessment pp.462 –466, 1997. communicate their ideas and design instead of a final examination. solution can be achieved. Complications and controversies that [4] M. Reza Ziai, R.P. Kelso, “The New Implementing continuos session has arise with having a final using CAD Engineering Graphics,” IEEE Frontiers been found to enhance effective are thus avoided. in Education Conference Proceeding, pp.67-70, 1989.
[5] Frank Saccente, “The Real World meets the Technical Drawing Curriculum,” T H E Journal, vol. 21, pp. 72-74, March 1994.
[6] Scott E. Wiley, “Learning Models for Developing Visualization in Engineering Graphics,” IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, pp.552-555, 1991.
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 7 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in Hydrocarbon Exploration – Subsidence Monitoring of the Offshore Platform
Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan, Faculty of Geoinformation Science and Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Oil and gas remain the main energy source in Malaysia, where each of them contributes almost 33% and 41% of total energy generation. In Malaysia, the exploration of hydrocarbon resources (oil and gas) is normally associated with offshore activities. This is so because our hydrocarbon reserves are mostly located 120 km – 250 km offshore. Hence it requires a very sophisticated positioning tool in order to position the oil or gas platform/rig at the right location of the oil and gas well/reservoir. GPS as the most advance and superior positioning tool has proven its capability and superiority for the purposes of positioning the oil and gas platform/rig all over the globe. It is estimated that at least 40% of the offshore positioning for this nature were done by GPS. GPS role in the hydrocarbon exploration does not end there, since once the hydrocarbon especially gas was extracted from its reservoir, there is a possibility that the reservoir will experience reservoir compaction. This on the other hand will lead to the subsidence of the platform. Again GPS has the capability to determine this subsidence rate (cm/year) and hence the compaction of the reservoir. It is important to model the reservoir compaction in order to optimise the extraction of the gas. A study to determine and model the subsidence rate of one of PETRONAS Gas Platform, which is Gas Platform Duyong, will be done. This study will also assess the safety of this gas platform against the excessive subsidence, since this phenomena could expose the understructure of the platform to the sea water against which it is not designed for. This study is for the duration of one year, and will involve three data collections. The data will be processed and analysed for the above purpose using independence and sophisticated GPS software. At the end of this study, the rate of subsidence and hence the reservoir compaction of the hydrocarbon reservoir beneath the Platform Duyong will be known.
Keywords GPS, Hydrocarbon Exploration, Offshore Positioning, Deformation/Subsidence Analysis.
INTRODUCTION 250 km offshore requires very high seismic surveys and the subsidence or precision, reliable and highly available deformation surveys/monitoring of Oil and gas remain the main energy positioning tool in order to perform the offshore oil/gas rig. Global source in Malaysia, where each of various positioning purposes related Positioning System (GPS) fits well to them contributes almost 33% and to the hydrocarbon exploration such perform such positioning activities in 41% of total energy generation. The as the positioning of the offshore oil/ the hydrocarbon exploration hence it fact that our hydrocarbon (oil and gas) gas rig at the correct location of the has involved in at least 40% of the reserves are mostly located 120 km – oil/gas reserves, positioning during the offshore positioning world wide.
This paper was presented at the Advances in Malaysian Energy Research Seminar, UiTM Shah Alam, 4-5 October, 2000.
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GLOBAL POSITIONING GPS POSITIONING OFFSHORE GAS PLATFORM SYSTEM (GPS) MECHANISM DEFORMATION/SUBSIDENCE MONITORING USING GPS GPS is a space-based positioning Every object within space has system, owned and operated by the coordinate associated with it with Extraction of oil and/or gas, in United States Military. It was respect to a certain coordinate system. particular gas underneath the sea may conceived in the early 70s and has Using GPS, this coordinate may be cause instability of the structures achieved its Full Operational Capacity derived via the measurement of ranges under the sea, which may lead to the (FOC) on July ’95. Despite owned from the object to the GPS satellites subsidence/deformation of the gas or by the US military, civilian access to and the coordinate of the GPS satellite oil platform. This instability GPS is guaranteed. Segment wise as shown in equation 1 and Figure 2. phenomena is a long term process, i.e. GPS is divided into three: space, may only be observed in 6 months to control and user segment as shown in 2 years with the expected subsidence Figure 1. GPS space segment consists Ranges from the object to GPS satellites rate of 2 - 5 cm/year. It is necessary 24 orbiting satellites on six planes, + GPS satellite’s coordinate to carry out monitoring works each of the plane has 55° inclination. = Object Coordinate. (1) periodically to obtain the instability Hence there are four GPS satellites on and reservoir compaction information every orbital plane orbiting the Earth in order to assess the safety of the twice a day. This configuration The advance positioning technology platform and also to optimise the gas/ ensures at least four GPS satellites will of GPS ensures that the coordinates oil extraction. However the location be visible (above horizon) and thus obtained will be of high precision, of the gas/oil platform which is guarantees GPS availability at every accuracy and of a high quality. typically 150 – 250 km requires such time. On the other hand control Together with its high availability GPS monitoring works to collect data from segment is the brain and nerve that therefore qualifies for various distant location and being processed control the space segment. It consists positioning purposes in offshore using very special technique. With of one Master Control Station (MCS) hydrocarbon exploration activities such constraints the data of such a at Falcon Airforce Base, Colorado, and mentioned earlier, which are seismic study may be observed and acquire 5 Monitor Stations each located at activities, positioning of the oil/gas rig, through Global Positioning System Diego Garcia, Kwajalein, Hawaii, laying out of the oil/gas piping and of (GPS) or the system alike. This paper Florida and Ascension Island . User late deformation/subsidence describes the intended stability (hence segment is every one of us with GPS monitoring of the oil/gas rig. deformation/subsidence) monitoring receiver that could receive GPS signal. to one of Petronas offshore gas
Figure 1: GPS Segments Figure 2: GPS Positioning Mechanism
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 9 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
platform, which is the Platform Duyong using GPS Positioning Technique.
METHODOLOGY
The basic concept of the instability monitoring is to employ GPS relative positioning of the offshore gas platform with respect to the (stable) control stations as depicted in Figure 3. The flowchart of Figure 4 further elaborates the steps taken for the above relative positioning process.
Epoch I Epoch J
Figure 3: GPS Relative Positioning
Baseline Computation Network Adjustment Ipoh
Subsidence/Deformation Detection Kota Bharu
Graphical/Numerical Presentation
Figure 4: Flowchart of Research Methodology
Prior to the actual monitoring work on the offshore platform, a simulation JUPEM of the above monitoring was carried out using the GPS stations at Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Negara Malaysia (JUPEM) in KL simulating the subsided offshore platform and Kuantan (Malaysian Active GPS Stations (MASS) stations as the control stations. The network configuration is shown in Figure 5. The data was processed using independent GPS software called BERNESSE, based on the above steps. The simulation results showed that GPS relative Johor positioning technique was able to Bharu detect the deformation/subsidence of the station monitored. Figure 5: Network of Simulation Monitoring
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RESULT Station dx (m) dy (m) dz (m) Displacement Vector (m)
The numerical presentation of the 1 (Ipoh) -0.000 0.001 -0.000 0.001 result is shown in Figure 6. 2 (KB) -0.000 -0.002 0.001 0.002 3 (K’tan) 0.001 0.001 -0.001 0.002 In the above network, the control stations are MASS Ipoh, Kota Bharu, 4 (JB) 0.002 -0.001 -0.001 0.002 Kuantan and Johor Bahru. *JUPEM, *5 JUPEM 0.042 -0.037 0.035 0.066 being the station being monitored suffered deformation, note the Figure 6: Numerical Result displacement vector shows 0.066 m or 6.6 cm.
CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Halim Setan and Ranjit Singh (1998). Pengesanan Deformasi 2-D Secara GPS precise positioning technique has Caspary, W.F (1987). Concepts of Network Geometrikal dengan Kaedah Ujian and Deformation Analysis. 1st. ed. School of Kongruensi. Buletin Geoinformasi, 2(1): 201 the capability to perform stability Surveying, The University of New South – 213. monitoring where it can detect Wales. Monograph 11, Kensington, N.S.W. deformation or subsidence rate of the Ranjit Singh (1999). Pelarasan dan Analisis order 2 – 5 cm for baseline length of Chen, Y.Q. (1983). Analysis of Deformation Jaringan Pengawasan untuk Pengesanan Surveys – A Generalized Method. Technical Deformasi secara Geometri. Tesis Sarjana Sains 150 – 250 km. Report o. 94, Department of Surveying (Ukur Tanah). Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Engineering, University of New Brunswick, New Brunswick. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Halim Setan (1997). A Flexible Analysis This study is sponsored by IRPA under VOT Procedure for Geometrical Detection of Spatial 72292 in collaboration with UTM, JUPEM Deformation. Photogrammetric Record, and Petronas Carigali Sdn. Bhd. (PCSB). 15(90): 841 – 861.
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 11 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
Influence Of Some Parameters On The Efficiency Of A Solar Collector
Mr. Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fauziah Sulaiman School of Physics Universiti Sains Malaysia
ABSTRACT
In recent years, the popularity of flat-plate solar collector has increased and are used for domestic and commercial water heating. Its market gets more competitive as its efficiency keeps on improving. It is evident that there are some components that influence the thermal performance of the flat-plate solar collector to a certain extent that a thorough analysis is vital. To ensure that a particular design will achieve a certain level of efficiency that is acceptable, a simulation study is carried out on the parameters of the flat-plate solar collector, to assist in the selection of the appropriate materials. Simulation studies were carried out on the following parameters: overall heat loss coefficient, absorber plates made of copper, aluminium and galvanized iron, tube spacing, mass flow rate, absorber plate thickness and absorptance of the coating material. By varying these parameters, the effect on the efficiency was obtained that will optimize the thermal performance of the flat- plate collector.
Keywords Daily Efficiency, Flat-Plate Collector, Modelling, Solar Energy, Simulation
INTRODUCTION supply ideally. The focus is towards BACKGROUND THEORY various renewable sources of energy in The importance of energy in today’s general and solar energy in particular. There are various types of collectors world is certainly not new. Energy has There are changes and advances existing today, some popular and played a key role in bringing about noticed in the fields of co-generation, others not. The type of collector our modern civilization. In the era of waste heat recovery, generation from selected for the study, is a flat plate high-energy civilization, energy biomass and above all the clean and solar collector, which has already, demands are likely to increase even if safe renewable energy1. At this stage, mark its name in the domestic and strenuous efforts are made to increase all these efforts are geared more international markets. The principle the efficiency of energy use. The towards saving the fossil fuels from involved in collecting the solar energy reserves of fossil fuels are disappearing depleting at a faster rate than expected is rather simple depending strongly on fast and may not last long, although and can also be considered as a the receiving surfaces, which are able the projected year of exhaustion is precautionary measure of another to absorb as much as possible of the about hundred years away. Since this energy crisis. For exploitation of solar incoming solar flux. The ability to is a known fact, tremendous effort is energy commercially, the retain heat is a condition, but not for needed to undergo a transition from determination of the performance a long period of time because the the present energy source to one that characteristics of solar collectors is captured heat is transported via the can ensure consistency and life long considered important. conduit tubes by the working fluid.
This paper was presented at Seminar Fizik 2000, Kota Kinabalu, 8 November 2000.
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Heat losses poised the main problem, capacity, and FP is the plate efficiency temperature of a solar heating system which does not just rely on the factor. accurately by using Levenberg- absorbing surface. It is evident that Marquardt algorithm2. Another heat transfer processes are therefore In order to calculate the daily simulation study carried out in essential and play a major role in the efficiency of a flat plate solar collector, Tempe, Arizona3 evaluates the design of a flat plate collector. The the equation used is as follows8; influence of each parameter on the design comprises of the front cover(s), performance of the solar collector/ absorber plate with conduit tubes, regenerator with a conclusion that a insulation, casing and coating (4) warmer inlet solution resulted in materials. better heat and mass transfer. where Σq is the total daily useful The actual useful energy gain of the u The concept of simulation in scientific energy gain per unit area and ΣI is flat-plate solar collector is as follows, T research is strongly based on theories. with the assumption that the losses the total daily solar influx on an From these theories, mathematical based on the inlet fluid temperature inclined plane. models are built to resemble the actual is negligible5; situation as closely as possible, by METHODOLOGY taking into account the allowed confidence level. As modelling is an A simulation study carried out in important aspect of simulation, its (1) Singapore predicted the storage tank development is done with extensive where S is the absorbed solar
radiation, UL is the overall heat loss
coefficient, AC is the effective collector area that is exposed to the incoming
solar flux, Ti is the inlet temperature
of the working fluid, Ta is the ambient
temperature and FR is the heat removal factor.
The absorbed solar radiation, S , is obtained by using the following equation6;
(2)
where is the effective transmittance-absorptance product and is the total solar influx on an inclined plane.
The equation below is used to 7 calculate the heat removal factor, FR ;
(3)
where J is the mass flow rate, CP is the constant pressure specific heat Fig. 1. Process involved in the development of computer program for simulation.
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care so that it will reflect the system as precisely as possible4.
In this study, design variables are changed repeatedly using real weather data. Results can be obtained almost instantly after the initial work of programming and capturing data is done. The flat plate solar collector’s design parameters can be varied until the desirable level of efficiency is achieved. All these steps are illustrated in Fig.1 and based on these, a computer program was written to carry out the simulation, to enable results to be obtained for analysis.
Fig. 2. Graph of overall heat loss coefficient versus number of covers for 3 different absorber plates. RESULTS
A thorough analysis was carried out on the various parameters influencing the performance of a flat-plate solar collector by simulation. An iterative method was used to determine the mean temperatures and a program written in FORTRAN 77 computer language was developed. The heat transfer processes that occurred due to the various components of a flat plate collector were analysed carefully, to predict its performance as accurately as possible.
Fig. 2 shows the reduction of the Fig. 3. Graph of daily efficiency versus number of covers for 3 different absorber plates. overall heat loss coefficient as the number of covers is increased with different absorber plates made of copper, aluminium and galvanized iron which is as expected. Although there is a significant reduction in the overall heat loss coefficient with the increasing number of covers, the same does not apply for the daily efficiency. Fig. 3 shows the decrease in daily efficiency with the increase of the number of covers which however, contradicts with results shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 4 can be used to explain this contradiction, where it is noticed that the transmittance-absorptance product also decreases as the number Fig. 4. Graph of Transmittance-Absorptance product versus number of covers for 3 different absorber plates.
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of covers are increased. So based on equation (2) , as this happens, the amount of solar radiation absorbed will decrease and from equation (1), the useful energy gain will also will be affected. The decrease in of the transmittance-absorptance product is more significant compared with the reduction of the overall heat loss coefficient as shown in the figures.
It is noticed from Fig. 5 that a tube spacing is an important parameter that affects the daily efficiency. As the tube Fig. 5. Graph of daily efficiency versus tube spacing for 3 different absorber plates. spacing increases, the daily efficiency decreases especially in the case of absorber plate made of galvanized iron.
Fig. 6 indicated the change in the daily efficiency by varying massflow rate of the fluid in the tubes. As mass flow rate increases, the operating temperature of the collector decreases resulting in higher efficiency as expected.
Daily efficiency in the range of 0.59- 0.60 is obtained for varying plate thickness of 1 mm to 10 mm as shown in Fig. 7. It is noted that by increasing Fig. 6. Graph of daily efficiency versus mass flow rate for absorber plate made of copper. plate thickness from 2 mm onwards will result in an increase of 1.3% of daily efficiency which is however, not economically desirable.
Fig. 8 shows the linear relationship of daily efficiency with respect to the increase of the absorptance of the coating material of which black paint ranges between 0.90-0.98 in absorptance, thus suitable as coating material.
CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained can be used for the prediction of the overall thermal efficiency of a flat-plate solar collector. The graphs clearly indicate the Fig. 7. Graph of daily efficiency versus absorber plate thickness, made of copper.
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importance of various components in the design of a flat-plate collector. By using simulation, the thermal efficiency of the flat-plate collector can easily be predicted, and the optimum efficiency can be obtained by varying the parameters of the components. The varying can be done in a minimum time period, if compared to the conventional testing methods. Besides the benefit of time saving, it also gives a good estimation of cost- effectiveness of each design. The developed software attempts to provide a guide to the design of the optimum flat plate solar collector.
Fig. 8. Graph of daily efficiency versus absorptance of coating material. REFERENCES
1. Sulaiman, Fauziah (1995). Renewable Energy and Its Future in Malaysia : A County Paper, Asia-Pacific Solar Experts Meeting, Islamabad, Pakistan Appendix 2. Wijeysundere, N.E., Hawlader, M.N.A., Value of parameters fixed for the simulation process to investigate the Foong, K.Y. (1996). Estimation of effect on daily efficiency of a flat-plate collector by varying other Collector Performance Parameters From parameters that are thought to influence the thermal performance Daily System Tests, Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, 118, 30-36 significantly. 3. Hawlader, M.N.A., Stack, A.P., Wood, No. Parameter Description Value B.D. (1992). Performance Evaluation of Glazed and Unglazed Collectors/ 1 Collector Area 2 m2 Regenerators in a Liquid Absorbent Open-Cycle Absorption Cooling System, 2 Collector Thickness 75 mm Int. Journal of Solar Energy, 11, 135-164 3 Plate to cover spacing 25 mm 4. Balbir Singh and Fauziah Sulaiman 4 Back insulation thickness 50 mm (1995). Design of a Flat-Plate Collector by Computer Simulation, Proc. of 5 Edge insulation thickness 25 mm National Seminar On Energy, Universiti 6 Tube diameter 10 mm Kebangsaan Malaysia, 187-194 7 Plate emittance 0.96 5. Duffie, J.A., Beckman, W.A. (1980). Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, 8 Top cover emittance 0.88 John Wiley & Sons, New York, 223-225 9 Top cover’s refractive index 1.53 6. Duffie, J.A., Beckman, W.A. (1980). 10 Wind heat transfer coefficient 10 W/m2C Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 187-189 11 Heat transfer coefficient in tubes 300 W/m2C 12 Insulation conductivity 0.045 W/mC 7. Sukhatme, S.P. (1993). Solar Energy, Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage, Pata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 45
8. Rabl, A. (1985). Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications, Oxford University Press, New York, 83
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The Tensile Characteristics Of Fibre Reinforced Bituminous Mixtures
Ir Dr Ibrahim Kamaruddin Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
INTRODUCTION mixtures. This test has been used MATERIALS USED IN THE widely by Kennedy and Hudson INVESTIGATION The tensile properties of bituminous (1968), Kandhal (1979) and Wallace mixtures are of interest to pavement and Monismith (1980) amongst Mineral Aggregates, engineers because of the problems others. The method has been Filler and Bitumen associated with cracking. The standardised by both the British Limestone aggregates and Ordinary resistance of bituminous mixtures to Standard Institutions (1993) and the Portland cement filler and a binder of fatigue cracking is dependent upon its ASTM (1982). nominal penetration 50 were used. tensile properties, notably its tensile The bituminous mix used is the Hot- strength and extensibility The tensile characteristics of Rolled Asphalt (HRA) as specified in characteristics. Fatigue has been bituminous mixtures are evaluated by BS594: Part 1. Some relevant defined in the literature as the loading the vertical diameter of a properties of these materials are shown phenomenon of fracture under Marshall specimen with a single or in Table 1. repeated or fluctuating stresses having repeated compressive load acting a maximum value generally less than parallel to and along the vertical Synthetic Fibres the tensile strength of the material. diametrical plane of the specimen. Two types of synthetic polypropylene This loading configuration develops and polyester fibres were used in this The layers in a flexible pavement a relatively uniform stress study. The fibres were used as a partial structure are subjected to continuous perpendicular to the direction of the replacement of the filler; on an equal flexing as a result of the traffic loads applied load and along the vertical volume basis; at two different that they carry, resulting in tensile diametrical plane, ultimately causing concentrations of 0.5% and 1% filler stresses and strains at the bottom of the specimen tested to fail by splitting to bitumen ratio by weight of mix. the bituminous layers of the along the vertical diameter. The fibres in chopped form were the pavement. The magnitude of the by-products of the textile industry and strains is dependent on the overall stiffness of the pavement. Measurements of tensile strains in the Table 1: Properties of the Mineral Aggregates, Filler and Bitumen order of 30-200 microstrains under a Used in the Study standard wheel load have been recorded (Brown, 1994). Under these Material Percentage Relative Absorption BS conditions, it is possible for load- by Weight (%) Density % Specification induced or fatigue cracking to occur. Coarse Aggregate 35 2.75 0.47 Fatigue is one of the failure criteria considered in pavement design. Fine Aggregate BS 594: Part (Sand) 55 2.65 1.37 1:1992 Table 3, THE INDIRECT TENSILE TEST Filler (Ordinary Type F wearing Portland cement) 10 3.15 Coarse designation Penetration Softening Penetration 30/14 The indirect tensile mode of testing (0.1 mm) Point (°C) Index (PI) can be used to establish the tensile and Bitumen 52 48.5 – 0.37 structural properties of bituminous
This paper was presented at the 10th Road Engineering Association of Asia & Australasia Conference, Tokyo, 4-9 September, 2000
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 17 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
3) Indirect tensile modulus of Table 2: Characteristics of Fibres Used elasticity
Specific Denier Length Average Degradation Gravity (mm) Diameter Temperature The modulus of elasticity of a µm(°C) bituminous mixture is an Polypropylene (PP) 0.91 6 6 22* ~160-170 important parameter that influences the structural design of Polyester (POL) 1.41 3 6 17* ~250-260 bituminous pavements as the * Values obtained from 20 readings using a light microscope at 400x magnification. modulus affects the distribution of stress and strains throughout the pavement structure. The static modulus of elasticity at failure as thus their potential use was desirable a fixed deformation rate similar to that obtained from the indirect tensile on environmental grounds. of the Marshall test of 50.8 mm/min. test can be determined from the relationship Some characteristics of the fibres used INDIRECT TENSILE PROPERTIES σ are shown in Table 2. In order to Tensile Stress at Failure f maintain thermal stability when using From the load deformation (ME)f =–––––––––––––––––––– ε the polypropylene fibres, it was characteristics of the indirect tensile Tensile Strain at Failure f decided that the mixing temperature test, a number of parameters relating during the preparation of the Hot- to the properties of the material tested Maupin (1972) presented a Rolled Asphalt (HRA) mixtures can be determined. typical stress-strain curve from the should not exceed 140°C and indirect tensile test for a point in compaction be done at 130°C. 1) Static indirect tensile strength the region of the maximum (ITS) tensile stress and tensile strain as STATIC INDIRECT TENSILE TEST shown in Figure 1. The stress- APPARATUS AND The tensile strength has been used strain curve is approximately EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE extensively as a performance linear until three-quarters of the parameter in the study of failure stress is reached. As it The test was performed with a bituminous materials. The tensile approaches total failure, the strain Marshall testing machine with the strength of the specimen was undergoes a faster rate of increase head modified with a wide, curved, measured by exposing the sample than the stress. In addition, the stainless steel loading strip on both the to a constant rate of deformation top and bottom, running parallel to until the specimen was ruptured. the axes of the cylindrical specimens. The tensile strength of the The type of material for the loading specimen tested is the maximum strip had no significant effect on the tensile stress which it can results of the indirect tensile test but withstand and is given by: the width of the strip can affect the
outcome of the test significantly 2Pmax (Kennedy and Hudson, 1968). The ITS = ––––– loading strip used in this test was 13 πtd mm wide having a concave surface with a radius of curvature equal to the where:
radius of the specimen (101.6 mm) Pmax = maximum total load as specified by DD 213 (BS: 1993). t = average height of specimen The cylindrical Marshall specimens d = nominal diameter of specimen were loaded diametrically at a constant rate of deformation until complete 2) Indirect tensile strain at failure, ε failure occurred. The tests were f Figure 1: Typical Stress-Strain conducted at room temperature with Relationship from Indirect Tensile Test (Maupin, 1972)
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strain at failure is not well defined and is therefore difficult to MAXIMUM measure. Maupin was of the STRESS opinion that the stiffness value obtained from the linear portion of the stress-strain relationship would therefore be more meaningful than is the stiffness value at failure. He therefore recommended that the stiffness value be computed using three- quarters of the failure stress and Tensile Stress (kPa) Tensile the corresponding strain value. AREA AREA The static tensile modulus of 1 2 elasticity would then be given by:
σ 3 ⁄ 4 f (ME)3⁄ 4 = ––––– 3 ⁄ 4 ε f aa where: Deformation (mm) (ME)3 ⁄ 4 = modulus of elasticity at three- a = deformation at maximum stress quarters of the tensile failure stress Toughness = Area 1 + Area 2 σ f = tensile stress at failure ε Figure 2: Definition of Toughness f = tensile strain at failure
4) Toughness The toughness of a material is Toughness was determined by DISCUSSION OF RESULTS defined as the amount of work per integrating the area under the unit volume required to cause load-deformation curve up to a Indirect Tensile Strength failure. This does not mean that deformation of twice that The indirect tensile strength is the toughness can be used to analyse incurred at maximum tensile indirect tensile stress produced by the specific distress problems in stress (Kavussi and Hicks, 1997) maximum load or load at failure. The bituminous mixtures such as as shown in Figure 2. For each curves relating variations of tensile permanent deformation or fatigue curve, the area is divided into two strength with bitumen content for the behaviour (Little and Richey, parts: corresponding to the various mixtures are given in Figure 1983), however, it can be used to sections before and after the 3. The strength can be seen to increase compare mixes containing maximum load at break. The first with increasing bitumen content. It different materials. Specifically in part (1) represents the start of increases up to an optimum value for this work, comparison is made loading to the maximum at each of the fibre-filler system. As the between mixes containing fracture, and corresponds to the bitumen content is further increased, different fibre-fillers (other energy absorbed before cracking. the tensile strength of the mixes started variables such as bitumen, The second part (2) represents the to decrease. aggregate and loading time having stored energy in the sample which been kept constant for all the helps the crack to develop until Lower tensile strength values were mixes). the end of testing. obtained at low bitumen content as there was insufficient bitumen to coat all the aggregate particles, which led
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1.2 to a weak bond between the particles. This is correspondingly accompanied by a
higher volume of voids. As the bitumen 1.0 content was further increased, the aggregate particles were more evenly and
properly coated, giving rise to a thin 0.8 bitumen film coating which help create a high surface tension and higher tensile strength. With more bitumen added, a 0.6
thicker bitumen film was created which (MPa) Strength Tensile Indirect led to lower tensile strength values. 0.4 Figure 4 presents the variation of tension 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10 strength with fibre content at the optimum Bitumen Content (10%)
bitumen content (OBC). In making an Control0.5PP 1PP 0.5POL 1POL overall comparison between the mixes, the control mix can be seen to exhibit greater Figure 3: Indirect Tensile Strength vs Bitumen Content tensile strength over the fibre-reinforced 1.00 mixes. Mixes were progressively weaker as the percentage of fibres increases. 0.95
Mixtures incorporating the polypropylene 0.90 fibres appear to exhibit higher strength 0.85 than that of polyester. The decrease in tensile strength was more prominent for 0.80 the 1% fibre concentration. The 0.75 polypropylene mix experienced a 10.9% 0.70
reduction in maximum strength while the Indirect Tensile Strength (MPa) Strength Tensile Indirect polyester fibre mix had a higher reduction 0.65 of 16.5% in the maximum tensile strength. 0.60 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 The general trend that was observed Fibre Content (%)
suggests that the more difficult the fibres Polypropylene Polyester were to disperse within the mixtures, the weaker the mixtures were in tensile Figure 4: Variation of Indirect Tensile Strength With Fibre Content at OBC strength. The fibre-induced weakness in 0.025 the mixtures may be due to the fibre strands having a tendency to remain together as bundles even with thorough 0.020 mixing. Consequently, their inclusion in the mix could introduce ‘weak spots’ that resulted in a lower tensile strength. This 0.015 behaviour also helps explain the superior performance of the polypropylene fibre mixtures that undergo a more Strain (mm/mm) Tensile 0.010 homogeneous mixing as compared to the polyester fibre mixes. In addition, due to the higher viscosity in the polyester- 0.005 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 bitumen system, samples of the polyester incorporated mixtures may not have been Bitumen Content (%) OPC OPC OPC OPC compacted as well as those of the Control +0.5PP +1.0PP +0.5POL +1.0P0L polypropylene-bitumen system. This resulted in a higher porosity in the Figure 5: Tensile Strain vs Bitumen Content
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0.018 polyester mixes, which may be responsible, for the lower strength obtained. The lower 0.017
strength for the fibrous mixtures as 0.016 obtained from this test led one to believe that the incorporation of fibres into 0.015
bituminous mixes does not bring about a 0.014 strengthening of the mix. 0.013 Strain (mm/mm)
Indirect Tensile Strain 0.012 Relationship between indirect tensile strains with bitumen content is given in 0.011
Figure 5. The tensile strain (elongation) 0.010 at failure showed that the mixtures 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 incorporated with fibres showed higher Fibre Content (%) strain capacity than the control. Mixtures Polypropylene Polyester with the polyester fibres gave higher strains than that with polypropylene as shown in Figure 6: Variation of Strain With Fibre Content at OBC
Figure 6. This is likely due in part to the 180 additional bitumen as well as the fibres in the mix. If the tensile strain at failure can 160 be increased while not appreciably reducing the tensile strength, the mix will 140 be made more flexible. This combination 120 of properties may mean that more energy
is required to produce cracking in the 100 material. 80 Static Tensile Modulus of Elasticity Modules of Elasticity (MPa) Variation of static tensile modulus of 60 elasticity with bitumen content is shown 40 in Figure 7. It can be seen that the 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 maximum values of static modulus of Bitumen Content (%) elasticity occurs at the optimum values of binder content. Hence the optimum Control0.5PP 1.0PP 0.5POL 1.0POL binder content is established for maximum Figure 7: Static Modulus of Elasticity vs Bitumen Content modulus of elasticity in all the mixes. The 80 mean value of static modulus of elasticity is higher for the control mix than that of 70 the fibre mixtures. Theses values seemed to decrease with increasing fibre content 60 with the polypropylene mixes exhibiting greater modulus than the polyester mixes 50 for the same fibre concentration. The variation of static modulus of elasticity at 40
the optimum bitumen content for varying Modules of Elasticity (MPa) fibre content is shown in Figure 8. 30
20 Toughness 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Figure 9 shows the relationship between Fibre Content (%) toughness per unit volume with bitumen content. Like the tensile strength Polypropylene Polyester Figure 8: Variation of Static Modulus of Elasticity With Fibre Content at OBC
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0.040 relationship before, the toughness 0.035 increases with increasing bitumen content up to a maximum value and 0.030 started to decrease again with further increase of bitumen content. There 0.025 is therefore an optimum bitumen content for each of the mixes, which 0.020 correspond to the maximum Toughness (Joules/cc) Toughness toughness and energy. At this point, 0.015 the material requires the greatest total energy to reach failure. 0.010 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 Figure 10 shows the variation of Bitumen Contents (%) toughness with fibre content at the Control0.5PP 1.0PP 0.5POL 1.0POL optimum bitumen content. Increase in fibre concentration resulted in an Figure 9: Toughness vs Bitumen Content increase in the toughness – mixes with 0.040 polyester fibres displaying greater increase than mixes which are
0.035 incorporated with polypropylene. The increase was enhanced especially at the 1% fibre concentration. The 0.030 polypropylene mixes had a 8.4% increase as compared to a 11.1% 0.025 increase for the polyester mixes. The higher toughness of the fibre-
Energy/Volume (Joules/cc) Energy/Volume 0.020 incorporated mixes is indicative that these mixes are more resistant to
0.015 cracking and will display better fatigue 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 characteristics than the control mixes. Fibre Content (%) The variation of the properties of the Polyester Polypropylene fibre mixes at optimum bitumen Figure 10: Variation of Toughness With Fibre Content at OBC content is given in Table 3. It can thus be deduced from the study on fibre reinforcement of bituminous mixtures Table 3 Tensile Properties of Fibrous Mixes at that the addition of fibre reduces the Optimum Bitumen Content strength properties of the mix but Control 0.5PP 1 PP 0.5POL 1 POL enhances their tensile properties. With this fact in mind, the use of Indirect Tensile Strength (MFa) 0.925 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.73 fibre-reinforced mixes is deemed less Strain suitable for the wearing courses of the (mm/mm) 0.013 0.015 0.017 0.016 0.018 pavement where the problem of Static Tensile Modulus rutting is most expected. They may (MPa) 152.2 136.7 116.4 106.3 96.7 however be more suitable for use as a Indirect Tensile base-course where the problem of Stiffness Modulus 2100 2180 1970 2200 1950 cracking is most likely from the tensile (MPa) stresses that build up at the base of Toughness the bound layer. (Joules/cc) 0.0265 0.0295 0.0328 0.0318 0.033 Energy (Joules/cc) 0.053 0.0563 0.06 0.058 0.062
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WET-DRY INDIRECT 0.85 TENSILE TEST 0.80
0.75 The wet-dry indirect tensile test was 0.70 adopted in this study as a principal measure of the bituminous mix 0.65 response to moisture damage. Most 0.60
evaluations of moisture damage have 0.55
been assessed quantitatively by Strength (MPa) Tensile 0.50 mechanical tests in which such properties as loss of tensile strength 0.45 or decrease of resilient and stiffness 0.40 moduli have been measured. These 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 are then given in the form of a tensile- Bitumen Content (%)
strength ratio and a modulus ratio for Control0.5PP 1.0PP 0.5POL 1.0POL which the tensile strength and modulus of the dry specimens served Figure 11: Wet Indirect Tensile Strength vs Bitumen Content as a reference. Tensile strength ratio (TSR) and the modulus of elasticity 1.2 ratio (MER) are dimensionless numbers used to represent the portion 1.0 of tensile strength and modulus retained following conditioning. Low 0.8 values indicate high moisture damage. These ratios are given as: 0.6
Tensile strength ratio (TSR) 0.4
ITS wet Strength Ratio Tensile Indirect 0.2 TSR = ––––––– and
ITS dry 0.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 Modulus of elasticity ratio (MER) Bitumen Content (%)
Control 0.5PP 0.5POL 1.0PP 1.0POL MER wet MER = ––––––– Figure 12: Indirect Tensile Strength Ratios vs Bitumen Content MER dry
Lottman (1982) used the static Kennedy and Anagnos (1984) were to give marginally higher tensile indirect tensile strength test to study also of the opinion that mixtures with strength than that of the polyester the effect of moisture on bituminous less than 70 percent retained strength fibre mix at the 0.5% fibre mixtures and recommended a are moisture susceptible and would concentration while this increase was minimum tensile strength ratio of 0.7 require treatment. more distinct at the 1% fibre to differentiate between a stripping concentration level. and non-stripping bituminous mix Figure 11 relates the variation of wet while Maupin (1982) reported values tensile strength with bitumen content. Variations of the indirect tensile of berween 0.7 - 0.75. Ishai and In the wet state, mixes reinforced with strength in wet and dry conditions Nesichi (1988) cited values of 60-75 0.5% fibre exhibited greater strength with bitumen content allowed the percent retained stability values for than that of the conrrol while those determination of the indirect tensile roads and highway pavements and 75 with 1% fibre continued to show a strength ratios which is shown in percent for airfield pavements as the decrease in strength as in the dry state. Figure 12. The indirect tensile quality criteria used in Israel. The polypropylene fibre mix appear strength ratio generally increases with
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 23 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
an increase in bitumen content. The 2. The tensile srrength ratio British Standard Institution, Draft for control mix showed that they are more indicated that the control samples Standard Development for Determination of the Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus of vulnerable to moisture damage and had undergone the greatest loss Bituminous Mixture DD213 , 1993. revealed a higher level of moisture in tensile strength as compared to sensitivity as indicated by the lower the fibre reinforced samples. Brown, S.F., “Residential Course on Bituminous Pavement Materials, Design and tensile strength ratios. A low value of Evaluation”, University of Nottingham, 1994. tensile strength ratio is indicative of 3 . The toughness values obtained Ishai, I. and Nesichi, S., “Laboratory more damage in the control sample. from the tensile tests indicated the Evaluation of Moisture Damage to superiority of fibre reinforced Bituminous Paving Mixtures by Long-Term It is to be reminded that the fibre bituminous samples over the Hot Immersion”, Transportation Research incorporated mixes had higher conrrol samples in both the dry Record No. 1171, 1988, pp. 12-17. porosity and permeability than the and wet conditioning. In these Kamaruddin, I., “The Properties and control mixes. This will permit easier tests, the 1% fibre reinforced Performance of Polymer Fibre Reinforced Hot- access to water and thus increase the samples displayed the greatest Rolled Asphalt”, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Leeds, 1998. potential for stripping. It may thus energy at maximum srrength and appear that the more viscous binder was also able to withstand the Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Six AC-20 of the fibre incorporated mixes had a largest strain before failure as Asphalt Cement by Use of the Indirect Tensile Test”, Transportation Research Record 712, better cementing and adhesive compared to the other mix types 1979 properties at the binder-aggregate at the expense of a low indirect Kavussi, A. and Hicks, R.G., “Properties of interface which resulted in a reduction tensile strength. Bituminous Mixtures Containing Different in stripping. While no measure of the Fillers”, Proceedings of the Association of amount of de-bonding or stripping 4. Changes in both the cohesive Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 66, 1997, was carried out during this study, it properties of the bitumen and the pp.153-186. was visually apparent that this was adhesion of the bitumen to the Kennedy, T.W. and Anagnos, J.N., “Wet-Dry more pronounced in the control aggregate surfaces may occur as a Indirect Tensile Test for Evaluating Moisture mixes. It is believed that de-bonding result of exposing the bituminous Susceptibility of Asphalt Mixtures”, Centre for Transportation Research, University of Texas may not have been solely responsible mixtures to moisrure. The fibre at Austin, Research Report 253-8, Novernber for the decrease in wet tensile strength modified mixes exhibited higher l984. values but that other moisture damage tensile strength ratios (TSR) and Kennedy, T.W. and Hudson, W.R., factors such as binder matrix softening modulus of elasticity ratio (MER) “Application of the Indirect Tensile Test to may have been responsible as well. as compared to the control mix. Stabilised Materials”, Highway Research Record No. 235, Highway Research Board, CONCLUSION 5 The result of incorporating the 1968, pp.36-48. fibres in the rnix also act to Little, D.N. and Richey, B.L., “A Mixture Based on the work done thus far, the decrease the moisture sensitivity Design Procedure Based on the Failure following conclusions can be drawn: of the bitumen to the aggregate Envelope Concept”, Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, bond. This may be due to the Vol. 52, 1983, pp. 378-415. 1. Whilst in the dry condition the srrengthening of the wetted Lottman, R.P., “Laboratory Test Method for control mix was found to have binder matrix, in other words the Predicting Moisture-Induced Damage to higher indirect tensile strength as incorporation of the fibres in the Asphalt Concrete”, Transportation Research compared with the fibre mix may promote both adhesion Record 843, TRB, National Research Council, incorporated mixes, wet and cohesion retention. Washington D.C., 1982 conditioning of the bituminous Maupin Jr. G.W., “The Use of Antistripping samples resulted in higher tensile Additives in Virginia”, Proceedings of the srrength values for the 0.5% fibre Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 51, 1982. reinforced mixes. The 1% fibre REFERENCES Wallace, K. and Monismith, C.L., reinforced samples however American Society for Testing of Materials, “Diametrical Modulus Testing on Non-Linear showed low indirect tensile ASTM D 4123-82 (Reapproved 1987), Pavement Materials”, Proceedings of the Standard Test Method for Indirect Tension Test strength in both the dry and wet Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, for Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures, conditioning state as compared to Vol. 49, 1980, pp.633-652 ASTM, 1982 the control.
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Stratigraphic Position of Rangsi Conglomerate in Sarawak
Dr Ismail Che Mat Zin Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT The Rangsi conglomerate that outcropped in the Tatau Horst area in Sarawak has for a long time been regarded as the basal unit of theTatau formation. The interpretation was, however primarily based on the succession of the geological formations, and no detailed stratigraphic work to support the interpretation, to the author’s knowledge, has so far been published. A study conducted of this area using seismic stratigraphic technique shows that the Rangsi conglomerate in the position is much younger than the Tatau formation. This conglomeratic rock unit is possibly equivalent to Balingian formation that is of late Miocene age. Furthermore, the area that is called Tatau Horst, seismically does not seem to be made up of structural feature as a “horst” of an extensional tectonic. Instead, it is characterized by positive flower structure, suggesting that the structure was formed as a result of transpressional strike-slip tectonic episode, during early to late Miocene times.
INTRODUCTION to a younger sequence as compared operating in this area called SK12. In to the equivalent unit of Tatau its five-year exploration period, OPIC In the Tatau Horst area (Figure 1), the formation. Further, the area that has has drilled several wells and acquired Rangsi conglomerate that been called Tatau Horst (Figure 1) some extensive coverage of seismic. unconformably overlies the Belaga seismically does not seem to be made Two of the regional seismic lines were formation (Figure 2), has been up of structural feature as a “horst” of passing through the Tatau Horst area regarded by many workers as a classical an extensional tectonic. (Figure 3). These lines were used, example of the geological contact together with many other lines in the between the Tatau and Belaga OBJECTIVE onshore area and data from all the formations. The interpretation was, wells drilled in the area. however, primarily based on the This paper is aimed at discussing the generalized sequence in the succession new interpretation about the STUDY TECHNIQUES of the geological formations. No stratigraphy of Rangsi conglomerate detailed biostratigraphic work to that was for along time being The two regional seismic lines have support and to determine the age of described as the representative unit of been tied to the other lines, which this particular conglomerate unit, to the basal part of the Tatau formation, have been interpreted and calibrated the author’s knowledge, has so far been that is the oldest sedimentary unit in earlier with the well data from the area published. In the area adjacent to this Sarawak. It is also aimed at describing (Ismail, 1996). The interpretations particular outcrop, (Figure 2), it is the tectonic history of the study area, were carried out using seismic known that the age of Tatau formation that may contribute toward a better sequence stratigraphy techniques, i.e. is mainly of late Eocene - early understanding on the regional to correlate the unconformities and Oligocene and the Bawang member tectonic of Sarawak. their correlatable conformities that of Belaga formation is predominantly formed as bounding surfaces for a of Eocene age (Heng, 1992). DATA sequence, to analyze the internal character of seismic beside the A seismic stratigraphy study on the Overseas Petroleum and Investigation structural interpretation. All the regional lines from this region reveals Corp (OPIC) was the former subsurface unconformities in the area that the Rangsi equivalent is belong petroleum exploration company have also been dated earlier.
This paper was presented at the Annual Geological Conference 2000, Penang.
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Figure 1: Situation map of the study area showing the location of Tatau Horst and geological map of Mukah-Balingan-Tatau and Bintulu area. Sketch based on Hing (1992). The abbreviations used are: Ta=Tatau, Bu=Buan, Bl=Balingian, Ny=Nyalau, Bg=Begrih, Li=Liang formations. Black is granodiorite at Bukit Piring (BP), andesite and rhyolite lavas at Arip and andesite at Bukit Mersing.
Figure 2: Photograph of Rangsi conglomerate showing the contact between what is said to be “Tatau” and Belaga formations
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Figure 3: Map showing the orientation of seismic lines passing through the Tatau Horst area.
Figure 4: Seismic section passing through Rangsi conglomerate, showing the nature of reflections termination between the sequences and the tectonic nature of “Tatau Horst”.
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RESULTS OF SEISMIC which overlies the chaotic reflectors of The internal character of T2S is of STRATIGRAPHY STUDY Belaga formation. parallel very continues low frequency and high amplitude reflectors. It Five regional unconformities have The internal character of T1S is of changes to shingle and clinoform been recognized in this area (Figure parallel, sub-continuous, low toward the upper part of the preserved 4). The geoseismic section (Figure 5) frequency and high amplitude sequence. Based on the seismic depicts the nature of reflection reflectors. Based on the seismic configuration and the data from the termination at the upper and lower configuration and the data from a nearby wells, it is interpreted that the boundaries of each of the sequences. nearby well, it is interpreted that the T2S was also mainly deposited in a By comparing the number of T1S was mainly deposited in a shallow shallow marine environment. sequences preserved in this area with marine environment. the proposed stratigraphic scheme of 3. Tertiary Four Sequence (T4S) Sarawak (Mat-Zin and Tucker, 1998) 2. Tertiary Two Sequence (T2S) in Figure 6, all the main sequences are Similar to T2S, the sequence shows a present except the Tertiary Sequence The sequence shows a tremendous tremendous thickening northward Three (T3S). thickening northward. A strong with divergent seismic package, reflector marks the lower boundary suggesting a basin fill deposited which 1. Tertiary One Sequence (T1S) with mild truncation on T1S. The probably developed during T4S times. upper boundary is marked by a very The lower boundary is marked by a The sequence does not show any clear angular unconformity of base strong angular unconformity and thickening in this area. The lower T4S. This means that the T3S, which strong reflective zone and mild boundary is marked by strong is preserved in the offshore Balingian truncation marks the upper boundary reflector differentiating between (Ismail, 1996), has been totally eroded by base T5S unconformity. reflective interval of Sequence One in this area.
Figure 5: Geosismic section along Tatua-Balingian area showing the nature of reflection termination and internal seismic character of every sequences. It shows also the position of Rangsi conglomerate with respect to the Tertiary sequence unit and the structural style of Tatau Horst.
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Figure 6: Composite stratigraphic table with the previous schemes used for the Sarawak Basin and the proposed Sequence Stratigraphic Scheme by Ismail, 1996.
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The internal character of T4S in the anomalous reflective seismic package Judging from this appearance on basinal area is of subparallel high that extends over an area of about 4km seismic and its close location with the frequency and low amplitude wide. The lower unit of the package outcrop of Rangsi conglomerate, it is reflectors. The reflectors are seems clearly to truncate the an unmistakable interpretation that continuous at the basal section and underlying chaotic reflector, while the the highly reflective seismic package became discontinuous toward the upper package with a steeper angle represents the same rock unit outcrops upper part of the sequence. Based on truncates the flatter lower package. in the Tatau Horst area, i.e. the Rangsi the seismic configuration and the data conglomerate (Figure 2). from the nearby wells, it is interpreted By comparing this seismic package that the T4S in the basinal area was that occurs at about 400m depth in 4. Tertiary Five and Six Sequences mainly deposited in a shallow marine the northern flank of Tatau Horst, (T5S and T6S) environment and changes to a coastal with the outcrop of Rangsi plain environment toward the upper conglomerate (Figure 2), it shows a The sequences thicken northward. part of the sequence. close appearance. This similarity can The lower boundaries are marked by be described by the presence of an gentle onlap features and mild 3a. Rangsi Conglomerate angular unconformity, at the base of truncation on the upper boundaries. Rangsi conglomerate. There are also However, the whole part of the two By tracing the base T4S unconformity several higher order unconformities sequences have been truncated by the landward, it will reach to an that occur within the conglomerate base T7S unconformity that leaves no unit. preservation of the two sequences in the Tatau Horst area (Figure 5).
The internal characters of the two sequences appear to be similar. It is characterized mainly by discontinuous high frequency, high amplitude reflectors. On this basis and other evidence from the nearby wells, it is interpreted that the two sequences were mainly deposited in coastal plain environment.
STRATIGRAPHIC POSITION OF RANGSI CONGLOMERATE
The stratigraphic scheme by Ismail, 1996 (Figure 6) that has been adopted for this seismic stratigraphic study, allows the age determination on all the identified sequences. The stratigraphic scheme for the onshore formation by the Petronas Research and Scientific Services (PRSS), with offshore Cycle Stratigraphic Scheme (Ho, 1978), allows a more accurate correlation between the geological formation and the identified sequences in the study area (Figure 7).
By referring to the merged Figure 7: Stratigraphic scheme of onshore Sarawak (PRSS, 1991) and the stratigraphic stratigraphic scheme (Figure 7), the scheme for Sarawak subsurface sequences (Ismail, 1996) showing the position Rangsi conglomerate in Sarawak’s stratigraphy. T1S is equivalent to Tatau, Buan, and
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the lower part of Nyalau, Tanggap and This tectonic unrest period might result of strike-slip movement. Subis Limestone. The T2S is represent the most active Tertiary Therefore, the “horst” that itself equivalent to the upper part of tectonic period in the Tatau area. As a describes the interpreted geological Nyalau, Tanggap, Subis Limestone result of these movements, the whole origin of the structure should be and the lower part of Setap Shale. The of T1S was perhaps moved laterally, replaced by other names such as T3S, that may be of age equivalent to away from this area, while the “Tatau Transpressional Area”, that Lambir, the upper part of Sibuti and southern portion of T2S has been reflects the true tectonic origin of the Setap Shale formation, is totally uplifted and severely eroded. structure. missing in the study area. The cessation tectonic movement Although it is well understood that the All the identified unconformities as during the early to middle Miocene onshore geological formations are per Ismail, (1996) can be seen to times in the Tatau area is marked by a diachronous, this study provides an correlate very well with the severe angular unconformity of base understanding on correlation between unconformities in onshore T4S. The basal unit of this geological formations and subsurface formations. Nevertheless, the unconformity is represented by the Tertiary sequences. This will unconformity between Nyalau and conglomerate unit that is known as contribute toward a better Buan formations (PRSS, 1991) Rangsi conglomerate. Several episodes understanding between field cannot be recognized from seismic. of tectonic movement took place post geologists and subsurface geologists dated the deposition of Rangsi who work on different database. The Rangsi conglomerate that is conglomerate, resulting in the interpreted to be situated within T4S, deposition and erosion of both T5S is of late Miocene age. It is perhaps and T6S during the Pliocene period. equivalent to the Balingian formation ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (PRSS, 1991). By comparing to the CONCLUSIONS The author would like to thank En George previous interpretation, that of basal Cheah for proof reading and for his comments, Nyalau formation, the Rangsi This study concludes that the Rangsi and to the management of Universiti conglomerate is supposedly some 25 conglomerate is of age equivalent to Teknologi PETRONAS for facilitating the million years younger than its earlier Balingian formation. It forms as presentation and publication of this paper. proposed age. proximal unit of the T4S possibly of REFERENCES alluvial fan or braided stream deposits. TECTONIC AND Therefore, this conglomerate is Heng,Y.E. 1992. Geological map of Sarawak, SEDIMENTATION HISTORY believed to be of about 25 million second edition. Director General of Geological years younger than the previously Survey of Malaysia. The NW-SE geoseismic section interpreted, where it was interpreted Ismail Che Mat Zin, 1996. Tectonic evolution (Figure 5) shows the relationship to be of a basal unit of Tatau and sedimentation history of Sarawak Basin. between the sequences and the formation. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, tectonic nature of the study area. It 41, pp.41-52. clearly shows that the area that is called The study contributes toward a better Mat-zin, I.C. And Tucker, M.e, 1998. An as Tatau Horst is characterized by understanding on the tectonic nature Alternative Stratigraphic Scheme for the positive flower structure. It is believed and history of the study area. It is Sarawak Basin. Journal of South-East Asian to be formed as a result of highly realized that the area called “Tatau Sciences (1998), 1-18. deformed transpressional strike-slip Horst” was not formed as a horst that PRSS, 1991. Geological field-guide, Sibu-Miri episode that post-dated the deposition normally associated with extensional traverse, Sarawak by Haile, N.S, and Ho, K.W, of T2S during early Miocene times. tectonic. Instead, it is formed as a 1991 (Unpublished)
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Development Of Agriculture In Malaysia: The Case of the Rice Sector
Dr Mohammed Halib Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
INTRODUCTION In addressing the agricultural variety of cultural functions such as development of the peninsula the the khenduri, payment a tribute and The present is the culmination of its writer has located the problem in taxes to the ruling class, and limited historical past. Therefore, the crucial relation to the unfolding societal barter for essential commodities. premise is that everything has its processes under the pre-colonial, Besides rice growing, the rakyat were historical basis (Shamsul Amri, 1980). colonial and the post-colonial eras. involved in the collection of jungle This point has been stressed time and Each historical epoch has its essential produce such as gutta percha and again by various scholars assessing characteristics and this fact must be damar to exchange for basic essentials. different fields of enquiry. At the fully understood in order to gain The forests and jungles, then, formed conceptual level, one can trace the insight into the present conditions and part of the economy where products movement from one paradigm to chart future directions of the were extracted and animals hunted another as weaknesses and limitations agricultural sector. A correct (Shaharil Talib, 1982:1). Production are found in explaining social reality. perspective is essential. The solely for profit was not the driving This is articulated in the shift from overdominance or overconcentration force. the broader modernization school on cultural arguments has to be (Long, 1982) that assumes universal redressed. Their function at The political structure of the Malay applicability to more critical production and market levels are state was highly decentralized. The approaches that focus on the dynamics negligible. A shift in emphasis from a head of state was the Sultan who was of specific conditions within the cultural base to a more economic- supreme in all matters. The state was context of the historical global oriented programme, yet sensitive to divided into jajahan or daerah. The expansion of the market forces social phenomena, will result in new various daerah were headed by (Roxborough, 1979). directions in the agricultural territorial chiefs appointed by the development of the country. Sultan. The traditional leadership The penetration of capital at the turn pattern at the village level generally of the century reconstituted society. THE PRE-COLONIAL MALAY consisted either of a penghulu or ketua There were who produced for the STATE kampong. In addition to providing market while others denied them the formal leadership, the penghulu and fruits of their labour. These unequal The Malay negeri of Perak had existed ketua kampong performed other duties social relations were perpetuated and since the 16th century. The early such as collection of taxes or tribute deepened in more recent times. The settlements of the inhabitants were for the peasants to be given to the massive “modernization” efforts of the confined to the river basins where ruling class. Upon demand from the post-colonial period sharpened social kampong were established along the territorial chiefs or the Sultan, these cleavages. These on-going processes Perak river and its tributaries (Lim local leaders would mobilize the threatened the material bases of the Teck Ghee, 1976:1). The economy of peasant population for the kerah producing classes. The continued the population was subsistence in (corvee labour) (Gullick, 1958). The existence of a class or classes extracting nature. Padi was grown along with use of kerah labour force by the ruling surpluses from the peasant masses will vegetables and fruits to supplement class was, for instance, instrumental reproduce poverty. Any effort at the diet. Rivers provided fish and the in the construction of drainage works agricultural development and planned jungle meat products. Whatever for swamp reclamation to permit wet- social change must take into account surplus produced was mainly used as rice cultivation in Kedah (Afifuddin historical material processes, class seed stock for the coming season, a Haji Omar, 1978). relations, and the role of the state.
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Both wet and dry rice were cultivated customary and unwritten, the rule on the other hand, may be successfully by the peasantry in pre-colonial Perak. prevailed in pre-colonial Malaya claimed under him by descent or transfer, The former was in the form of (Hoebel and Weaver, 1979:266). as long as any of the trees survive, and bendang centred in the river valleys the proprietary right is not extinguished and the later in the form of ladang or A successive stage to the simple until all evidence of proprietorship is huma. The ‘Malay’ population was usufructuary rights is what is known gone. heterogeneous, comprised of local as proprietary rights. Somewhat (Maxwell, 1884:78-79) Perak Malays, indigenous Orang Asli, similar to usufructuary rights, this and immigrant Indonesia groups like form is more complex. According to However, irrespective of the crops the Bugis (McNair, 1972). The local the Perak Code, any waste or grown was the question of taxation by Perak Malays were certainly practising uncultivated land becomes the the ruling class. ladang cultivation where clearings of property of the person who clears it, felled and burnt forests were cultivated subject to two conditions. The first Under the Malay negeri, the Sultan for a period of three or at best four is that the cultivator must be a Muslim was entitled to one-tenth of the crop harvests, whereupon the cultivator and secondly, the land must not yet produced. Therefore, the proprietary shifted to another plot and the cycle be occupied. Satisfying these rights to land were not confined to repeated. conditions, the person is entitled to occupation or cultivation alone, but the land. A more refined and also carried the obligation of paying The general inclination of the Malays elaborate form of proprietary right is taxes of the ruling class to cultivate dry rice in ladang was the the one found in Section XIX of the (Jomo,1988:12-13). Failure to duly outcome of several factors. One of Malacca Code. It distinguished two pay could mean appropriation of the these was the length of time needed types of land, tanah hidup and tanah rights to cultivate the land and the to convert a piece of land into a regular mati. The former refers to all cleared crop to be forfeited. The Sultan, or wet-rice field. The conversion process and cultivated lands or those that have the territorial chiefs in this respect, took three years with enormous been recultivated; the latter constitutes possessed rights to dispose waste or amount of labour needed (Lim Teck virgin or abandoned land showing no uncultivated land. Ghee, 1976:43). The possibility of a sign of use. variety of annual food crops that can The inclination of Perak Malays to be produce in a ladang along with rice Depending on the types of crops cultivate dry rice does not mean that was an added incentive (Maxwell, grown or different forms of wet-rice traditions in the peninsula 1884:81). However, such actions by cultivation, the general concept of was non-existent. On the contrary, the peasantry could have been proprietary rights described has been the peninsula was in fact an arena influenced by the system of land modified. Lands cultivated with where numerous wet-rice traditions tenure and the political situation of annuals, like wet rice, revert to an were carried out. These include the the pre-colonial Malay states. uncultivated appearance faster chedongan, bendang, sawah, chenor, compared to those grown with paya, tenggala, tugalan, taburan and Characterized by an abundance of perennials such as fruit trees. others. By and large all the modes of land in the form of forests and scant Different periods were set to wet-rice cultivation were rainfed. The population, the availability of land in determine whether the land can be exception was the sawah of the the pre-colonial Malay state was the considered tanah hidup or tanah mati. Minangkabau in the present-day subject of Man’s willingness to work With respect to the time involved, Negeri Sembilan where irrigation was it. A person who wished to cultivate Maxwell wrote: relatively advanced. a piece of land would need to clear and then cultivate the land. In this Malay custom has, therefore fixed three THE COLONIAL STATE AND situation, the first form of land tenure years as the term which wet-rice fields, AGRICULTURAL was simple usufructuary rights. This if left uncultivated shall remain subject DEVELOPMENT right is defined as the “right to use land to the proprietary right of the owner. If which is acquired by clearing of forests wet rice-land remains uncultivated for British Administration and Land and the cultivation of the land.” (Lim more than that period, it is open to the Regulations Teck Ghee, 1976:4) It emphasized, Raja, Chief or headman, within whose The Pangkor Treaty 1874 between the therefore, the ‘rights of use’ rather that district it is situated, to put in another British and certain Malay chiefs of actual ownership. Although cultivator. Abandoned fruit plantations, Perak marked the beginning of
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intervention and colonial rule. It was DOs included the collection of seal of approval on policies and agreed “that the Sultan received and revenues and the administration of legislation by the British and helped provide a suitable residence of a British land and justice. The District Office, to maintain the fiction of Malay rule.” Officer to be called Resident, who due to its broad administrative (Lim Teck Ghee, 1977:11) shall be accredited to his court, and responsibilities, became the focal whose advise must be asked and acted point of the system. Augmenting the On of the earliest innovations of upon on all questions other than those responsibilities of the District Office colonial rule for the methodical and touching Malay religion and custom”. were the other government efficient exploitation of the country’s (Swettenham, 1893:13) Another departments such as the land office, resources was the introduction of a clause which favoured the British was public works, and those dealing with system of land administration. Unlike in the sphere of taxes. It was agreed law and order. the traditional land tenure system, the that “the collection and control of all new form was based on private revenues and the general The traditional office of the penghulu ownership. The Torrens system of administration of the country be was retained and became an integral land administration from Australia regulated under the advice of these part of the new structure. The was introduced and adopted. The Residents”. (Swettenham, 1893:13) penghulu was placed in charge of the main characteristic of the new system These two clauses in effect brought mukim, a subdivision of the district. was that private ownership of land was about the entire governing of the state The role of the penghulu was generally possible and this, in turn, led to by colonial administrators and to assist the DO in matters at repercussions on the agricultural terminated the rights of the traditional grassroots level. Salaried by the activities of the peasantry. Under the ruling class. colonial government, the penghulu new land regulations peasants were became the link between the British subjected to a series of rents, taxes, and The beginning of British rule marked and the Malay population. Even other fees to be paid in cash. These the era of a system of government though situated at the bottom of the funds formed a source of revenue for strange to the predominantly Malay heirachy, his responsibilities were the British to support their peasantry that constituted the larger manifold. The penghulu dealt with administrative machinery for the part of the population. The execution land infringements, issuance of governance of the states (Watson, of a battery of laws and regulations licenses for the collection of jungle 1909:195-233). was to interfere with their pattern of produce, encouragement of subsistence livelihood. Above all, the agriculture peasants, mediation in Land under colonial administration entry of the British paved the way for land disputes, provision of assistance was classified into five categories. the resource-rich peninsular to be to colonial officials in fixing the dates These were town land, village land, exposed to a market-oriented for rice cultivation, and the collection and country land exceeding 10 acres economy. Exploitation of tin of land taxes (Lim Teck Ghee, in area, country land not exceeding resources and the establishment of 1977:25). 10 acres in area and finally foreshore rubber plantations formed the dual and seabed. Of these categories, only spearhead of economic ventures. The A part from the penghulu, the role country land not exceeding 10 acres expansion of the market economy was played by Malays in the governing of was relevant to the peasantry. Such promoted by the implanting of the state was minimal. With less of lands, upon application by the bureaucratic, rational-legal machinery the authority they once enjoyed, the peasants and approved by the colonial to stabilize the population position of the Sultan and other Malay state, were subject to cultivation (Sivalingam, 1983:4-5). chiefs remained. In the new conditions (Cowgill, 1928:181-189). government, they made members of The cultivation condition was Under the new system, the key role in the State Council, along with Chinese effectively used as a legal weapon by the administrative set-up in the state leaders and British officials. The the British in deterring of Malay was the Resident, whose foremost council was formed to “act as the chief peasantry from growing the more function was to execute colonial executive body to provide the profitable rubber. Alienation of land policies decided by the Governor of constitutional authority for the to individuals, however, did not stop the Straits Settlements. Below the legislation in the state.” (Lim Teck at cultivation conditions. The relevant Resident were the District Officer Ghee, 1977:11) In really, however, it fees and rents had to be duly paid. (DOs), who were in charge of the became nothing more than “a These included the initial survey fee districts. Major responsibilities of the convenient device which affixed the and the annual quit rent.
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The introduction of colonial rule and Malays (Chai, 1964; Smith, 1952). activities was to encourage Malays to land legislation transformed the grow food crops, especially rice. The political and economic structures of An immediate impact of the influx of primary objective was to create a the former Malay states in the the primarily Asiatic rice eating surplus for the market to ease the peninsula. The traditional form of immigrant labour population into the imported rice supplies. One of the government under the Sultan was country was the need to increase the means employed to encourage rice replaced by a bureaucratic structure supply of the staple. Rice was to be a cultivation was through law. In this where members of the traditional persistent problem for the colonial respect the Malay peasant producers ruling class were given minimal roles. administrators throughout their became the focus of a series of Traditional forms of land tenure based occupation of the Malay peninsula. enactment that interrupted their on usufructuary rights were replaced He effect of the population influx on subsistence economic activities. In by a system of private ownership. the local Malays, in terms of rice Perak, these rulings included Contrary to the former situation supply, was negligible. Their rice Compulsory Planting of Coconuts by where rights to land were a product production through the ladang or Malays 1880, the Prohibition of of labour, land under colonial rule bendang was primarily geared for Felling of Forest 1881, and the took on monetary values and became home consumption, and not for Alienation of Nipah Lands 1888 (Lim an item of exchange. The surplus to be exchanged in the market. Teck Ghee, 1976:144). These introduction of land rents and fees to To sustain the labour population of regulations reduced the independence be paid in cash rather than by exaction the plantations and mining industries, of the cultivators in their pursuit of of produce, gradually transformed the the colonial state had to assume the subsistence. Interaction with the subsistence economy dominated by burden of importing rice (Haviland, natural economy which historically use-value to the cash-oriented 1901:24-26). had been an important aspect of their economy of the new social order. livelihood was disrupted. The state The amount of money expended for determined the kinds of crops to be Influx of Population and Need for rice importation was considerable grown and event the associated system Rice even in the late 19th century. However, of cultivation. The opening of Perak and other states at this point of early colonial rule the to new economic activities led to an amount spent on rice imports was still The most telling law that came as a influx of a primarily immigrant within acceptable and bearable limits blow to the Malays was the population. The peninsula became and the need to develop a surplus in Discouragement of Ladang the focal point of various which is local production was not perceived as Cultivation 1890 (Lim Teck Ghee, groups which ultimately led to the great. However, as the country 1976:144). Dry land cultivation, of pluralistic structure of present-day continued to be opened up for ladang, included the production of Peninsular Malaysia. Encouraged by economic exploitation and progressive upland rice in Perak prior to colonial lax immigration rules, a migrant increases of population accompanied rule. It was a subject of concern to labour force entered in the great this development, rice supplies the British even before the 1890 numbers. Two distinct groups of became critical. In addition to the regulation which constituted the final immigrants were the Chinese and labour population, there was also the squeeze. The tightening of the noose Indians. The former were primarily ever-increasing personnel of the on padi ladang can be traced to 1887. recruited to toil in the tin mines and administrative structures and the non- The practice of shifting dry-rice the latter were taken up as wage cultivating urban dwellers. These culture was conceptualized by colonial labourers in the plantation sector. The segments of the population were administrators as “an obnoxious and greatest wave of Chinese immigrants dependent on rice from the market. wasteful type of agriculture, occurred from the late 1800s until the Faced with such a situation, the destroying valuable timber and a first decade of the present century colonial state was compelled to temporary culture at best.” (Lim Teck (McGee, 1965:70). In addition to the embark in increasing production of Ghee, 1976:66) In order to encourage Chinese and Indians were primarily local rice to lessen the burden of the cultivation of the more fixed Javanese and Banjarase. Some came importation. bendang, through which higher yields as wage labourers in plantations, but could be realized, the annual quit rent most migrated mainly to settle down The Ban on Ladang Cultivation for ladang was increased in 1887 (Lim as rice growers, attracted by the In the early years of colonial rule, the Teck Ghee, 1976:66). opportunities for land in British state’s role in peasant agricultural
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The increase in rent did not deter the Rice Cultivation, Irrigation and terms. While the Krian scheme was local Perak Malays from their ladang Research under construction, other British rice culture. The lack of a widespread One of the first concerted drives for attempts were under way elsewhere. wet-rice tradition among some sectors increased local rice production by the of the local Malay population and the British came in the form of the Report While the colonial state was trying to work involved made the bendang less on the Rice Supply of the Colony and get the peasantry to grow more rice appealing. Furthermore, the rice yield native States, commissioned by the and plans were under way to construct from ladang was comparable to wet- Straits Settlement government in irrigation systems for the purpose, rice (Hill, 1977:185). Thus in 1888, 1891 (Short and Jackson, 1971:83). some rubber estates embarked on their a year after the rent increase, rather The British were already beginning to own rice production programs to extensive ladang was still being feel the burden on the amount of sustain their labour force. A successful cultivated. In the Kinta district alone, money spent by importing rice. attempt by the management of the some 1,500 acres were being worked Accordingly, the government began to Lanadron Estate in Muar, Johore, was and the figure for Kuala Kangsar was promote wet-rice cultivation among reported to be shared by other planters 3,455 acres or 91.0 percent of all lands the Malay peasantry. Colonial officers (Pears, 1902:390-392). Despite the alienated for that year. Finding no diligently contributed to the above fact that the colonial state was decline in ladang, a much tighter rule mentioned Report, presented in 1893, employing measures to discourage was legislated. The colonial state by commenting on the “nature of dry-rice cultivation among the native decreed that as of January 1, 1890 no existing and potential rice lands, and Malay population, the rice grown by jungle area was to be felled for the to make suggestions as to how new this estate was upland rice. In fact, purposes of ladang “except secondary land might be brought into the attempt was regarded as successful growth of not more than five to six cultivation”. (Short and Jackson, when a yield of 175 to 200 gantang years standing.” (Lim Teck Ghee, 1971:83) Perak led the way towards per acre was realized (Pears, 1976:67) The effect of this rule was the establishment of extensive 1902:392). still nowhere close to British irrigation activity. expectations. The Malays persisted A separate event which had with their dry-rice culture, the The large-scale attempt was the Krian consequences on rice cultivation in the colonial administrators, in a final drive irrigation Scheme. In the year of same period was the influx of to curb the practise, passes yet another intervention the area was described as Indonesian groups into the country. act to the effect that “no pass or licence a “roadless jungle with a few padi fields After having limited success in for ladang cultivation would be and one or two fishing villages on the encouraging the local Malays to grow granted in the state.” (Lim Teck Ghee, coast”. (Swettenham, 1893:42) The surplus rice for the market, the coming 1976:67) This ruling was to take project, which started in 1899, was of these immigrants was encouraging effect as of April 1896. However, the completed in 1906 and cost the Perak to the British. The colonial officers legislation was not capable to totally Government a total of $1.6 million. did “all in their power” to wiping out the long-standing Officially opened by the Resident, accommodate the immigrants by tradition; ladang rice culture Mr.E.W.Birch, on August 16, 1906, granting them land for the purpose continued under British rule. the scheme was described as ‘ a huge of rice cultivation (ABS&FMS, financial success in every way”. 1910:316). Upon reflection, the early period of (ABS&FMS, 1906:286) A total of colonial rule experienced an increase 60,000 acres of river land was brought Despite efforts by the British at of primarily immigrant labour under the system. The majority of the irrigation system construction and population into the peninsula to wage cultivators in the scheme, however, encouraging the Malays peasantry to in the expanding economic sectors. were not local Perak Malays. Most grow more rice, an alarming pattern The need for increased rice supplies were Banjarese from Indonesia who of disinterest in rice-growing among was apparent, but the cost of rice had immigrated into the country in the local Malays was fast emerging imports to sustain the population was search of land for rice cultivation (Barritt, 1912:146-149). His was due within bearable limits. There was (Sternberg, 1979). The local Malays, to the competition from the more some encouragement of wet-rice who lacked an irrigated wet-rice profitable venture in rubber growing. cultivation, but it was done indirectly culture, were not attracted to The expanding market economy through discouraging dry rice colonizing the scheme even though created by the British increased the (Shaharil Talib, 1984:140). land was obtainable on fairly easy need for more cash among the
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peasantry to satisfy material needs and development. Carried out by the “The Penghulu, Chegor Galah” it was to pay for the variety of imposed taxes. Department of Agriculture, which was noted, “planted his bendang at Jawang Thus, while continuing to cultivate established in 1905, early efforts solely with the departmental selected rice for home consumption, many concentrated on varietal trials and strains in 1922”.(South, 1923:258) turned to cultivate the cash crop improved methods of cultivation. The Supportive of efforts at Krian were the rubber (Lim Chong Yah, 1967). Krian scheme which was the only test stations at Titi Serong and at irrigation scheme of considerable size, Kuala Kangsar. Like Krian, these two The unprofitable and precarious became the showpiece of these early stations carried out varietal trials endeavour of rice planting, ironically efforts. In 1906, a demonstration plot (Sands, 1926:165-170). At the Kuala enough, was common knowledge was established in Krian so that “the Kangsar station, it was reported that among the colonial administrators. Malay and other rice growers in the a large party of penghulu and ketua For example, an early economic district might be able to observe and kampong were transported to view the analysis done by a colonial officer learn from the results shown by these different varieties tested and the came up with the following remarks: experiments”.(ABS&FMS, 1907:278) “majority of the visitors were favourably impressed with the The profits of this cultivation vary from Experimental work on rice was standing crops”.(Birkinshaw, about $10 per acre on the best land to eventually extended to other areas. In 1928:281-283) bout minus $50 per acre on the poor Kuala Kangsar, trials were carried out land under unfavourable conditions. with more than 30 varieties of padi The use of Malay traditional (Barritt, 1913:445) tested at this station in 1912. These leadership such as the penghulu and included Siamese, Indian, Japanese, ketua kampong and members of the Such analysis, however, did not and local varieties (ABFMS, royalty to coax the peasantry into dampen the spirit of the colonial 1913:317-323). Augmenting the growing rice was one of the techniques administrators. They persisted in local research scene, a delegation from employed by the British. In addition getting Malays to grow wet rice and the Department of Agriculture was to the arranged visit of the local various ways were resorted to in-order sent to Thailand that same year to Malays leaders to the experimental to make it difficult for cultivators to learn the techniques of rice cultivation station cited above, there were cases move into rubber cultivation. These practised in that country for possible where Malay royalty was involved in impediments included the creation of introduction into British Malaya attempting to persuade the people to Malay Land Reservations, the (Bateson, 1912:146-149). The involve themselves in rice growing. imposition of the ‘No Rubber’ research effort of the British were Clearly, such a persuade was needed. cultivation conditions on peasant tailored to favour irrigated wet rice; For instance, in the Lower Perak holdings, differential land rents to no efforts were made for the district, land which was under ladang favour rice and coconut, closure of development of dry rice and other rice was found to be grown with rubber land office books o stop rubber land cultivation systems. “despite the efforts of Raja Muda, applications by the peasants and Perak, who has done all in his power repossession of peasant lands found to As earlier indicated, research in varietal to encourage bendang”.(FMS, 1923:4) be cultivated with rubber. In certain breeding and improving cultivation The same trend was seen in Kuala areas there was even complete methods had stared after the first Kangsar district where rubber prohibition of rubber planting by decade of the century. It came cultivation by Malay peasant was Malays (Lim Teck Ghee, 1977:116- through the efforts of the economic discouraged in favour of wet-rice. 118). The implementation of these botanist, H.W.Jack (MAJ, 1960:112- rules curbed the entry of the Malay 116). These activities began to bear This pattern of using aristocratic peasantry from taking part in the fruit a decade later (Jack, 1919:298- involvement can be further traced to lucrative venture. 319). The success of the breeding and the highest level of British selection work eventually became administrative machinery, the Federal A part from deliberate legal clear. It was reported that in 1921, Council of the Federated Malay States. manoeuvres to keep Malays in rice the distribution of selected pure trains The Malay member of the council for farming, a step taken by the British to of padi was being carried out in Perak. 1930, supposedly representing Malay increase their rice yields and to make In the district of Kuala Kangsar, for interests, was the Raja Dihilir Perak, the crop more profitable to grow was example, seven gantang of improved Raja Sir Chulan ibni Almarhun Sultan through rice research and seeds were distributed in three mukim. Abdullah. His perception of Malay
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peasant inclination to grow rubber as when the colonial governments of the by personnel of the Department of moving away from their ‘traditional’ FMS, SS, and Johore accrued a rice Agriculture. In addition, there were preoccupation with rice cultivation is debt amounting to a massive $42 the numerous padi test plots scattered seen by the following statement: million. Further steps were necessary throughout British Malaya. These to increase local rice production and were situated primarily in rice areas, To my mind, the only thing that its reign as supreme priority to support especially where irrigation systems interferes with the extension of padi British economic exploitation was well were constructed by the Drainage and cultivation is the temptation of the part expressed by the colonial official, Irrigation Department (DID). The of the native of this country to plant H.W.Jack. He said, experiments carried out by the British rubber. If steps are not taken to restrain centered mainly on varietal selection, or to prohibit this, there is very little hope that the tin and rubber industries supply fertiliser trials and crop husbandry. In of the Malay taking to padi planting as the finances which defray the cost of addition to local research activities, a means of livelihood… The extension administration of our Government is experiences from neighbouring rice of English schools in a padi planting area undoubted, but without rice a large growing countries were shared also tens to check this form of agriculture proportion of the labour masses engaged through visits made by the agricultural because Malay youths who gain a in these industries could not be kept in officers. For example, some officers smattering of English a these schools do the country, so that rice is, in reality, the from the Department of Agriculture not take kindly o the pursuit of their first essential requirement of Malaya were sent to study the Burmese rice forefathers… We cannot, of course (Jack, 1923:166). industry, particularly its rice-milling produce sufficient rice to feed the whole aspects (Parker, 1936:121-127). population, but wit the Government To increase rice production at the local pursuing the enlightened policy of freely level, the role of the District Officer The centerpiece of irrigation in Perak granting land, possibly with the was central. Inducements in the form in the mid-Thirties was undoubtedly assistance of irrigation schemes for padi of land offers “on condition that they the Sungei Manik irrigation scheme. growing, and of limiting or restricting plant a definite amount of padi Begun in 1933 by the DID, it for a period the alienation of land for annually” (Jack, 1923:103). represented a colonization area for the planting of rubber, the position of wet-rice cultivation. It was a massive rice cultivation will no doubt be At the federal level, there was effort by the British after Krian and improved. dissatisfaction with local rice its development consisted of a series (FMS, 1931:B97) production. This reaction came in the of stages (de Moubray, 1936:160- light of the continuing enormous 166). Having a more obscure position amount of rice that has to be were the numerous small-scale The untoward behaviour of the Malay imported. Moreover, the Malay schemes. Scores of these small or peasants in their disinterest at rice population in the country had been minor systems were built in Perak and growing despite provisions at increasing, but much to British other states by the British. irrigation and exhortation by the disappointment they “have been nobility was indeed appalling to drawn away from rice planting by the Malaya underwent a change of hands administrators. At Bruas, Perak, for more remunerative attraction of during the Second World War and the example, it was found that traditional rubber cultivation” (Sands, country was in turmoil. During the rainfed bendang land had been planted 1930:130). This shift towards rubber Japanese occupation of 1941-1945, to rubber much to the dismay of the by Malay peasants was, however, irrigation development came to a British who were proposing to economically rational. As pointed out complete halt and research on rice was establish an irrigation scheme for the by T.H.Silcock, “whether in boom or stopped. During the short period of cultivators in the area (FMS, depression, rubber was the more Japanese rule, most of the pure lines 1922:C103). profitable crop” to grow (Silcock, of rice selected through the research 1959:15). efforts of the British agricultural Undeterred by the indifference of the officers were lost. A few popular Malay peasantry, British efforts at On the technological front, research varieties such as the S.k.48, Sm9, and construction of irrigation systems and development efforts on rice were Nachin 11, however, were recovered continued in the Twenties. The efforts expanded. By 1935, four permanent (Van Thean Kee, 1960:112). Under at this stage were the outcome of the rice experimental stations were already the Japanese, the country plunged into period of rice shortage during the war established, with research conducted a situation of severe rice shortage. In
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1943 steps were taken by the Japanese AGRICULTURAL been futile. … However, I wish to stress to solve the problem by introducing DEVELOPMENT IN THE POST- here that research alone is not enough short-term maturing Taiwanese rice COLONIAL ERA unless the results of the research alone is varieties. The first trial was carried not enough unless the results of the out in the Sungei Manik irrigation The lowering of the British Union research are brought to the farmers in scheme covering an area of 4,000 Jack on August 31, 1957 marked the the fields in such a manner they will be acres. This first attempt resulted in beginning of an independent fully convinced of the needs to adopt the some success and cultivation was Malaysia. Along with liberation from new ways extended to the Krian irrigation colonial rule, the new government (MAJ, 1958). scheme, where 20,000 acres more inherited the entire structure of were planted. This venture was bureaucratic machinery from the The message from the Minister unsuccessful because the deep-water departing British. Land regulations concisely charted the course for the condition Krian with drainage remained intact and so did the other development of the rice industry. problems was unsuitable for the state institutions governing Technology and technology transfer growing of Taiwanese varieties. agriculture. The Department of were the keys to the strategy. Two Following this failure, the Japanese Agriculture and the DID continued factors compelled the new state to stopped pushing the peasantry into their respective efforts, the former in embark on the immediate growing the short-term varieties and research and the dissemination of development on the rice sector; they mere allowed to cultivate varieties technical knowledge to the peasantry poverty among the peasantry and the of their own (Van Thean Kee, and the latter in the realm of quest for self-sufficiency. 1948:119-122). construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation of irrigation systems. As a consequence of decades of The first few years after the fall of the The post-colonial state was but an colonial rule, the peasantry was Japanese and the return of the British, extension of colonial rule with one severely underdeveloped both socially work on irrigation was mainly observable difference, the government and economically. The rice peasantry confined to rehabilitation activities. machinery was now staffed by locals. forms one of the largest poverty In 1948, State DIDs were established groups in Peninsular Malaysia. This with their own budgets and staff to Just as it had affected the colonial is not denying the existence of other facilitate implementation of irrigation administrators, the rice issue became poverty-stricken groups in the systems thoughout the country. By a primary concern of the new state. agricultural sector of the country. 1956 double cropping of rice was The attention of the new rulers was Poverty is found among the encouraged in irrigation systems in the immediately directed to the peasant smallholders, fishermen, and the country. Under colonial rule, all the rice cultivators and the rice crop. The coconut smallholders. Comparatively, irrigation systems had been built words of Abdul Aziz Ishak, the first however, the rice peasantry has primarily to supplement natural Minister of Agriculture of consistently shown a higher incidence precipitation and only one crop was independent Malaysia placed the rice of poverty than the other sectors. grown annually, using late-maturation issue in perspective the year following Concentrated primarily in the rice- varieties. The only instance whereby independence. He wrote: growing areas in the state of Kedah, double cropping with short-term Perlis, Kelantan, Selangor, and Perak, maturation rice varieties occurred was Padi is the top priority crop in the efforts to eradicate poverty and during the Japanese period and that Development Plan of my Ministry. I improve the economic standing of the ended in failure (Federation of have given every effort to increase the rice peasantry have been made during Malaya, 1956:44-46). Such a decision yield of padi and to do this, I have even the 5-year development plans. meant a change in the overall policy asked for assistance in the form of experts in irrigation system construction; from Japan in the hope of helping our Malaysia continued to be a net existing systems would need to be farmers to increase the yields of their padi importer of rice after it gained reconstructed or reorganized to suit and thereby increasing their income. The independence. Massive amounts of the double cropping of rice record yield which has been attained rice continued to be imported into the (Federation of Malaya, 1956:46). during 1957/1958 season is indeed very country. With respect to rice, the encouraging and this shows that our National Agricultural Policy which efforts which have so far been directed was “formulated to ensure a balanced towards increasing the yield have not and sustained rate of growth in the
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agricultural sector vis-a-vis the other of the produce (Sivalingam, 1983:24). It is assumed that the adoption of new sectors of the economy” (Government It is in this set-up that rice has technologies will generate surpluses to of Malaysia, 1984:1), stated that: frequently been referred to as political be exchanged in the market, thereby crop. considerably increasing the income of No country is ever self-sufficient in all the peasants. Accomplishing the task its food requirements. In this respect, the Simultaneous with these agricultural of transferring the new technologies important issue is the production of development efforts was an increase to the rice peasantry is the multitude staple food which, in the case of in the number of organizations to of agricultural extension agents and Malaysia, is rice. The determination of manage the state’s inputs. The technicians from the various the percentage of rice to be produced sprouting of governmental agencies government agencies. within the country is influenced by the has been regarded as a “panacea to national food security needs. In addition, growth and development” (Afifuddin On a conceptual plane, the strategy in view of the fact that the country is a Haji Omar, 1979:1). These of diffusion of new rice technologies high cost producer, it is not economical institutions can be found at all levels to the alleged ‘traditional’ and ‘passive’ to produce 100% of its total of the government’s bureaucratic rice peasantry lacks sensitivity to requirement. Further, in times of machinery, from district to national historical experience. Technology emergency, the consumption of rice is not capital. Added to the already generated and diffused to the as much as during normal times. Based established departments formed under peasantry is merely an extension of rice on these considerations, the production colonial rule such as the Department research initiated by the British. The level aimed at will be between 80% and of Agriculture and the DID, came a colonial rice research programme was 85% of the national requirement. In host of other agencies. At the federal uncritically endorsed by post-colonial order to achieve and sustain this level of level these include the Malaysian researchers and policy makers. self-sufficiency, padi production will be Agricultural Research and Colonial rice research efforts had been intensified through the provision and Development Institute (MARDI), the directed towards irrigated wet-rice improvement of drainage and irrigation Farmers’ Organization Authority varieties and the practices associated facilities in existing areas for double (FOA) and the Federal Agricultural with them. cropping, use of high yielding varieties Marketing Authority (FAMA). At the and adoption of modern farming more localized level are the regional The acceptance and continuation of practices authorities to oversee specific the rice research programme laid (Government of Malaysia, development programs such as the down by the British may constitute a 1984:8) Muda Agricultural Development judgmental error. It marginalized the Authority (MADA), the Kemubu importance of other methods of The NAP, echoing the words of Abdul Agricultural Development Authority cultivation that had been historically Aziz Ishak cited earlier, reiterated the (KADA), and the more recent Kedah developed and modified by peasants role of improved rice technologies, Regional Development Authority through their interaction with the along with the associated physical (KEDA). natural environment. The various infrastructural development by the forms of rice cultivation such as the government to increase rice yields. Underlying the massive task of the ladang, tugalan, chenor, chedongan, development of the peasant rice sector and paya were never considered as The Agricultural Development lies the philosophy: bases for improvement by the rice Strategy research program of the post-colonial A stage has been reached whereby state Efforts at poverty redressal of the rural state. intervention is deemed necessary in poor should be directed towards the goal practically all aspects relating to the of increased farm income. The Uncritical of the historical factors that production of the rice crop. This reaslization of these targets depends to a have shaped and conditioned the rice applies to research in the development large extent on technological change growing practices, breeding for high- of new technologies, establishment of amongst our traditional farmers at a yielding wet-rice varieties dominated a physical infrastructure including more rapid pace, commercialization of the research efforts of the Department irrigation systems and farm roads, agriculture and increased efficiency in of Agriculture after Independence introduction of machinery, provision managing the farm business (Varughese et al., 1980:51-71). In the of fertilizer, price support (Haji Osman Mohd. Noor Sixties, Malaysia’s rice breeding mechanisms, and even the marketing et al.,1980:341). programs took a dramatic turn.
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During this period, the developing made whereby different rates of alone can prove to be a costly mistake. nations, including Malaysia, fertilizer have been recommended for A major technological breakthrough experienced the so-called Green the different rice areas in the country. that could, for instance, double the Revolution. Emphasis was given to the presently realized rice yields in not is introduction of high-yielding and Irrigation and Agricultural sight. The actual potential of the short-maturation rice varieties. Development present varieties, for the most part, has Closely associated with the rice not been fully tapped. The coming of these new rice varieties research efforts are the construction gave a much needed boost in the and rehabilitation of irrigation systems The issue of increasing rice production development of the rice sector. The to enhance the spread of the new rice in the country continued to be a high yields possible through these technologies and to enable double priority problem in the post-colonial varieties was seen by the state as the cropping. This move is in line with state. Added to the question of being solution to its problems. Further, the needs of the new varieties where self-sufficient in rice is the parallel double cropping of rice was possible water requirements and control are issue of eradicating poverty and raising in irrigated areas. Higher yields, it was crucial for optimal yields (Wickham the economic standing of the assumed, would lead to higher et al., 1978:221-232). The efforts have peasantry. In the initial years of incomes for the peasants and through primarily been directed to the independence, the government, the surplus generated, there would be development of large-scale irrigation through the inherited institutions in self-sufficiency. Technologically, these systems (Cheong Chup Lim, the Department of Agriculture and new varieties reinforced the local rice 1976:38). After upgrading the the DID, pursued their respective research pattern. The Green facilities of early large-scale irrigation foals, the former in breeding new rice Revolution varieties were primarily for systems such as Krian, Sungei Manik, strains capable of higher yields and the irrigated wet-rice and fitted well with and Tanjung Karang, the construction dissemination of technology to the the local programme. of large World Bank-funded irrigation peasantry, and the latter in systems became the preoccupation of construction and rehabilitation of Recognizing the importance of the state. Two of these constructed irrigation systems. technology for the development of the after independence are the 250,000 rice industry and the agricultural acres Muda scheme in the states of The apparently separate objective of sector as a whole, a move to strengthen Kedah and Perlis, and the 60,000 acres the DID and the Department of the agricultural research system was Kemubu scheme in the East Coast Agriculture, are in reality made. In 1969, MARDI was state of Kelantan. The construction complementary. They form the major established as a specialized agency work of the former spanned from components in the development of dealing with agricultural research. 1966 to 1970 while the latter from the rice sector. The DID through the Prior to the setting up of MARDI, the 1967 to 1973. provisions of irrigation and drainage dual functions of research and facilities sets the stage for the diffusion extension were the primary There has been a situation of relative of high-yielding varieties which responsibilities of the Department of stagnancy in generating rice require good water control, apart from Agriculture. With reorganization, the technologies in Malaysia. Even though fertilizer and cultural practices, for Department of Agriculture is confined more varieties are developed through maximum benefits to be realized. to extension and other ‘residual’ research, the yield potential of these Massive capital outlay is incurred by activities while research came under varieties has not significantly gone the state in construction, upgrading, MARDI. Under the new set-up, beyond the yields presently realized. and maintenance of irrigation research on irrigated wet rice for Changes in the fertilizer rate facilities. Supplementing the efforts of double cropping areas intensified recommendations are made without the Department of Agriculture and (Y.H. Chen et al., 1980:72-88). much effect. The rice yields from the DID is the plethora of agencies to Inspired by and taking off from the large scale irrigation systems of manage state’s inputs in the earlier IRRI-developed varieties, vast Kemubu and Muda, which form the development of the agricultural sector strides have been made in the local major targets of technological of the country particularly pertaining development of high-yielding and innovations, have levelled off. The to rice. early-maturing varieties. Varietal assumption that there will be an development continued into the unending development of increases in Research on the development of rice Eighties. Advances have also been yield based on biological grounds technology continues to be at the
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forefront of government attempts to any, was used to pay taxes to the ruling leaned towards the development of increase rice production and improve class and for a variety of cultural wet-rice technologies or more the living standards of the cultivators. functions. specifically, irrigated wet rice varieties. The rice research agenda in the post- Little emphasis was given to the colonial era, however, is merely an The setting of rice cultivation then was development of the diverse systems of extension of the foundation laid down diverse. Both dry and wet rice rice production found in the by the British researchers. The cultivation were practised. There were peninsula. The underlying objective program has never been critically various modes of wet-rice cultivation of the colonial state’s program was to questioned and evaluated to consider with varying degrees of water control ensure a cheap source of local rice to the various forms of indigenous rice practices. Irrigation was significantly sustain the labour forces in the cultivation systems found in the developed among the Minangkabau plantation and mining sectors in country. Varietal breeding has mainly of Negeri Sembilan. furtherance of their exploitative been directed and tailored to suit wet- economic endeavours. rice cultivation under irrigation. The Irrigated wet rice cultivation was bias for irrigated rice held even after encouraged among the Malay The pattern of rice research laid out the establishment of MARDI in 1969 peasantry. Both large and small scale by the British was uncritically as a specialized institution to carry out irrigation systems were constructed by continued to the present era. In the research on rice and other crops. Just the colonial state. Ladang cultivation process of which, further as the program in the Department of which was initially discouraged in deemphasizing and marginalizing the Agriculture was handed down by the favour of wet-rice was later banned. different modes of rice production. British, it was in turn inherited and Colonizing of irrigation schemes was Technological advancements are continued by MARDI. In other made attractive through various primarily tailored to irrigated wet-rice words, the direction of rice research means such as generous land offers varieties. The bias for irrigated rice was in the country never shifted from the and reduced land taxes. further buttressed through the spread one pioneered by the British. Simultaneously, entry of peasants into of IRRI-developed high-yielding, the lucrative rubber growing was short-term maturation, water- Reinforcing the one-track rice research checked by the colonial authorities. sensitive and fertilizer responsive agenda was the coming of the Green Sandwiched between the ban on varieties. Later varieties developed by Revolution in the Sixties whereby ladang and their entry into rubber, the local researchers maintained these high-yielding, early-maturing varieties peasants were left with little same characteristics. were developed by IRRI. It is common alternative. Even when wet-rice was knowledge that these new varieties are cultivated, the legal arms of the Facilitating the spread of these highly responsive to fertilizer colonial state intruded deeply into varieties to the peasantry, irrigation application, susceptible to diseases and their cultivation cycles. Cornered into development of the post-colonial state pest attacks; above all good water labouring for a low-paying crop, the took a new dimension. Provision of control is desired. The Green peasants were subjected to colonial irrigation facilities is to enable double- Revolution was, therefore, an added state legislation determining the cropping of rice. The spread of rice boost for the local rice scene. It fitted various dates for the different phases technologies and the provision of well with the government’s strategy to of wet-rice production. irrigation forms an agricultural increase rice production and at the development strategy to combat same time eradicate poverty, but its Attempts to get the Malay peasantry poverty in the rice peasantry and to actual achievements are still debatable. to grow wet rice did not stop at the strive for national self-sufficiency in realm of irrigation system rice. Characterizing the irrigation CONCLUSION construction. The colonial period also development was the construction of witnessed the beginning of a large World Bank-funded systems and The salient feature marking the concerted effort in the application of the rehabilitation of both small and development of peasant rice growing scientific knowledge in rice large scale schemes. However, much in Peninsular Malaysia is the cultivation. Selection on high-yielding of the millions that have been spent increasing degree of state intervention. pure lines of rice was started and the on irrigation development in Malaysia Peasant rice cultivation under pre- varieties were then spread to the has been concentrated in the colonial Malay states was primarily for peasantry. In line with colonial construction and rehabilitation of home consumption, and surplus, if interests, however, the research on rice large scale systems.
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Closely associated with the BIBLIOGRAPHY FMS, Annual Report of Director of Food development of the rice sector is the Production for the Year 1923. Afifuddin Haji Omar, “Peasants, Institutions all-important question of research and Development in Malaysia: The Political FMS, Perak Administration Report for the direction in the development of rice Economy of Development in the Muda Year 1923. technologies. The existing rice Region”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University, 1978. research program of over- FMS, Proceedings of the Federal Council of the concentrating on irrigated wet-rice FMS for the Year 1921, Kuala Lumpur: FMS technologies needs to be re-evaluated. Afifuddin Haji Omar, “The Social, Political Government Printing Office, 1922. and Economic Framework of Muda Rice Existing efforts should also include the Farmers – A Historical Perspective”, Alor Setar, FMS, The Proceedings of the Federal Council of development of rainfed, swamp, and MADA Publication No.23, August 1973. the FMS for the Year 1930, Kuala Lumpur: dry rice technologies. In the small- FMS Government Printing Office, 1931. scale schemes where water supply to “Agriculture in the Native States in 1909”, Agric. Bull. Straits & FMS, Vol.IX, No.8, 1910. sustain double cropping is inadequate, Government of Malaysia, The National then rainfed rice technologies should Agricultural Policy, Kuala Lumpur: Barritt, N.W., “The Rice Crop in Malaya”, Government Printers, 1984. be made available to peasants as Agric. Bull. of the FMS, Vol.I, No.4, 1912. alternatives. In other areas, the Gullick, J.M., Indigenous Political Systems of possibility of dry rice making a Bateson, E., “Padi Cultivation in Siam”, Agric. Western Malaya, London: The Athlone Press, comeback through improved and Bull. of the FMS, Vol.I, No.4, 1912. 1958. appropriate dry rice technologies must not be ruled out. This is especially in Bateson, E., “Padi Experiments in Krian”, Haji Osman Mohd. Noor, Chin Fatt and Chan areas historically and presently known Agric. Bull. of the FMS, Vol.II, No.5, 1913. Ah Kiow, “Transfer of Technology – Role of for their dry rice activities such as Extension”, in MARDI, Research for the Rice Birkinshaw, F., “Padi Notes in Perak North”, Farmer, Serdang: MARDI, 1982. Perak, Kelantan and Trengganu. Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XXI, No.7, Along the same line, improvement 1928. Haviland, H.A., “On the Distribution of and development of the paya system (Free) Meals to Coolies on the Estates and of rice cultivation in Pahang should Birkinshaw, F., “Preliminary Report on the Irrigation Works, Krian”, Agric. Bull. of the also be initiated. Research efforts Distribution by the Inspection Division in Straits and FMS, Vol.I, No.1, 1901. Perak North of Selected Pure Strains of Padi”, toward improving these non-irrigated Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XI, No.11, Hill, R.D., Rice in Malaya, Kuala Lumpur: and dry rice cultivation systems are 1923. Oxford University Press, 1977. envisaged to offer broader alternative of rice technologies to the peasantry Chai, Hon-Chan, The Development of British Hoebel, E.A. and Thomas Weaver, and that these will be better suited to Malaya 1896-1909, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Anthropology and the Human Experience, New the ecological settings of the areas University Press, 1964. York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. involved and in line with the historical Chen, Y.H. et al., “Varietal Evaluation in heritage of the peasantry. Jack, H.W., “Preliminary Report on Double Cropping Areas”, in MARDI, Research Experiments with Wet Rice in Krian”, Agric. for the Rice Farmer, Serdang: MARDI, 1982. Bull. of the FMS, Vol.VII, No.5, 1919.
Cheong Chup Lim, “Irrigation Development Jack, H.W., “Rice in Malaya (continued)”, and Present Status of Farm Water Management Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XI, No.6, in Malaysia”, TARC, Symposium on Water 1923. Management in Rice Field, Tropical Agriculture Research Series No.9, Ibaraki, Japan, 1976. Jack, H.W., “Rice in Malaya”, Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XI, No.5, 1923. Cowgill, J.V., “System of Land Tenure in the Federated Malay States”, Malayan Agric. Jomo, K.S., A Question of Class: Capital, the Journal, Vol.XVI, No.5, 1928. State, and Uneven Development in Malaya, New York and Manila: Monthly Review Press and de Moubray, G.A. de C, “The Sungei Manik JCA Publishers, 1988. Irrigation Scheme”, Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XXIV, No.4, 1936. Lim Chong Yah, Economic Development of Modern Malaya, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Federation of Malaya, Final Report of the Rice University Press, 1967. Committee, Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer, 1956.
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Lim Teck Ghee, Origins of a Colonial Economy: Shaharil Talib, “The Colonial Legal Machine: Varughese, J., N.T. Arasu and Y.H. Chin, “Rice Land and Agriculture in Perak 1874-1897, An Instrument of Capitalist Penetration in the Breeding Strategies in Malaysia”, in MARDI, Penang: Penerbit USM, 1976. Malay Countryside”, A paper read during the Research for the Rice Farmer, Serdang: MARDI, Symposium on the Western Presence in South- 1982. Lim Teck Ghee, Peasants and Their Agricultural East Asia, Manila, Philippines, 1982. Economy in Colonial Malaya 1974-1941, Kuala Watson, R.G., “The Land Laws and Land Lumpur: Oxford University Press,1977. Shaharil Talib, After Its Own Image: The Administration of the Federated Malay States”, Trengganu Experience 1881-1941, Singapore: Agric. Bull. of the Straits and FMS, Vol.VIII, Long, Norman, An Introduction to the Oxford University Press, 1984. No.5, 1909. Sociology of Rural Development, Boulder: Westview Press, 1982. Shamsul Amri Baharuddin, “Pembangunan Wickham, T.H., R. Barker and M.V. Pertanian dan Luar Bandar di Malaysia: Satu Rosegrant, “Complimentarities Among Maxwell, W.E., “The Law and Customs of the Penilaian dan Kritik”, Jurnal Antropologi dan Irrigation, Fertilizer, and Modern Rice Malays with Reference to the Tenure of Land”, Sosiologi, Jilid 8, 1980. Varieties”, in IRRI, Economic Consequences of JSBRAS, No.13, June 1884. the New Rice Technology, Los Banos: IRRI, Short, D.E. and James C. Jackson, “The 1978. McGee, T.G., “Population: A Preliminary Origins of an Irrigation Policy in Malaya: A Analysis”, in Wang Gungwu (ed.), Malaysia: Review of Developments Prior to the A Survey, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Establishment of the Drainage and Irrigation 1965. Department”, JMBRAS, Vol.44(I), 1971.
McNair, J.F., Perak and the Malays, Kuala Silcock, T.H., The Commonwealth Economy in Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1972 (first Southeast Asia, Durham: Duke University published in 1978). Press, 1959.
“Message from the Minister of Agriculture”, Sivalingam, G., “The Political Economy of Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.41, No.4, Agrarian Change, West Malaysia 1947-1975”, 1958. Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University, 1983.
“Opening of the Krian Irrigation Canal”, Agric. Smith, T.E., Population Growth in Malaya, Bull. Straits & FMS, Vol.V, No.8, 1906. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1952. Parker, H., “The Rice Industry of Burma”, Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XXIV, No.3, South, F.W., “Annual Report of the Chief 1936. Agricultural Inspector for 1922”, Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XI, No.10, 1923. Pears, Francis, “On the Cultivation of Rice as a Catch Crop”, Agric. Bull. of the Straits and Sternberg, E., “Agricultural Decision Making FMS, VolI, No.10, 1902. and Village Consensus: A Study of Malay Padi Farmers in the Krian Irrigation Scheme of Perak, Malaysia”, MS thesis, Cornell “Report of the Director of Agriculture FMS University, 1979. for the Year 1906”, Agric. Bull. Straits & FMS, Vol.VI, No.9, 1907. Swettenham, F.A., About Perak, Singapore: Straits Times Press, 1893. “Report on the Field Experiments Kuala Kangsar, 1912-13”, Agric. Bull. FMS, Vol.I, No.9, 1913. Swettenham, F.A., British Malaya, London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1955 (first published 1906). Roxborough, Ian, Theories of Underdevelopment, London: Macmillan, 1979. Van Thean Kee, “Cultivation of Taiwan Padi in Perak During the Japanese Occupation”, Sands, W.N., “Annual report of the Economic Malayan Agricultural Journal, Vol.XXI, No.2, Botanist for 1925”, Malayan Agricultural 1948. Journal, Vol.XIV, No.6, 1926.
Van Thean Kee, “Present Status of Rice Sands, W.N., “Review of the Present Position Breeding in Malaya”, Malayan Agricultural of Rice Production in Malaya” Malayan Journal, Vol.43, No.2, 1960. Agricultural Journal, Vol.XXIII, No.3, 1930.
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The Application Of Interference Optical Microscopy In Measuring Window Thickness Of Rigid Polyurethane Foams
Dr Puteri S M Megat-Yusoff Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia. [email protected]
Prof. A J Ryan Head of the Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The use of interference optical microscopy was demonstrated to be a simple yet successful technique to measure the window thickness in rigid polyurethane (PU) foams. Furthermore, this technique does not reqiure slicing the sample to a very thin specimen (unlike using SEM and TEM) which could be a practical problem on foams. In addition, the technique was employed to investigate the effects of varying foam formulation on the cell window thickness. For the water blown rigid PU foams under study, the window thickness distribution indicated that the cell membrane was concave in shape with mean window thickness between 1 and 2 µm. Varying the foam formulations in terms of the polyol arrn length, polyol/monol ratio, water content and type of catalyst did not affect the mean window thickness appreciably. The observed behaviour could be explained as the type and amount of surfactant used throughout the study remained unchanged.
INTRODUCTION samples themselves.[3] The cell interferometry is ideally suited to structure of polymeric foams is evaluate the range of thickness Characterisation of the cellular complex, incorporafing the polyhedral encountered[5] by visually comparing structure, namely cell diameter and cell geometry, cell strut shape and the characteristic interference colour distribution, strut and cell window dimensions, cell window integrity and of cell walls in isolated foam fragments thickness and anisotropy of cells of thickness, and cell diameter. These with the colour of the empty foams is especially important in features result from the complex background in the microscope field of determining structure-property sequence of physical and chemical view. A simpler method of measuring relationships. The mechanical interactions during foam formation. cell membrane thickness[6] applied the properties of polymer foams depend Nevertheless, various analytical tools theory of light interference patterns perhaps more on the geometry of the and techniques are available to on a cell membrane. A similar foam than on the bulk mechanical characterise these foams technique, automated and pmperties of the polymer itself.[1],[2] It systematically. computerised, was used is important to characterise independently[7] to measure the quantitatively the morphology of the An important characteristic of cellular window thickness of rigid closed cell foams. There are however inherent foams is the cell wall thickness, which PU foams in relation to thermal difficulties not only in data collection relates to physical properties of the conductivity in ageing studies. The but also in the nature of the foam foams under investigation. Optical procedure involved viewing the foam
This paper was presented at the Regional Symposium on Chemical Engineering, Skudai, Johor, 13-15 October, 1997.
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window specimen under an optical light interference patterns of the A Method for Determination of the microscope with reflected light at specimen were taken under three Interference index, m three different monochromatic monochromatic lights with The interference index of the first wavelengths. The interference index wavelength of 0.452 µm (KL45), minimum intensity was determined of the first minimum intensity was 0.539 µm (Na-light) and 0.667 µm by comparison of the pattern of determined by comparison of the (KL67). Numerous samples for each interference fringes produced by the interference pattern produced by the formulation investigated were scanned three specified wavelengths. three different monochromatic and 5 to 20 micrographs taken at each Comparison of the positions of wavelengths. Then, the thickness of of the three different wavelengths. minimum intensity obtained under the cell membrane at the minimum The light source was a white heat lamp the three light sources, that intensity of interference light was equipped with glass filters and a calculated using the appropriate sodium lamp. The specifications of (1) from Na-lamp and KL-45 filter equation. In this study, the the equipment are shown in Table 1. light sources, the positions of the interferometric technique[6] was the interference indices 4 and 5, 8 and basis for cell window thickness For comparatively small angles of 9, 13 and 14 under KL45 light measurements. incidence, cell membrane thickness at exist between those of index 3 and each minimum intensity of 4, 6 and 7, 10 and 11 under Na- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE interference light is given as follows. light, respectively.
Three four series of formulations m λ θ2 (2) from Na-lamp and KL-67 filter based on varying polyol arm length, d = –––––– 1 + –– (1) liglit sources, the positions of the polyol/monol content, water level and 2 n ( 4 ) interference indices 8 and 9 under type of catalyst were systematically Na-light exist between those of studied. All formulations employed where d is the cell membrane index 7 and 8 under KL-67 light. the same surfactant. Specimens from thickness, m is the interference index, λ various regions of a polyurethane foam is the light wavelength, n is the- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION θ (foamed isothermally at 50°C) bun refractive index of the foam and is were cut (using precision foam slicer) the angle of incidence of the light. Micrographs of the light interference into 15 x 15 x 3 mm3 sections and The refractive index for PU foam patterns obtained under the three [6],[7] mounted flat onto glass slides on the ranged between 1.5 to 1.6 In the monochromatic wavelengths (Na- stage of the OM. Micrographs of the current study, n is assumed to be 1.5. light, KL45 and KL-67 filters) are shown in Figure 1(a) to (d) for specimen 2-MHT-100 (see Table 2 for Table 1 The main specifications of the light interference optical materials coding). microscopy (Olympus BH2-UMA) hardware The positions of the minimum 1 Light source intensity were determined along line White heat lamp : 12 Volt, 100 Watt AOB through the centre of the Na-lamp wavelength is 0.589 µm interference pattern, the thickness of Glass filters . KL-45 and KL-67 (Omega Opticals) the cell membrane calculated and the Spectral data thickness distribution estimated. The KL45 KL-67 typical membrane thickness Centre of wavelength : 0.452 µm 0.667 µm distribution for 2-MHT-100 and 6- Half-value width : 0.016 µm 0.016 µm MHT-100 are shown in Figure 2. It Transmission : 36% 36% indicates that the cell membrane has 2. Objective lens a concave shape; the edges being Magnification : x50 thicker than the centre. Similar N~erical apeiture : 0.55 observations were made by Akabori Focallength : 180 mm and Fujimoto[6] in their work on 3. Ocular lens polyether-based polyol, MDI PU Magnification : x 10 foam.
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Table 2 summarises the average, minimum and maximum window thickness as measured by the light interference microscopy for thirteen foaming systems under study. For all the foaming systems investigated, the average membrane thickness varied between 1 and 2 µm, typical for rigid foams.[6] The minimum measurable thickness was 0.2 µm (resolution limit) whereas the maximum measurable value was 4.3 µm. (a) Na-light source (b) KL-45 The addition of monol into the foam formulations did not affect the window thickness of the cells, 2345 although in a separate study the cell diameter was shown to increase. For B instance, 2-MHA-100, 2-MHA-80 and 2-MHA-60, showed similar O window thickness of 1.2 ± 0.2 µm. A Similar observations were made with 3-MHA-100, 3-MHA-80 and 3- MHA-60 which showed a window thickness of 1.4 ± 0.3 µm regardless of the amount of monol incorporated (c) KL-67 (d) into the formulations. Figure 1: Micrographs of the interference pattern under (a) Na-light (b) KL-45 and (c) KL-67 for 2-MHT-100. The measurements From Table 2 it is apparent that were made along a line AOB as illustrated in (d). increasing the water content does not change the window thickness significantly. For example, at 4 g water, 2-MHA-100 has a similar window thickness (within experimental error) compared to 2- MHA-100 at 1.8 g water, 1.2 ± 0.2 µm and 1.4 ± 0.4 µm respectively. The finding suggests that the water level in foam formulation do not affect the membrane thickness.
The type of catalyst used also showed no appreciable influence on the cell mean membrane thickness. This is demonstrated by all the three formulations employing tin catalyst (instead of amine), 2-MHT-100, 2-MLT-100 and 6-MHT-100 as compared to 2-MHA-100, 2-MLA- Figure 2: The membrane thickness distribution for 2-MHT-100 and 100 and 6-MHA-100 respectively. 6-MHT-100 as measured through the centre of the respective interference pattern. Magnification: 50x.
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Table 2: A summary of the average window thickness, minimum and maximum, measured for various foaming systems investigated.
Formulation** Average window Minimum window Maximum window thickness/mm thickness/mm thickness/mm 2-MHA-100 1.2 ± 0.2 0.2 2.9 2-MHA-80 1.2 ± 0.1 0.2 2.2 2-MHA-60 1.2 ± 0.2 0.2 2.7 2-MLA-100 1.4 ± 0.4 0.2 3.9 2-MHT-100 1.4 ± 0.2 0.2 3.1 2-MLT-100 1. 7 ± 0.1 0.2 3.5 3-MHA-100 1.4 ± 0.2 0.2 3.3 3-MHA-80 1.4 ± 0.3 0.2 3.5 3-MHA-60 1.4 ± 0.2 0.2 2.9 3-MLA-100 1.5 ± 0.2 0.3 3.3 6-MHA~100 1.7 ± 0.4 0.2 4.3 6-MHT-100 1.8 ± 0.2 0.2 4.1 14-MHA-100 1.1 ± 0.1 0.3 2.0
** The first number refers to the polyol arm length. The second part refers to type of isocyanate, the water content used (H for 4 g/100 g polyol, L for 1.8 g/100 g polyol) and the catalyst employed (A for amine and T for tin catalyst). The third part, a number refers to the mass (g) of polyol used in the polyol/monol blend.
The use of longer polyol arm length foam formulations in terms of the 3. Rhodes, M.B.; “Image Analysis as in the foam formulation did not affect polyol arm length, polyol/monol ratio, Applied to the Characterisation of the Cellular Structure in Urethane Foams”, the mean membrane thickness water content and type of catalyst did Proc. 34th Annual Potyurethane appreciably. This is demonstrated by not affect the mean window thickness Technical/Marketing Conference, 2-MHA-100, 3-MHA-100 and 6- appreciably. However, this could be Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, MHA-100 series which showed reversed if different types of surfactant PA, p. 548, (1992). similar mean window thickness within were utilised. 4. Sims, G.L.A. and C. Khunniteekool, ± µ “Cell Size Measurement of Polymeric the experimental error, 1.2 0.2 m, Foams”, Cellular Polymers, 13, p.137, 1.4 ± 0.2 µm and 1.7 ± 0.4 µm ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (1994). respectively. 5. Rhodes, M.B.; “Applicable Techniques of The author would like to acknowledge Dow Optical Microscopy for Polyurethane Chemical, Terneuzen, The Netherlands for Investigations”, J. Elastomers and CONCLUSIONS sponsoring the project. Many thanks to N. Plastics, 12, pp.201-218, (1980). Wardman of Materials Science Centre, 6. Akabori, K. and K. Fujimoto; “A Method This study has demonstrated the UMIST, for his technical advice and support. for Measuring Cell Membrane Thickness application of interference optical of Polyurethane Foams”, International REFERENCES microscopy to measure window Ptogress in Urethane, 2, pp. 41-60, (1980). thickness in rigid polytirethane foams. 1.. Gioumousis,G.; “Shapes of Cells in 7. Du Cauze de Nazelle, G.R.N.; “Thermal For all the foaming systems under Polymer Foams”, J. Applied Polymer Conductivity Ageing of Rigid Closed study, the results of the window Science, 7, pp. 947-957, (1963). Cell Polyurethane Foams”, Ph.D Thesis, 2. Gibson,L.J. and M.F. Ashby; “The thickness distribution indicated that Delft University of Technology, The Mechanics of Three-Dimensional Netherlands, (1995). the cell membrane was concaved in Cellular Materials”, Proc. R. Soc. Lond., shape with mean window thickness A382, pp.43-59, (1982). between 1 and 2 µm. Varying the
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Pinch And Exergy Analysis On A Brown-Boveri Steam Turbine Power Plant
M. Shuhaimi Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
D.Y. Lim Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia & Kejuruteraan Sumber Asli, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the application of pinch and exergy analysis on a Brown-Boveri regenerative steam turbine power plant (1955). Pinch and exergy analysis is a simple and cost-saving tool that is used to scope for potential improvement in power production and energy usage before going into detail design. Combined together, exergy analysis was able to locate the system’s inefficiency while pinch analysis was used to target potential improvement. The application of the analysis started by simulating and extracting stream data from the existing base case plant. Exergy targets were set by plotting and comparing the exergy of the system to the source of exergy from the fuel. Modifications were proposed on three areas namely, steam pressure, steam temperature and fuel consumption. Results from the analysis showed potential shaft work improvement from 837 MW to 844 MW or an increase by 0.8%. Thermal efficiency improved by 0.3% from 33.2 to 33.5%. Fuel rate reduction from 7609 kgmol/s to 7167 kgmol/s, or 6.2% saving, were also achieved. With rising concern on the efficient use of non-renewable energy source and the protection of our environment, every little improvement is a step forward.
Keywords Process Integration, Thermodynamics, Irreversibility, Efficiency.
INTRODUCTION Based on constant exergetic efficiency resulting in considerable burden on assumption, the application of the operational expenditure. For this Inefficiency of steam turbine power combine pinch and exergy analysis reason, every little improvement made generation systems has long been was able to target for shaft work possible in the power plant would be understood as a result of irreversibility generation with error of around 5% highly commendable. in real processes (El-Masri, 1985). The against detail simulations (Dhole and challenge for engineers is to identify Zheng, 1993). The small error is The method of pinch and exergy the locations and quantify the within an acceptable range for scoping analysis is based on the second law of magnitude of the irreversibility. A and screening options in process thermodynamics. Exergy is defined as practical and low cost method used design. the maximum work potential of a for the analysis of irreversibility is the system or of a particular form of method of pinch & exergy analysis. In this paper, a study was performed energy in relation to the environment The method allows engineers to target on a conventional regenerative steam (Kotas, 1986). For a system carrying the quantity of irreversibility and turbine power plant situated in an exergy source at some temperature determine its location before Weisweiler near Aachen, Germany T and discharging it to an exergy sink proposing modifications to improve (Brown-Boveri, 1955). The plant at ambient temperature To, the change the system’s efficiency. employs low-grade coal as fuel of exergy for the system, ∆Ex, as it
This paper was presented at the 14th Symposium of Malaysian Chemical Engineers, Putrajaya, 30-31 October, 2000.
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moves from the initial state, 1, to a data itself (Linnhoff, 1993). (3) final state, 2, can be written as, where η is the exergetic efficiency Pinch analysis is a method for Ex of the system. targeting the sources and sinks of exergy. This is achieved by plotting (1) METHODOLOGY composite curves made up of exergy The notations H and S are enthalpy sources and sinks and locating the The Brown-Boveri conventional and entropy respectively. For systems bottleneck or “pinch” point that put regenerative steam turbine power of liquids and gases at constant constraints on the efficient use of plant was simulated as a base-case pressure, the entropy function can be energy. If the excess of exergy sources system on Hysis process simulator. eliminated by combining the first and and sinks are plotted, the exergy grand Figure 1 shows the simplified second laws to yield, composite curve is obtained. The flowsheet of the power plant. The vertical and horizontal axes for the system under analysis was divided into (2) curve are (1-T /T ) and ∆H o LM two parts, namely the exergy supply respectively. An integration of the area and the exergy sink. Exergy supply is Here, the term TLM denotes the under the exergy grand composite provided by the furnace system which logarithmic average temperature curve provides the quantity of exergy employs bituminous coal as fuel with between an initial and final state. The for the system as depicted by equation 20% excess air. The base case errors in using the equation above (2). For a power plant system, the shaft operating conditions for the furnace were found to be as small as 0.2% work, W , generated from the system s system is shown in Table 1. which was within the accuracy of the can be estimated by equation (3),
FIGURE 1. Process Flowsheet for the Brown-Boveri Regenerative Steam Turbine Power Plant
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TABLE 1. Base Case Operating Conditions for the Furnace System
Parameters Values Acid Dewpoint temperature 167 °C Preheat Air Temperature 190 °C Stack temperature 290 °C Adiabatic Flame Temperature 2,158 °C
Exergy sink is the steam cycle system. The regenerative system is a set of preheat train employing a total of six feedwater heaters. An assumption of equal enthalpy rise was used for the simulation. This resulted in the feedwater temperature rise from 21 to 231 °C before entering the furnace. FIGURE 2. Exergy Grand Composite Curve for the Base Case System Initial data used for the simulation are shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2. Base Case Operating Conditions for the Regenerative Steam Cycle System
Parameters Values Steam Flowrate 1000 kg/s Steam Temperature 530 °C Steam Pressure 11372 kPa Condenser Pressure 5.39 kPa Turbine Efficiency 72 %
Stream data from the simulated base case were extracted and an exergy grand composite curve was generated using SuperTarget process integration software. The curve, on a Carnot factor versus enthalpy scale, is generated from excess data comprising exergy sources and sinks. The minimum approach temperature was FIGURE 3. Exergy Grand Composite Curve for Modification Option 1 selected by comparing the approach temperature of all heat exchange units in the system. For this study, a minimum approach temperature,
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∆ ° TMIN, of 12 C was used. Plots of exergy grand composite curve provide the required information for the exergy lost, hence the quantity of irreversibility, in the powerplant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
An exergy grand composite curve for the base case system is shown in Figure 2. Exergy source from the fuel values at 2,522 MW while exergy sink to the process was at 1,252 MW. This shows approximately 50% or 1,270 MW of exergy was lost due to irreversibility in the process. The power output from the plant is 837 MW resulting in low thermal efficiency of 33.2% for the power plant.
The large quantity of exergy lost (σT ) FIGURE 4. Exergy Grand Composite Curve For Modification Option 2 o indicates potential for system’s improvement. To assess the magnitude of improvement, process modification was applied on the operational parameters, namely the steam supply pressure, steam supply temperature and fuel supply rate .
Pressure Change Pressure increase in the system would increase the exergy sink to the process and reduce the overall exergy lost. A change from 11,372 kPa to 13,872 resulted in reduction of exergy lost σ ( To) from 1270 MW to 1265 MW. The power output would increase proportionally with the gain in exergy sink by 3.3 MW. Thermal efficiency increased by 0.1%. Figure 3 shows the exergy grand composite curve for the pressure change.
Temperature Change Temperature of steam exiting the furnace was raised from 530 to ° FIGURE 5. Grand Composite Curve for Furnace System 537 C. As shown in Figure 4, the modification resulted in an increase of exergy gain by 0.5%. Power generation was projected to increase by 4.0 MW, improving the thermal efficiency by 0.2%.
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Minimize Fuel Consumption increase by 0.8%. This is a compound REFERENCES The furnace grand composite curve, result from the proposed modification Brown-Boveri, 1955, “The First 150-MW shown in Figure 5, was modified to on the steam pressure and temperature Turbo-Generators in Europe,” The Brown get the minimum fuel rate and level. A 22% increase in steam Boveri Review, Vol. 42, No. 9, Baden minimum air preheat temperature. pressure showed a potential increase (Switzerland), pp. 335-389. The air preheat temperature was in thermal efficiency by 0.1%. Similar proposed at 190 °C while the acid operational changes of 1.3% on the Dhole, V.R. and J.P. Zheng, 1993, “Applying Combined Pinch and Exergy Analysis to dewpoint temperature and the stack steam temperature further resulted in Closed Cycle Gas Turbine System Design,” temperature at 167 °C and 170 °C increased thermal efficiency by 0.2%. Proceedings of ASME Cogen Turbo Power respectively. The proposed Matching and varying fuel rate and Conference, Bournemouth, U.K., Sept. 21-23. modification would result in 6.2% of the air-preheat temperature illustrated El-Masri, M.A., 1985, “On Thermodynamics 443 kg-mol/s savings on fuel potential savings of 6.2%. The fuel of Gas Turbine Cycles: Part I - Second Law consumption. savings equals to 443 kgmol/s of fuel Analysis of Combined Cycles,” ASME Journal rate at 170 °C stack temperature and of Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power, Vol. CONCLUSION 167 °C minimum air preheat 107, Oct., pp. 880-889. temperature. The results of pinch and Kotas, T.J., 1986, “Exergy Method of Thermal Pinch and exergy analysis were exergy analysis have provided and Chemical Plant Analysis,” Chem.Engng. performed on a Brown-Boveri steam magnitudes and directions for Res. Des., Vol. 64, May, pp. 212-228. turbine power generation system. The improvement in the operation of simulated base case plant showed steam turbine power generation Linnhoff, B., 1993, “Pinch Analysis and Exergy - A Comparison,” Proceedings of potential for improvement by system. This simple yet practical Energy Systems and Ecology Conference, reduction of exergy lost. The overall method would also result in cost Cracow, Poland, July 5-9. results from the analysis showed saving in engineering design practice potential shaft work improvement before going into detail design. from 837 MW to 844 MW or an
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English for Academic Purposes – An Investigation of Students’ Proficiency
Sumathi Renganathan Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Malaysia in its effort to become a centre for excellence in Education, has always realised the importance of English language. English has a Second Language status in this nation. With the recent establishment of private universities, where the medium of instruction is English, the role of English language among Malaysian students is becoming more important. This study aims to look at the English language proficiency level of students who will further their studies in private universities within Malaysia. It is vital to know the English language proficiency level of the students who will be studying in these private universities, to enable the language teachers to design courses that will help these students attain the appropriate proficiency level for effective communication in an academic environment. This study was carried out in one of the three, recently established private universities in Malaysia. The students entering the university have both the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) English grade accredited by The Malaysian Examination Syndicate and the 1119 English grade accredited by the University of Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate (UCLES). This paper aims to compare the grades awarded by these two accreditation bodies, and find out which gives a better indicator of the students’ proficiency in English language in order to be effective communicators in the academic environment. Students were also given an English Language Placement Test, which tests students’ competence in various areas of language especially grammar, reading comprehension, vocabulary and the structure of writing. The data obtained from this study will provide valuable information as to what should be incorporated and emphasised in the English language courses offered by the universities for effective communication.
INTRODUCTION 1993). After 1983, students entering linguists, but rather it is important institutions of higher learning in enough to be the next language afier the English language in Malaysia arrived Malaysia would have followed a school national language in the Malaysian with the colonisation of the Malay education where the medium is language planning, to be acquired by Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak during entirely in Bahasa Melayu. However, Malaysians in general.’ the late 18th century to the mid 20th by and large, English remains the (Asmah 1979;26) century. Thus, the multi-ethnic preferred language of business. It is groups in Malaysia were subtly also the language for interfacing with Therefore, English language is rapidly coerced to learn the English language foreign businessmen. approaching the position of a foreign from the early days of British language. This status has led to a colonialism. English is known to have a second general decline in the proficiency of language status in Malaysia but it is English language in this country. During the 70s and 80s, ‘…from the not a second language as understood Although concern over this issue is premier language of the colonial by linguists. now widespread and certain steps and government, it was steadily replaced projects have been undertaken by the by Bahasa Melayu as the language of ‘The status of English as the second most Malaysian Ministry of Education to administration, of the law courts, and important language as specified by the improve the teaching and learning of the medium of instructions at schools government does not mean that it is “the English (Tan, 1992), the decline in the and universities…’ (Asia Magazine, second language” as understood by standard of English is yet to be halted.
This paper was presented at the 12th World Congress of Applied Linguistics, Waseda University, Tokyo, 2 August, 1999.
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The recent 1997 Sijil Pelajaran The structure of the national educa- Local Examinations Malaysia (SPM) examination showed tion system is presented in Table 1. Syndicate (UCLES) for another decline in the results for Table 2 shows the time allotted to the overseas candidate but in the English language. The Ministry of teaching of English language in year 1997 students received Education reported that, despite the Malaysian government schools. two grades for the SPM all-round best SPM results recorded English paper – one given by in the country, English recorded the There are three public examinations the Malaysian Examination lowest level of passes – 63. 1%. The for schools in Malaysia and in each of Syndicate and a GCE “O” result deteriorated by 2.5% compared these a pass in English is not level grade issued by the with 1996. mandatory. UCLES.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1. Standard 6 Examination As stated earlier, after 1997 students English is one of 6 subjects tested. received two grades for the SPM The majority of students entering English paper. Thus, this paper has tertiary level education come from two 2. Form III (PMR) been modeled after the 1119 English types of government schools – the English is one of the 7-9 papers Paper which consists of three sections National and National-type schools. tested. i.e. The National schools uses Bahasa 1 Melayu as the medium of instruction 3 . Form V (SPM) 1. Paper 1 (1 ⁄2 hours) and English language is only taught i. English 322 Paper, one This section tests students on as a subject whereas, the National-type among 6-9 other papers understanding of texts, language uses Chinese/ Tamil language as the tested. usage and grammar and language medium of instruction and Bahasa ii. 1119 English Paper, initially forms and functions. The test Melayu and English language is taught all optional paper set by the instruments include multiple as a subject. University of Cambridge choice questions, ‘cloze’ passages, structured questions and reading Table 1 : Structure of the national education system comprehension.
1 Level Duration 2. Paper 2 (2 ⁄4 hours) Lower Primary (Standard 1 - 3) 3 years This section tests students’ ability Upper Primary (Staiidard 4 - 6) 3 years in writing essays and summarising Lower Secondary (Form I - III) 3 years texts. The essays include guided Upper Secondary (Form IV - V) 2 years essay writing and free-essay writing. Pre-University (Form VI) 2 years Source : Education Ministry of Malaysia 3. Paper 3 (40 minutes) This section tests students’ ability Table 2: Time allotted to the teaching of English language in Malaysian to read and understand a passage. government schools Questions asked will test students’ understanding of the passage. School Level Duration Students’ communication skills (minutes/week) will also be tested based on their Standard 1 - 3 240 National~Primary Standard 4 280 response to chosen stimulus such Standard 5 - 6 300 as pictures, diagrams and etc. Standard 3 120 National-Type Standard 4 160 ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN Primary Standard 5 - 6 200 HIGHER LEARNING Remove Class 200 INSTITUTIONS IN MALAYSIA Secondary School Form I - III 200 Form 4 - 5 200 The teaching of English to tertiary level students in Malaysia creates Source Education Ministry of Malaysia specific demands. The basic problem
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faced by higher learning institutions appropriate English language B, Appendix 1 for detail grading is that, students entering these proficiency for effective scheme). institutions have no more than communication in the academic field. intermediate-level English (Gaurdart, THE PLACEMENT TEST 1996). These students will, THE STUDY nonetheless, have to deal with The Placement Test was adapted from advanced academic concepts in their This study was carried out with the the Test of English as a Foreign studies, involving an attention to following objectives: Language (TOEFL) paper. Only two accuracy and detail in language, which sections of the TOEFL paper were they have not previously needed. 1. To determine the English adapted for this test, Section 2 – language proficiency level of Structure and Written Expression and English is not an entrance requirement students entering private Section 3 – Vocabulary and Reading for any of the public universities in universities in Malaysia by Comprehension. Section 1 – Listening Malaysia although English language comparing students’ SPM Comprehension was excluded. Proper classes are conducted by these English and the 1119 English facilities to accommodate all 167 universities. This is because medium grades. students for the listening test was not of instruction in public universities in available at the time this study was Malaysia is Bahasa Melayu. Some 2. To determine which gives a better carried out. The Placement Test was universities even make provisions for indicator of students’ proficiency a multiple choice question test, where exempting good students from in English language: the SPM students have to choose the best English classes. The instruments used English or the 1119 English answer from four options given. This for exemption vary from university to grade. test consists of fifty questions and for university and therefore, it is not calculation purposes the marks were possible to determine what level of 3. To identify the areas students are converted to percentages. The test proficiency in English is considered weak in, based on the Placement consists of four sections grammar, adequate for study in higher learning Test given by the university, and structure of writing, reading and institutions may it be private or thus, recommend what areas of vocabulary. public. language should be emphasised in the language courses offered by Grammar Many of the private universities in the university to enable students This section requires students to Malaysia use English language as the to communicate effectively in the identify errors, which involve medium of instruction. University academic environment. grammar or usage in order for the Teknologi PETRONAS is one such sentences to be correct. Here the university. The university decided that THE SAMPLE sentences have all the basic sentence students entering this university parts but each sentence has an error. should have at least a credit in the The sample for this study consists of The grammatical items tested are SPM English examination. 167 first year students. The sample word forms, verbs, pronouns, singular consists of both male and female and plural nouns, verbals, With the introduction of private students. All 167 students sat for the prepositions, and articles. universities where many of them are SPM English paper and obtained two using English as the medium of grades for the same paper. One was Structure of writing instruction, students at tertiary level awarded by the Malaysian This section consists of incomplete will face problems if they are not Examination Syndicate (SPM grading sentences. Some portion of each proficient in the English language. scheme). The second grade was given sentence has been replaced by a blank. Even in public universities where by UCLES (1119 grading scheme). Under each sentence, four words or lectures are conducted in Bahasa Please see Table A, Appendix 1. These phrases are listed. One of these Melayu majority of academic writing students also sat for a Placement Test completes the sentence grarnmatically in Malaysia is still in English. conducted during their first week at and logically at sentence level. The Therefore, it is very important that the university. The Placement Test items tested in this section are basic students who enter universities in was graded according to UTP’s sentence pattems, word order, relative Malaysia are equipped with the grading scheme (please refer to Table clauses, parallel structure, passive
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forms, participle phrases, comparisons FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS Comparison of the Placement Test and conjunctions. results with the SPM English and Comparison of the SPM and 1119 1119 English Grades. Reading Examination results This section contains two passages. Out of the 167 students, 85 students A correlation study of the Placement Both passages are informative (51%) obtained ‘Al’ according to the Test results with the SPM English and passages, which are similar to texts SPM English grading. But out of this, the 1119 English grades showed that students have to read for academic following the 1119 grading scheme the Placement Test results does have a purposes in the university. The only 6% obtained ‘A1’ and 16% correlation with both the other grades, questions in this section test students’ obtained ‘A2’. Sixty six percent (66%) although the Placement Test results ability to identify the main idea or obtained credits (C3, C4, C5 and C6) has a higher correlation with the 1119 topic of the whole passage, locate and whereas 12% obtained only a ‘pass’ English grades as compared to the identify answers to questions about (P7 & P8). Refer to Table 3. SPM English grades (refer to Table C, specific information in the passage and Appendix 1). draw conclusions based on Twenty-three percent of the students information in the passage. who took part in this survey obtained The results of the Placement Test an ‘A2’ in the SPM English. Out of revealed that only five students (3%) Vocabulary this, following the 1119 grading obtained an ‘A’ while six students (4%) This section tests students’ ability to scheme no one obtained distinctions obtained a ‘B+’ and twenty-nine choose a suitable word from the four (A1 or A2), 44% obtained credits (C3, students (17%) obtained a ‘B’. The options given to complete a sentence. C4, C5 and C6) while majority of Placement Test also revealed that sixty- Sentences in this section concern a them (56%) obtained just a ‘pass’, (P7 three students (38%) were in the ‘C’ variety of academic subjects. Students or P8). See Table 4. category (C+ and C) while thirty- need to identify a suitable word for seven students (22%) obtained a ‘D’. the sentence based on contextual Forty-three students (26%) obtained Twenty-seven students (16%) failed clues. This section does not test credits based on the SPM English the Placement Test. Please refer to grammar because almost all the grading scheme and this result Table 6 for a summary of these options fit into the sentences equally compared to the 1119 grading scheme findings. well. revealed that only 11% of these forty- three students obtained credits while A comparison study of the Placement majority of the students (77%) Test with the SPM and 1119 grading obtained a ‘pass’ (P7 or P8) and 12% scheme revealed that students who failed (F9). Please refer to Table 5. obtained an ‘A’ in the Placement Test
Table 3: Details of grades in Table 4: Details of grades in 1119 Table 5: Details of grades in 1119 1119 of students who obtained ‘A1’ of students who obtained ‘A2’ in of students who obtained Credits in in SPM English SPM English SPM English
SPM 1119 SPM 1119 SPM 1119 English Grade English Grade English Grade English Grade English Grade English Grade A1 - 6% C3 - 3% C5 - 2% A2 - 16% C4 - 3% C6 - 9% C3 - 24% A2 (23%) C5 - 5% C3 - C6(26%) P7 - 30% A1 (51%) C4 - 21% C6 - 33% P8 - 47% C5 - 12% P7 - 51% F9 - 12% C6 - 9% P8 - 5% P7 - 11% P8 - 1%
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SPM grading scheme and the Table 6: Summary of Students’ Placement Test results Placement Test might not be an Placement Test SPM English Grade 1119 English Grade accurate reflection of the actual (Total number of students) (Majority of students) (Majority of students) proficiency of the students in English A - 5 A1 - 5 A2 - 3 language. It does not conclude that students who did well in the SPM B+ - 6 A1 - 6 A2 - 2 English paper must also have done C3 - 2 well in the Placement Test or vice versa B- 29 A1 - 25 A2 - 5 because of the difference in the skills C3 - 11 tested. Although it would not be C+ - 41 A1 - 23 C6 - 6 entirely wrong to assume that students P7 - 14 who are genuinely proficient in the C - 22 A1 - 7 C6 - 6 English language should obtain A2 - 9 P7 - 10 similar results in both the Placement Test and the SPM English paper, this D - 37 A1 - 16 C6 - 7 study did not reveal a clear indication A2 - 9 P7 - 8 C3 - 9 P8 - 7 to confirm this assumption. This could mean that certain skills tested F - 27 Al - 16 P7 - 9 in SPM English paper could very well A2 - 9 P8 - 10 carry more weight than the other skills tested, in determining the final grades students’ obtained for English. (6 students) had obtained distinctions ‘C6’ or ‘P7’ following the 1119 (A1) following the SPM grading grading scheme. Analysis ofThe Placement Test scheme. Out of these five students, The Placement Test was an attempt only three students had obtained Thirty-seven students obtained a ‘D’ to find out which aspects of the distinctions (A2) following the 1119 in the Placernent Test. Out of this, English language the students are grading scheme. majority of them (twenty-five weak at. The results of the test showed students) had obtained an ‘A1’ or ‘A2’ that majority of the students made the Among the students who obtained a following the SPM grading scheme. most mistakes in grammar and ‘B’ and ‘B+’ in the Placement Test Following the 1119 grading scheme, vocabulary, followed by structure of (thirty-five students), majority of majority (twenty-two students) out of writing and finally reading. This is them (thirty-one students) had those who obtained ‘D’ in the obtained by comparing the mean obtained an ‘A1’ following the SPM Placement Test, had only managed to number of mistakes in each area tested grading scheme, while following the obtain either a ‘C6’, ‘P7’ or ‘P8’. in the Placement Test (refer to Figure 1119 grading scheme, only seven 1). This indicates that majority of the students had obtained an ‘A2’ and Twenty-seven students (16%) failed students are weak in grammar and another thirteen students had the Placement Test. Among these vocabulary as well as the structure of obtained a ‘C3’, while the rest had students, majority (twenty-five writing although they don’t seem to varying grades ranging from a ‘C4’ to students) had obtained either an ‘A1’ have problems in reading and ‘P8’. or ‘A2’ following the SPM grading understanding what has been read. scheme. Following the 1119 grading Based on the Placement Test, sixty- scheme, majority of these students CONCLUSIONS AND three students obtained either a ‘C’ or (nineteen students) had only managed RECOMMENDATIONS ‘C+’. Among these students, majority to obtain either a ‘P7’ or ‘P8’. of them (thirty-nine students) had This study revealed that the SPM obtained either an ‘A1’ or ‘A2’ It should be noted that the sections grading scheme is not an accurate following the SPM grading scheme. tested in the Placement Test and the indicator of students’ proficiency in Out of these same number of students SPM English paper were different. English Language. This study (who obtained a ‘C’ or ‘C+’ in the The SPM English paper has three indicates that there does not seem to Placement Test), majority (thirty-six sections. Therefore the comparison be a distinct discrimination of students) had only obtained either a between grades obtained following the students’ grades based on the SPM-
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5 students to perform effectively for academic purposes.
Students who currently enter institutions of higher learning in Malaysia still use the grades they had 4 obtained following either the SPM- grading scheme or the 1119-grading scheme. There is also an introduction to a new English language test named the Malaysian University English Test 3 (MUET) which will commence in December 1999. This new test is a compulsory test to be taken by all students wishing to enter institutions of higher learning in Malaysia although it is not mandatory to pass Mean (number of mistakes) 2 this test. Since this test has not been administered yet, this study is not able to investigate MUET. Although this study only attempted to find a general understanding of students’ proficiency 1 in the English language when they grammar reading structure of vocabulary enter institutions of higher leaimng in writing Malaysia, it does reveal valuable Areas Tested in Placement Test information which should be taken into consideration to help these Figure 1 . Mean number of mistakes made students perform effectively in the by students in the Placement Test academic environment. Therefore, grades from any language proficiency examination that is accepted by an grading scheme (refer to Table 6). although students had obtained very institution of higher learning must Students who obtained a ‘C’, ‘D’ or good grades following the SPM and definitely be monitored by that ‘F’ in the Placement Test had obtained the 1119 grading schemes, they respective institution. Every distinctions (Al and A2) following the showed lack of mastery in certain institution must have a form of testing SPM-grading scheme as compared to aspects of language that were tested the language proficiency of students the 1119 grading scheme where these in the Placement Test. The Placement that will be entering the institution students obtained either a ‘C6’, ‘P7’, Test indicated that students were still and only then can an institution or ‘P8’. This shows that a distinction weak in vocabulary, grammar and determine if a qualification from a (Al and A2) following the SPM- sentence structure. Therefore, this language proficiency test is sufficient grading scheme falls on a very broad study reveals that although students or adequate to meet the needs of its scale whereby students who are very may enter the university with very students. The results of this study proficient in the English language and good grades following the SPM- managed to show that grades from a students who are less proficient in this grading scheme or the 1119 grading proficiency test does not provide and language can still obtain distinctions scheme, they would still need English accurate reflection of students’ (Al and A2). Therefore, this study language lessons in the areas that they proficiency in the English language as shows that the 1119-grading scheme are weak at as shown by the Placement needed by an institution. This could offers a better indicator of students’ Test. Thus, language departments in be because the skills needed by higher proficiency in this language. higher learning institutions will still learning institutions may very much need to provide lessons on areas such differ from what is emphasised in The Placement Test revealed that as grammar, vocabulary and writing schools. proper sentence structures to enable
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The researcher concedes that this is APPENDIX I not a conclusive study. The test instruments used only provided some Table A: SPM and 1119 Grading Scheme information on students’ proficiency in reading and writing, while listening Grade SPM 1119 and speaking skills were completely A1 and A2 Distinction Distinction disregarded. Therefore, it is suggested C3, C4, C5, C6 Pass-with-credit Ordinary-level-pass based on this study, that a comprehensive test must be designed P7 and P8 Pass Fail that would test students’ proficiency F9 Fail in English language. The test instruments must be designed to Source : Education Ministry of Malaysia measure all four components of language i.e. Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. Thus, a Table B: Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS’ Grading Scheme comprehensive test conducted by the university would be able to provide Percentage Grade valuable information as to the level of 80 - 100 A proficiency that students who enter 75 - 79.9 B+ higher learning institutions have. This in return will enable higher learning 65 - 74.9 B institutions to develop language 55 - 64.9 C+ courses that would bridge the gap in 50 - 54.9 C language needs between secondary and tertiary education. 40 - 49.9 D Below 40 F References
Asia Magazine. 1993. Vol.31, No 11-14, April 23 - 25. Table C: Correlation of the Placement Test results with the SPM English Asmah Haji Omar 1979. Language Planning for Unity and Efficiency. Kuala Lumpur: and the 1119 English grades University of Malaya Press. SPM 1119 Placement Gaudart, H., Hughes, R. and Michael, J. 1996. Towards Better English Grammar. Fajar Bakti Test Sdn. Bhd. Malaysia. SPM 1.000 0.717** –0.531** Pearson Gerson, S.J. and Gerson, S.M. 1997. Technical 1119 0.717** 1.000 –0.657** Writing: Process and Product, second edition. Correlation Prentice Hall: New Jersey. Placement Test –0.531** –0.657** 1.000
Leki, Ilona. 1995. Academic Writing Note: ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Exploring Process and Strategies, second edition. St. Martin’s Press: New York.
Rogers, B. 1993. The Complete Guide to TOEFL. Heinle & Heinle Publishers: USA.
Tan, S.H. 1992. The Role of English in Malaysia. Paper presented at the conference on The Role of Foreign Language in Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur.
TOEFL Practice Tests, fifth edition. 1995. Educational Testing Service, Princeton: New Jersey.
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Designing Computer Laboratories: A Malaysian University’s Experience
Suziah Sulaiman Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
This paper focuses on campus facilities, namely computer labs in higher learning institutions. The main objective is to determine the type of computer labs needed to support the Information Technology/ Information Systems (IT/IS) curriculum and their research activities. It is necessary to examine the curriculum in order to design computer labs which are robust and responsive enough to meet the changing needs in education.
An investigation based on the IT/IS curriculum at Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) was conducted for this research purpose. The exercise involved dividing the curriculum into five major groups: programming, multimedia, networking, application, others (project, seminar, research). These groups were used as a basis for participants in the investigation to propose suitable computer labs to support the curriculum.
The findings suggested two major categories of labs: dedicated teaching labs and dedicated research labs. For each category, several types of labs were proposed. Another type, which is flexible lab, was also suggested to facilitate independent learning. All these program-driven labs possess two inter-related characteristics which are flexible and of multiple-usage. It is envisaged that the proposed labs are able to support the current trend in the IT/IS curriculum and to accommodate any changes in the future.
Keywords: Computer labs, data communication lab, usability lab, virtual reality lab, multimedia lab
INTRODUCTION Today’s educational institutions are This paper will present a accredited mainly on the basis of the recommendation for designing Current trends in education, job quality of their curriculum, campus computer labs in higher education. In market demands and impact of new facilities, resource centre and research order to determine what types of labs technologies are influencing the credentials of faculty [2]. Higher are appropriate and needed, the approach in the teaching and learning educational institutions are facing a current patterns associated with the process [1]. In higher education, there challenge to provide excellent academic programme issues need is a significant shift from traditional programs together with well-equipped investigating. A report on issues and teaching to practical education, campus facilities such as state-of-the- emerging trends in higher education project-based and independent art classrooms, laboratories, resource has noted that independent learning, learning [2]. This is to produce and research centres. It is then practical education and project-based graduates with adequate skills to meet necessary to ensure that the learning normally make up the pattern industry needs. The advancement in technology is sufficiently available in in academic programmes [1]. This technologies also plays an important the classrooms, libraries, computer report emphasises two significant areas role in accelerating these changes. labs and departments. in higher education, namely teaching
This paper was presented at the International Conference on Computers in Education, Chiba, Japan, 4-7 November, 1999.
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and research-based learning. The provided as to why such a lab was Just like those labs in the dedicated present investigation thus addresses needed. teaching category, the data the question: communication, usability, virtual FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS reality, project, research labs are also • What are the types of computer designed based on the IT/IS labs needed to support the Based on the reported work which curriculum requirements. However, Information Technology/ emphasised practical and project- they are categorised under dedicated Information Systems (IT/IS) based education as mentioned in research because of their intended curriculum and their research Section 1, participants suggested that functions, namely, to support activities? the computer labs should be grouped intensive research activities. These labs into two major categories: dedicated are also designed to promote and METHODOLOGY teaching and dedicated research. The enhance collaboration between the former was designed for students to university and industry in order to The investigation was carried out by put their theoretical knowledge into establish a win-win relationship. The analysing the IT/IS curriculum at practice. Tutorials and lab sessions university can offer companies the Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS would be heavily scheduled in this lab. opportunities to invest in research (UTP) [3]. The curriculum was On the other hand, the latter was for work by transferring IT knowledge previously reviewed by a team of local conducting research activities and also and skills [4,5]. The research carried and foreign experts. For this acted as an extension of the teaching out would result in usable and investigation, the curriculum is lab. innovative products, which could divided into 5 major groups based on benefit not only the university but the the nature of courses. As the suggested categories were too community as well. broad and general, the participants • Programming suggested that a further refinement To address the independent learning • Application was needed. Several types of labs were issue as mentioned in Section 1, a • Multimedia proposed for each category. It was flexible lab is proposed. This lab is • Others: project, seminar, research necessary to have various types so as neither dedicated teaching nor • Networking to cater for the five major groups of research. Its intended function is to courses offered as mentioned in facilitate students’ independent The exercises involved a series of Section 2. It was suggested that learning, which includes online brainstorm sessions carried out by all programming, application and learning. Students could do their own members of the IT/IS programme multimedia labs be under the work without interruption from any staff. The team consisted of eight dedicated teaching category, whereas scheduled classes and tutorials. lecturers and three trainee lecturers. data communication, usability, virtual They were to decide on the type of reality, project and research were Even though the categories and types labs required in supporting the suggested for the dedicated research of labs proposed are to address the IT/ programmes based on the courses lab. These findings are summarised in IS curriculum, their usage can be offered. During the brainstorm Table 1. extended to other programmes. sessions, techniques involving Computer-related courses which scenario-based design [4,5] were used It can be seen from Table 1 that involve programming, simulation and to facilitate the discussions. These programming, application and evaluation can still utilise the IT/IS techniques required a consensus from multimedia labs are suggested based lab facilities. This is to encourage all participants before any decision was on the list of courses offered. They are interdisciplinary sharing of made. generic enough to accommodate any information and resources among all changes in the future. There will be programmes in the university. After completing these tasks, no major effect on the type of labs participants were to document their even if new courses are introduced CONCLUSION findings and justify their later. These labs will be equipped with recommendations. For example, if Computer Based Training (CBT) This paper has highlighted findings anyone in the team suggested a software to assist in the teaching and on an investigation, which determines particular lab, a justification should be practical activities. the types of computer labs needed to
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Table 1: Proposed computer laboratories and their functions CATEGORY NATURE OF LAB & JUSTIFICATION LIST OF COURSES Dedicated Teaching Programming Consists of programming language compiler Intro to C++, Object Oriented Program, Database Sys., • To enable students to develop computer Advance Database, Operating Systems, Advance Operating programs Systems, Techniques of Database Admin, Decision Support Sys, Artificial Intelligence, Commercial Program, Information Systems Analysis, Discrete Mathematics
Application Consists of application programs such as Computers & Info. Age, Computer Organisation, Software business, engineering and sciences Engineering, Systems Development Tools & Techniques, • To enable students to write their reports, Computer Project Management, Mathematics projects and coursework • To support non-programming and introductory courses
Multimedia Includes multimedia related software Computer Graphics, Human Computer Interactions, consisting textual, audio & video Interactive Multimedia, Multimedia Technology, Network • To enable students to develop interactive Multimedia System applications
Dedicated Research Data Communication Consists of tools for designing and networking Data Communication, Multimedia Technology, Network installation Multimedia, Operating Systems • To enable students to obtain “hands-on” experience in networking
Usability Consists of equipment and facilities for testing Human Computer Interactions, dedicated to research work product usability • To support projects or researches involving the usefulness of a particular product or system Virtual Reality (VR) Consists of equipment and facilities for Artificial Intelligence, dedicated to research work designing VR • To support projects or researches which involve developing virtual environment
Project Consists of all facilities as in the Dedicated Projects Teaching labs • To support specially the final year students’ individual project work
Research Consists of all facilities as in the Dedicated Research work Teaching labs with additional of groupware application • To support post graduate students’ research and their special interest group
Others Flexible Consists of all facilities as in Dedicated All courses as listed in Programming, Application and Teaching labs and for online learning purposes Multimedia laboratories. • To facilitate independent learning as it acts as a learning resource centre
PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000 63 PLATFORM • Volume 1 Number 2 • July – December 2000
support the IT/IS curriculum and Acknowledgement [4] Karat J, Scenario use in the Design of a their research activities. Two categories The authors would like to thank Dr Abas Md Speech Recognition System, In Scenario- Said, Normashida, George Cheah, Hasnah and Based Design: Envisioning Work and of labs are recommended based on a Sumathi for reviewing the earlier drafts. Technology in System Development, reported work: dedicated teaching and Carroll J.M. (ed.), John Wiley & Sons, dedicated research. From the References Inc. (1995) investigation, which analysed the [1] Report on Issues and Emerging Trends [5] Nielsen J., Scenarios in Discount respective curriculum at UTP, several in Higher Education, In Universiti Usability Engineering, In Scenario-Based Teknologi PETRONAS Master Plan Design: Envisioning Work and types of labs under each category were Study, Vol. III, (1997) (unpublished). Technology in System Development, proposed. The intended functions of [2] Coopers& Lybrand, The Transformation Carroll J.M. (ed.), John Wiley & Sons, the labs include supporting teaching of Higher Education in the Digital Age, Inc. (1995) and learning, encouraging Coopers& Lybrand L.L.P, (1998). (Also [6] Maier et al, Using Technology in available at http://consulting.us. Teaching and Learning, Kogan Page, interdisciplinary sharing of resources coopers.com/HIGHEDU/index.htm). London, (1998). and promoting collaboration between [3] Dokumen Permohonan Perakuan [7] Lee WE and Rhinehart RR, Do We the university and industry. The Akreditasi, Bachelor of Technology Really Want “Academic Excellence”?, suggested categories and types of labs (Hons.) Information Technology, Chemical Engineering Progress, (1997). are flexible and broad enough to cover Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia, (1998) a wide range of IT/IS courses. These (unpublished). labs are able not only to support the current trends in the IT/IS curriculum but also to accommodate any changes in the future.
64 Universiti Teknologi Petronas • http://www.utp.edu.my NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Instructions to Authors Authors of articles that fit the aims, scopes and policies of this journal are invited to submit soft and hard copies to the editor. Paper should be written in English. Authors are encouraged to obtain assistance in the writing and editing of their papers prior to submission. For papers presented or published elsewhere, also include the details of the conference or seminar.
Manuscript should be prepared in accordance with the following: 1. The text should be preceded by a short abstract of 50-100 words and four or so keywords. 2. The manuscript must be typed on one side of the paper, double- spaced throughout with wide margins not exceeding 3,500 words although exceptions will be made. 3. Figures and tables have to be labelled and should be included in the text. Authors are advised to refer to recent issues of the journals to obtain the format for references. 4. Footnotes should be kept to a minimum and be as brief as possible; they must be numbered consecutively. 5. Special care should be given to the preparation of the drawings for the figures and diagrams. Except for a reduction in size, they will appear in the final printing in exactly the same form as submitted by the author. 6. Reference should be indicated by the authors’ last names and year of publications.
Publisher Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Bandar Seri Iskandar 31750 Tronoh Perak Darul Ridzuan MALAYSIA PLATFORM
Volume 1 Number 2 Jul - Dec 2000
Facilitating Learning of Engineering Graphics 2 Instead of Learning CAD System A. Majdi Abd Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab, Rahmat Shaarani & Dr. Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz.
Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in Hydrocarbon Exploration 8 – Subsidence Monitoring of the Offshore Platform Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan
Influence Of Some Parameters On The Efficiency Of A Solar 12 Collector Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fauziah Sulaiman
The Tensile Characteristics Of Fibre Reinforced Bituminous Mixtures 17 Ir. Dr. Ibrahim Kamaruddin
Stratigraphic Position of Rangsi Conglomerate in Sarawak 25 Dr Ismail Che Mat Zin
Development Of Agriculture In Malaysia: 32 The Case of the Rice Sector Dr. Mohammed Halib
The Application Of Interference Optical Microscopy In Measuring 45 Window Thickness Of Rigid Polyurethane Foams Dr. Puteri S Megat-Yusoff & Prof. A. J. Ryan
Pinch And Exergy Analysis On A Brown-Boveri Steam 49 Turbine Power Plant M. Shuhaimi & D. Y. Lim
English for Academic Purposes – 54 An Investigation of Students’ Proficiency Sumathi Renganathan
Designing Computer Laboratories: 61 A Malaysian University’s Experience Suziah Sulaiman & Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli