PROSTOR POSEBNI OTISAK/ 200-215 Znanstveni Prilozi Alma Zavodniklamovšek Samo Drobne

25 [2017]2[54] A SCHOLARLYJOURNALOFARCHITECTUREANDURBANPLANNING ZNANSTVENI ÈASOPISZAARHITEKTURUIURBANIZAM UDK | CODEN PORREV ISSN 1330-0652 7-12 [2017] 171-440 25 [2017]2[54] ARCHITECTURE FACULTY OF OF ZAGREB, UNIVERSITY FAKULTET ARHITEKTONSKI U ZAGREBU, SVEUÈILIŠTE UDC

71/72 PROSTOR POSEBNI OTISAK/ 200-215 Znanstveni prilozi Alma ZavodnikLamovšek Samo Drobne

Scientific Papers SEPARAT Level intheCaseofSlovenia Development PolicyattheRegional as InstrumentsofSpatial Functional UrbanAreas UDC 711.122(497.4)”19/20” Original ScientificPaper OFFPRINT UDK 711.122(497.4)”19/20” Izvorni znanstvenièlanak na primjeruSlovenije razvoja naregionalnojrazini kao instrumentpolitikeprostornog Funkcionalna urbanapodruèja 200

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of functional urban areas [FUAs] and their spatial definition Sl. 1. Shematski prikaz funkcionalnih urbanih podruèja i njihova prostorna definicija PROSTOR Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi 25[2017] 2[54] 201

Samo Drobne, Alma Zavodnik Lamovšek

University of Ljubljana Sveuèilište u Ljubljani Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Fakultet graðevinarstva i geodezije Slovenia - 1000 Ljubljana, Jamova cesta 2 Slovenija - 1000 Ljubljana, Jamova cesta 2 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Original Scientific Paper Izvorni znanstveni èlanak UDC 711.122(497.4)”19/20” UDK 711.122(497.4)”19/20” Technical Sciences / Architecture and Urban Planning Tehnièke znanosti / Arhitektura i urbanizam 2.01.02. - Urban and Physical Planning 2.01.02. - Urbanizam i prostorno planiranje Article Received / Accepted: 26. 9. 2017. / 13. 12. 2017. Èlanak primljen / prihvaæen: 26. 9. 2017. / 13. 12. 2017.

Functional Urban Areas as Instruments of Spatial Development Policy at the Regional Level in the Case of Slovenia Funkcionalna urbana podruèja kao instrument politike prostornog razvoja na regionalnoj razini na primjeru Slovenije

functional urban area funkcionalno urbano podruèje functional urban region funkcionalna urbana regija regional level regionalna razina Slovenia Slovenija spatial development prostorni razvoj

Over the recent decades, the concept of functional urban areas [FUAs] has Koncept funkcionalnih urbanih podruèja zaživio je tijekom posljednjih deset- been relatively independently established in many countries around the ljeæa, relativno nezavisno u mnogim zemljama širom svijeta. U ovome se èlan- world. The paper first addresses the FUA concepts and their application. ku razmatra koncept funkcionalnih urbanih podruèja i njihova primjena. Zatim Thereafter, a FUA analysis is conducted using an adapted version of the se taj koncept analizira putem adaptirane verzije metodologije koju koristi methodology used by OECD and Eurostat on the case of Slovenia. Results OECD i Eurostat na primjeru Slovenije. Rezultati pokazuju da je postojeæa showed that the existing network of urban centres is solid enough so that mreža urbanih centara dovoljno èvrsta kako bi se oko njih formirala funkcio- FUAs are formed around them, which will in time grow into more solidly nalna urbana podruèja koja æe vremenom prerasti u funkcionalne regije s pre- delineated functional regions [FRs]. poznatljivim obrisima. PROSTOR 202 2[54] 25[2017] 200-215 S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK Functional Urban Areas… Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

INTRODUCTION In view of the aforementioned starting points, we want to answer the research question, i.e. UVOD whether the existing network of urban centres in Slovenia is solid enough so that FUAs are formed around them, which can in time grow into more solidly delineated functional urban regions [FURs] or even functional regions [FRs]. Therefore, the paper first pro- vides the definitions of a functional region [FR], a functional urban region [FUR], and a functional urban area [FUA], and an overview of these concepts in Europe. Then we analyse and provide a proposal of functional urban areas of urban centres, which provide the framework of Slovenia’s polycentric urban network6, and which will, according to the latest strategic documents of Slovenia’s development, continue to take on the role of engines of regional development. The gradual strengthening of regional identity will in the future help to identify and delineate space into functional urban regions and/or functional regions, which will assume the role of provinces, as specified in Article 143 of the Constitution of the RS.7

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND TEORIJSKA PODLOGA I n recent years Slovenia has seen a revival of The concept of functional systems in space is strategic documents and a revision of legisla- derived from the idea of functional areas as tion in the areas key to connecting develop- complex, open, dynamic, and non-linear sys- ment and spatial objectives at the regional tems, which operate based on functional in- level. This paper focuses on one of the main teractions between larger and smaller spatial goals in establishing the regional level, which units.8 A functional area is a dynamic system, will ”through gradual searching for solutions which is to be distinguished from administra- within the framework of functional regions, tively defined areas such as administrative/ with a strong development function, consoli- statistical/development regions and prov- date regional identity and pave the way to inces. It is precisely because of these dynam- the establishment of regions”.1 ic features that functional areas are important when analysing economic, social, and The already adopted Local Self-Government environmental development as the basis for Strategy2 addresses the vital role and func- making important decisions relevant to de- tion of city municipalities as Slovenia’s devel- velopment.9 The concepts of functional urban opment centres and largely also centres of areas and functional urban regions are thus development regions, which thereby take on the vital role of connecting cities and rural ar- 1 Vlada RS, 2016: 15 eas in their area of influence. 2 Vlada RS, 2016 In the Development Vision and Goals of Slo- 3 MOP, 2016 3 4 Zavodnik Lamovšek, Drobne, 2017 venia , urban centres (towns, cities, and con- 5 Vlada RS, 2016 urbations) were also recognised as potential 6 MOP, 2004 engines of development at the regional level; 7 *** 2006 as part of preparations for the Spatial Devel- 8 Tomaney, Ward, 2000 opment Strategy of Slovenia 2050, the minis- 9 Vanhove, Klaassen, 1987 try responsible for spatial planning commis- 10 Drobne et al., 2011 sioned the study Functional Urban Areas4 to 11 Antikainen, 2005 check the possibility of establishing function- 12 Drobne, 2017 al urban areas whose centres could, under 13 *** 1958 the existing legislation and complemented by 14 Christaller, 1933 15 Coombes et al., 1979; ESPON 1.1.1 2005; ESPON 1.1.2 cross-sectoral cooperation, carry out the 2004; Benini et al., 2007; OECD, 2013a, 2013b; Coombes, function of regional centres until the estab- 2014; ESPON 2014; Eurostat, 2015 lishment of provinces.5 16 *** 2013a, 2013b PROSTOR Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Functional Urban Areas… S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK 200-215 25[2017] 2[54] 203

intended for the analysis of (urban) settle- neously covers a territory (e.g. a country). A ment development, expansion of economic FUR can be defined as a territorial unit at the activities, analysis and solving of social and NUTS 2 or NUTS 3 level of a region. A FUR is spatial disparity, disparity in the labour mar- spatially less adaptable and more dependent ket, and as a development support in all spa- on the data acquisition methodology or data tial levels.10 Here we refer to the integration processing than a FUA.19 A functional region into the wider European space as a possibili- [FR] is a system of strongly connected BDUs ty of implementing the adopted goals and defined as a generalisation of the spatial measures at regional and local level. pattern of interactions in a territorial unit.20 The literature often addresses the following FUNCTIONAL AREAS AND REGIONS spatial interactions: population flows, traffic and goods flows, commodity flows, financial FUNKCIONALNA PODRUÈJA I REGIJE flows, information flows, gas/water/electric- 21 Nowadays, the importance of urban areas ity flows, and similar. FRs, FURs, and FUAs and urban regions11 is stressed in relation to are most often defined according to economic interactions, particularly in relation to la- urban and regional systems, as urban centres 22 are among the main considerations of social bour commuting flows. development. Here the concepts of function- When defining FUAs we thus consider an ar- al urban areas and functional urban regions ray of indicators, such as the number of resi- are often exposed; they are intended mostly dents, labour commuting flows, number of to analyse and solve social and spatial dis- passengers in public transport systems, num- parities between various impact areas of ber of students in higher education centres, cities, city centres and other similar prob- number of companies in cities, the amount of lems, such as urban development, expansion goods carried, number of accommodation ca- of economic activities, and labour market pacities, created gross value added, and ad- disparities.12 ministrative function of urban centres.23 FUAs A functional urban area [FUA] is a functionally (also FURs) are modelled around urban cen- connected area of an urban centre and its tres that can be selected by agreement or catchment area. Berry and Garrison13 consid- based on quantitative criteria (population er the urban centre as a central place from density, number of permanent residents in an Christaller’s Central Place Theory14, whose urban centre area, percentage of residents size depends on the scope of goods and ser- both living and working in an urban centre vices that it offers to the inhabitants from area, percentage of population of an urban near and remote catchment areas. A FUA is centre working in another urban centre of the usually defined as an aggregation of basic same FUA, etc.). FUA (and FUR) centres are most often defined using high density areas data units [BDUs] from which a certain per- 24 centage of working age population com- which are the core of an urban area. The 15 concept of FURs has been most widely used mutes to work daily. In the literature, BDUs 25 are usually municipalities or wards in the UK. in France, Canada, and the Unites States. 16 17 18 FUAs, as well as FRs and FURs, can be mod- According to OECD , ESPON , and Eurostat , 26 FUAs consist of BDUs from which at least 15% elled in various spatial hierarchical levels. of working age population commutes to The material for preparing the Spatial Devel- work. A functional urban region [FUR] is a opment Strategy of Slovenia 205027 consid- functional urban area defined as a territorial ers a FUA as a functionally connected area of unit that together with other FURs homoge- an urban centre and its catchment area, whose size depends on the range of goods 17 *** 2014 and services that it offers to the inhabitants 18 *** 2015 from near and remote catchment areas. FUAs 19 ESPON 1.1.1 2004; ESPON 1.1.2 2004; Benini et al., are understood as overlapping areas which 2007; Coombes, 2014 do not necessarily cover the entire Slovenian 20 Vanhove, Klaassen, 1987 territory (Fig. 1). 21 Drobne, 2016 22 Drobne, 2016 USING THE CONCEPT OF FUNCTIONAL 23 Coombes et al., 1979; ESPON 1.1.1 2004; ESPON 1.1.2 2004; Zavodnik Lamovšek, 2005; ÖIR, 2006; ESPON 1.4.3 SYSTEMS IN EUROPE 2007; Pichler Milanoviæ et al., 2008; Drobne et al., 2010; Lisec et al., 2010; OECD, 2013a; Coombes, 2014; ESPON KORIŠTENJE FUNKCIONALNIH SUSTAVA 2014; Eurostat 2015; Zavodnik Lamovšek, Drobne, 2017 U EUROPI 24 Antikainen, 2005 25 OECD, 2002 The studies concerning the concept of func- 26 Drobne, 2017 tional systems in Europe drew inspiration 27 Zavodnik Lamovšek, Drobne 2017 from the studies conducted in the US in the 28 More in: Zavodnik Lamovšek [ed.], 2011 1970s.28 The study Growth Centres in the Eu- 29 Hall, Hay, 1980 ropean Urban System29 is the first attempt at PROSTOR 204 2[54] 25[2017] 200-215 S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK Functional Urban Areas… Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

Fig. 2 15 gravity areas of two-stage-structured centres of national significance in 2004 Sl. 2. 15 gravitacijskih podruèja centara od nacionalnog znaèaja u 2004.

a comparative study of cities and urban areas area. The study using the FUA concept as de- of Europe vis-à-vis the American study by fined by Hall and Hay35 analysed the changes Berry from 1973.30 The study addressed the in the development of urban areas (centre- development of metropolitan areas consist- ring in a FUR) in the period 1950-1975. The ing of an urban core and its outlying belt. The outer ring is defined narrower than by Hall central city area is in most cases densely and Hay36 and includes all the municipalities populated and urbanised. The thus defined from which at least 15% of working-age pop- functional urban regions homogeneously ulation commutes to work to the central ur- cover the entire country territory. ban area. This definition was then used in 10 Western European and 4 Eastern European Based on the methodology by Hall and Hay31, countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and Cheshire and Hay32 identified 122 urban re- Yugoslavia), mostly based on census data for gions in 12 EU member states with a popula- the period 1950-1970. The comparative stud- tion over 330,000 and a central city area with ies by Hall and Hay37 and van den Berg et al.38 more than 200,000 inhabitants for the peri- were followed by national studies investigat- ods between 1971-1981 and 1981-1988. The ing urbanisation processes in France39, Den- study was commissioned by EU with the pur- mark40, Switzerland41, Austria42, Germany43, pose of identifying urban regions with nega- The Netherlands44, Ireland45, United King- tive population and employment growth and dom46, Italy47, and elsewhere. with structural problems. In the study, they defined the criteria for distributing funding Later, in the 1990s, comparative studies of from European structural and regional funds. the European cities, following the original Later Cheshire33, based on the already ap- studies by Hall and Hay48 and van den Berg et plied methodology, delineated 241 FUR. In doing this, he analysed the 1990/1991 census 30 Berry, 1973 data in European countries and the changes 31 Hall, Hay, 1980 in FUR development between 1981 and 1991. 32 Cheshire, Hay, 1989 In a comparative study under the Costs of Ur- 33 Chesire, 1995 34 ban Growth [CURB] project , analysed de- 34 Van den Berg et al., 1982 velopment processes of European cities and 35 Hall, Hay, 1980 urban regions. The authors underlined the 36 Hall, Hay, 1980 differences in the European urbanisation process. It is assumed that the development of 37 Hall, Hay, 1980 cities follows a specific life-cycle in the ur- 38 Van den Berg et al., 1982 banisation process, from centralisation/con- 39 Pumain, 1984; Pumain et al., 1989 centration to suburbanisation, deurbanisa- 40 Matthiessen, 1983 tion and reurbanisation, or restoration of 41 Rossi, 1983 population concentration in the narrow city 42 Schubert, 1986 PROSTOR Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Functional Urban Areas… S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK 200-215 25[2017] 2[54] 205

Fig. 3 10 functional urban areas [FUAs] and 5 additional city conurbations in Slovenia in 2006 Sl. 3. 10 funkcionalnih urbanih podruèja i 5 konurbacija u Sloveniji 2006.

al.49, were no longer carried out. Since 2000, FUNCTIONAL URBAN AREAS AND FUNCTIONAL analyses of socio-economic and territorial (URBAN) REGIONS IN SLOVENIA specificities of metropolitan areas and small and medium size cities have been conducted FUNKCIONALNA URBANA PODRUÈJA in Europe to improve our understanding of I FUNKCIONALNE URBANE REGIJE similarities and show cooperation potentials, U SLOVENIJI as stated by ESDP.50 The current studies at the European level are the product of trans- In recent years, with changes in strategic 52 national research networks and the estab- documents and legislation , Slovenia has lishment of the European Spatial Planning been attempting to implement the concept of Observatory Network [ESPON]. The purpose functional systems at the regional level. In of these studies is mostly to find answers the following, we thus present the most sig- to the changed conditions in cities and re- nificant studies concerned with FUAs and gions, and particularly to search for appropri- FURs in Slovenia. The studies are presented ate spatial policy instruments to increase chronologically, while 2004 is taken as a reference year, i.e. when the Spatial Develop- (strengthen) attractivity of cities for econo- 53 my, improvement of public services for the ment Strategy of Slovenia was adopted, which specified the two-stage network of 15 population, sustainable use of natural re- centres of national significance. A gravita- sources and potentials, along with the goal of tional (impact) area was defined around a zero net building51 or restriction of urban centre of national significance, which also growth due to economic, environmental, and represents a completed regional area (Fig. 2), spatial planning reasons. where a network of coherent and integrated urban settlements is developed. ”Gravita- 43 Friedrichs, 1985 tional areas of urban centres of national sig- 44 Borchert, 1982 nificance comprising areas with 150,000 in- 45 Bannon, 1984 habitants on average, whose impact reaches 46 Fielding, 1982, 1989, 1990; Champion, 1989a, 1989b, to the gravitation areas of other centres of 1992; Spence, 1982 national or regional significance, are func- 54 47 Sforzi et al., 1989 tional regions” or FUAs, as they are under- 48 Hall, Hay 1980 stood in this paper (Fig. 1). These areas can 49 Van den Berg et al., 1982 be likened to wider urban areas, character- ised by ”strong everyday migrations to work 50 ESDP 1999 and elsewhere [labour and other commuting] 51 Science for Environment Policy, 2016 causing dense traffic - particularly through 52 Presented in the Introduction of this paper the use of personal vehicles - and thus im- 53 MOP, 2004 posing pressure on the entire area and the 54 MOP, 2004: 21 central city. The wider urban area is closely PROSTOR 206 2[54] 25[2017] 200-215 S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK Functional Urban Areas… Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

Fig. 4 42 local labour systems [LLSs] and 17 regional labour systems [RLSs] or functional urban regions [FURs] with their urban centres of Slovenia in 2002 Sl. 4. 42 lokalna i 17 regionalnih sustava radne snage ili funkcionalne urbane regije s urbanim centrima u Sloveniji 2002.

linked to the central city with numerous jobs, individual LLS areas to the main employment diverse and varied production activities and centre, i.e. a regional centre (Fig. 4). services. A large number of mutually cooper- Pogaènik et al.62 modelled functional regions ating, interactive, and effectively intercon- and evaluated development potentials and nected centres shall be developed in a wider possible scenarios of FR development in Slo- urban area”.55 venia. Pogaènik et al.63 used the FR concept In 2004 Slovenia as an EU accession country when analysing and proposing the delimita- was involved in the project ESPON 1.1.156, tion of Slovenia into provinces. The final pro- where based on the common criteria, which posal of Slovenia’s division into provinces were used for approx. 1700 FUAs in 29 Euro- was published in Pogaènik et al.64 pean countries, only six FUAs were defined FUAs, FURs and FRs of Slovenia were ana- for Slovenia. Due to the growing importance lysed also by many other authors.65 However, of medium and small urban areas, as demon- Drobne and Konjar66 proved that the selected strated under the PlaNet CenSE57 project so method of modelling FUAs, FURs, or FRs can Ravbar et al.58 by using additional criteria, significantly affect the formation of areas. defined 10 FUAs in Slovenia; Fig. 3), to which The fact that a certain method had been suc- the ministry responsible for spatial planning cessfully used in other countries does not added another five potential centres of FUAs. necessarily guarantee that it will be appropri- This led to a system of 15 FUAs, which is di- ate for Slovenia or any other country as well. rectly comparable to the gravity areas of 15 urban centres of national significance defined in SPRS.59 55 MOP, 2004: 25 56 *** 2004 60 The RePUS project identified 42 local labour 57 ÖIR 2006 systems [LLSs] with at least 15,000 inhabit- 58 *** 2006 ants. LLSs were defined as areas consisting 59 MOP, 2004; see also Fig. 2 of a central urban area and an accompanying 60 Pichler Milanoviæ et al., 2008 area connected with labour commuting flows. The authors61 also distinguished 17 regional 61 Pichler Milanoviæ et al., 2008 labour systems (RLSs or FUAs), composed of 62 *** 2008, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c urban central municipalities and the munici- 63 *** 2009d, 2009e, 2009f, 2009g palities from the catchment area represent- 64 *** 2009g 65 e.g. Bole, 2004; Drobne et al., 2009a, 2010a; Konjar ing strong origins of labour commuting. A et al., 2010; Lisec et al., 2010; Drobne, Bogataj, 2012 - a municipality was included in a FUA when at comprehensive list has been presented by Drobne, 2016, least 25% of its working age population com- 2017 muted to work in the centre on a daily basis. 66 *** 2011 An important measure in developing RLS ar- 67 *** 2011 eas was also a 30-minute accessibility from 68 MOP, 2004 PROSTOR Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Functional Urban Areas… S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK 200-215 25[2017] 2[54] 207

In analysing the data on labour commuting flows there are, in fact, many national charac- Table I Statistics on functional urban areas [FUAs] defined around urban centres of national importance in Slovenia teristics and specificities, such as the settle- Tabl. I Statistika funkcionalnih urbanih podruèja oko urbanih centara od nacionalnog znaèaja u Sloveniji ment system, demographic and education Population Municipalities in FUA Area of FUA [km2] structure, geographic features, political and [1000 inhabitants] legal arrangements, infrastructure, and spa- Functional Urban Area [FUA] Year 2000 Year 2015 Year 2000 Year 2015 Year 2000 Year 2015 tial development.67 Ljubljana 29 15% 58 27% 3,187 16% 6,576 32% 551 28% 845 41% In modelling FUAs and FURs, the authors of Maribor 25 13% 24 11% 1,474 8% 1,458 7% 251 13% 244 12% these studies assumed the centres of nation- conurbation Koper-Izola-Piran 4 2% 5 2% 579 3% 579 3% 84 4% 92 4% al significance defined in the Spatial Devel- Celje 10 5% 11 5% 930 5% 967 5% 128 6% 140 7% opment Strategy of Slovenia68 as the starting point, or FUAs and FURs whose centres do Kranj 7 4% 7 3% 609 3% 609 3% 90 5% 96 5% not significantly deviate from the centres of Murska Sobota 18 9% 19 9% 819 4% 838 4% 73 4% 69 3% national significance were determined as Nova Gorica 6 3% 7 3% 821 4% 850 4% 78 4% 77 4% the outcome of modelling. A characteristic of Novo Mesto 6 3% 12 6% 715 4% 1,165 6% 61 3% 82 4% these studies is also that they are mostly Postojna 2 1% 2 1% 493 3% 493 2% 20 1% 22 1% based on studying daily labour commuting Ptuj 15 8% 16 8% 615 3% 647 3% 69 3% 68 3% flows, despite being the result of many differ- Velenje 7 4% 6 3% 434 2% 395 2% 60 3% 55 3% ent methodological approaches. Based on conurbation Brežice-Krško-Sevnica 4 2% 7 3% 917 5% 1,058 5% 73 4% 79 4% the studies examined we find that urban centres, which are the basis of Slovenia’s urban conurbation Jesenice-Radovljica 6 3% 6 3% 899 5% 682 3% 66 3% 60 3% conurbation Slovenj Gradec (settlement) system, form a solid enough 9 5% 10 5% 784 4% 878 4% 64 3% 68 3% - Ravne na Koroškem - Dravograd framework for establishing FUAs, which will conurbation Trbovlje-Hrastnik- 3 2% 3 1% 264 1% 264 1% 46 2% 43 2% provide the basis for connecting cities and -Zagorje ob Savi rural areas (including less developed catchment areas) and a long-term guidance toward institutionalisation of regions.69 OECD members74, the third and fourth parameters are the same for all: in an urban centre, METHODOLOGY at least 50% population with permanent residence live or work and two or more urban METODOLOGIJA centres belong to the same FUA if at least 15% of inhabitants from one urban centre Functional urban areas of Slovenia were ana- commute to another urban centre. lysed using an adapted version of the methodology used by OECD70 and Eurostat.71 The In our study of urban centres of Slovenia the methodology was also tested under the Euro- modelling was not quantitative, as 15 centres pean Observation Network for Territorial De- of international and national significance velopment and Cohesion.72 were assumed according to the Spatial De- 73 velopment Strategy of Slovenia [MOP, 2004]: According to OECD urban centres are first Ljubljana, Maribor, conurbation Koper-Izola- defined using population density, number of Piran, Murska Sobota, Ptuj, Celje, Velenje, permanent residents in an urban centre area, conurbation Slovenj Gradec - Ravne na Ko- percentage of residents both living and work- roškem - Dravograd, conurbation Brežice- ing in an urban centre area, and percentage -Krško-Sevnica, Novo Mesto, conurbation of population of an urban centre working in Trbovlje-Hrastnik-Zagorje ob Savi, Kranj, con- another urban centre of the same FUA. While urbation Jesenice-Radovljica, Postojna, Nova the first two parameters differ for various Gorica). Then each urban centre (centre of international and/or national significance) 69 Vlada RS, 2016 was connected with all the municipalities 70 *** 2013a, 2013b from which at least 15% of their working age 71 *** 2015 population commuted to the centre. 72 ESPON 2014 The analysis was done for three reference 73 2013a, 2013b years: for the period prior to the Spatial De- 74 In the European Union an urban centre has at least velopment Strategy of Slovenia75, i.e. for 50,000 inhabitants with permanent residence in a conti- nuous area of an urban centre, with a population density 2000, for the period after the SPRS adop- 76 of at least 1500 inhabitants per km2. tion , i.e. for 2007, and for the last available 75 MOP, 2004 official data on labour commuting between 77 76 *** 2004 Slovenia’s municipalities , i.e. for 2015. Sep- 77 In addition, the problem of data quality should be arately, we compared and evaluated FUAs noted, since, with more accurate data, the role of Ljub- and their changes by year investigated for ljana would probably be much smaller. Although distri- national urban centres of international sig- buted throughout Slovenia, jobs in many branches of nificance and for centres of national signifi- various companies of individual companies (e.g. Petrol, Mercator, Spar) are managed centrally, at the headquar- cance. We separately analysed the impact of ters in Ljubljana. conurbations on the formation of FUAs. Given PROSTOR 208 2[54] 25[2017] 200-215 S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK Functional Urban Areas… Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

Fig. 5 15 functional urban areas [FUAs] defined the spatial limitations of this paper, we pre- connections Jesenice-Ljubljana and Koper- around urban centres of national importance sent only the results for FUA centres of na- Ljubljana, and southwards toward the Mu- in Slovenia in (5a) 2000 and (5b) 2015 Sl. 5. 15 funkcionalnih urbanih podruèja oko urbanih tional significance for 2000 and 2015. nicipality of Koèevje. centara od nacionalnog znaèaja u Sloveniji 2000. Of all FUAs - both at the level of centres of i 2015. RESULTS international significance and centres of na- REZULTATI tional significance - FUA Maribor decreased the most. It decreased both in population The comparison of FUA centres of interna- and the share of municipalities - despite the tional significance (Ljubljana, Maribor, and fact that in the period 18 new municipalities conurbation Koper-Izola-Piran) in the 15-year emerged, mostly in NE Slovenia. The number study period demonstrates that only the in- of population with permanent residence in fluence of Ljubljana increased significantly; FUA Maribor decreased by just over 7200 in- see Figures 5a and 5b and Table I. In its sur- habitants (i.e. by 0.8% of inhabitants of the face area, FUA Ljubljana increased by 3390 state), while the share of the municipalities in 2 km , i.e. by 16% of the state’s total area (from FUA decreased by 1.7%, and the share of the 16.4% in 2000 to 32.4% in 2015). The popula- surface area in FUA Maribor decreased by tion in FUA Ljubljana increased by 293,466 0.4% of the state’s total area. (from 551,209 inhabitants in 2000 to 844,675 inhabitants in 2015). In 2015, as much as In terms of its surface area, FUA Koper-Izola- 40.9% of Slovenia’s inhabitants lived in FUA Piran did not change significantly, even Ljubljana, while 15 years earlier there were though a new municipality emerged in its only 27.7%. The number of municipalities in area (the Municipality of Ankaran split from FUA Ljubljana doubled. FUA Ljubljana in- the Municipality of Koper). A slight decrease creased mostly along the existing motorway in the FUA surface area is due to the changed PROSTOR Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Functional Urban Areas… S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK 200-215 25[2017] 2[54] 209

municipal border between the Municipality of Sobota, FUA Velenje and FUA conurbation Divaèa and the Municipality of Hrpelje-Kozi- Trbovlje-Hrastnik-Zagorje ob Savi. na. In the coastal conurbation FUA, the num- We find that FUAs of national centres of in- ber of inhabitants increased by just under ternational significance (Ljubljana, Maribor, 8000 inhabitants, i.e. 0.3% of inhabitants. Koper-Izola-Piran) do not overlap - even Nevertheless, FUA Koper-Izola-Piran is inhab- though in the 15-year period FUA Ljubljana ited by only 4.5% of Slovenia’s residents - 9 came near FUA Koper-Izola-Piran. In three times less than in FUA Ljubljana. FUA national centres of international signifi- The comparison of FUAs of other centres of cance, which cover 42,5% of Slovenian terri- national significance by year shows further tory, 87 (41%) municipalities are included. interesting characteristics. In surface area, More than a half of Slovenia’s population number of municipalities, and volume of pop- (just below 60%) live there. ulation (along with FUA Ljubljana) the following FUAs also increased: FUA Novo Mesto, At the level of centres of national significance FUA conurbation Brežice-Krško-Sevnica and some FUAs overlap; see Figures 5a and 5b. FUA conurbation Slovenj Gradec - Ravne na Partially overlap the following FUAs: FUA Koroškem - Dravograd. FUA Ptuj increased in Maribor and FUA Ptuj, FUA Slovenj Gradec - its surface area, while FUA Celje, FUA Kranj Ravne na Koroškem - Dravograd and FUA Ve- and, only marginally, FUA Postojna increased lenje, FUA Velenje and FUA Celje, FUA Brežice- in the number of inhabitants. The surface -Krško-Sevnica and FUA Ljubljana, FUA Novo area, the number of municipalities and the Mesto and FUA Ljubljana, and FUA Jesenice- volume of population decreased - along with -Radovljica and FUA Ljubljana. We find that the mentioned FUA Maribor - also in FUA FUA Ljubljana in the period 2000-2015 in- conurbation Jesenice-Radovljica, FUA Murska creased significantly and fully covered FUA PROSTOR 210 2[54] 25[2017] 200-215 S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK Functional Urban Areas… Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

Fig. 6 Impact of conurbations Slovenj Gradec Kranj, FUA Postojna, and FUA Trbovlje-Hrast- changes over the last 15 years and the in- - Ravne na Koroškem - Dravograd (6a), nik-Zagorje ob Savi. creasing influence of FUA Ljubljana, are a and Brežice-Krško-Sevnica and Trbovlje-Hrastnik- solid enough framework of Slovenia’s settle- -Zagorje ob Savi (6b) on the formation of FUAs Analysing the impact of conurbations to the (year 2015) ment system. Sl. 6. Utjecaj konurbacija Slovenj Gradec formation of FUAs revealed an important im- - Ravne na Koroškem - Dravograd (6a), pact of conurbation Brežice-Krško-Sevnica i Brežice-Krško-Sevnica i Trbovlje-Hrastnik-Zagorje and conurbation Slovenj Gradec - Ravne na DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION na Savi (6b) na FUAs formaciji (godina 2015.) Koroškem - Dravograd. In the case of conur- DISKUSIJA I ZAKLJUÈAK bation Slovenj Gradec - Ravne na Koroškem - Dravograd, the FUA is smaller by 3 munici- The new dynamics of cooperation is a serious palities, if we take into account the individual challenge (particularly) for governance of central municipalities, in by 2 municipalities cities and urban areas that stay, more or less, in the case of conurbation Brežice-Krško- rigidly connected with closed administrative -Sevnica. Together the central municipalities areas (municipalities, provinces, regions). in these two conurbations are significantly Hence, by studying functional regions we more competitive than individually; see Fig- wanted to find the basis for shaping the strat- ures 6a and 6b where the situation for 2015 egies of connecting the cities with their sur- only is shown. This influence was not detect- roundings, with other cities, and in relation to ed in other conurbations. higher levels of governance, e.g. state and The analyses of labour mobility confirmed, European Union. Here FUAs play an impor- similarly to the previous analyses of studies tant role as they provide the easiest way to and research performed, the assumption that the selected centres of international and na- 78 Zavodnik Lamovšek, Peterlin, Pichler-Milanoviæ, tional significance, despite the described Drobne, 2011 PROSTOR Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Functional Urban Areas… S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK 200-215 25[2017] 2[54] 211

achieve the goals, i.e. through collaboration the need for establishing a regional level, and distribution of responsibility among part- which will be based on a strong framework ners in their functionally connected regions. of urban centres both in terms of economic Rather than replacing the existing adminis- and spatial development, and in terms of trative regional structures, they can impor- developing local self-governance, have been tantly complement them.78 adopted, while some are currently under development.79 The FUA concept is thus not a rigid administrative structure where the already strong re- This paper showed that the existing network gions develop at the expense of weaker ones. of urban centres is solid enough that func- The purpose is to promote close cooperation tional urban areas [FUAs] are formed around between centres, their surroundings, and pe- them, which will in time grow into more sol- ripheral regions. Many regional, national, idly delineated functional urban regions and international functions are related to [FURs], or even functional regions [FRs]. In this sense, the existing Slovenia’s urban net- FUAs, where the level of concentration and work does not need any major changes; on interaction testifies to their significance. Slo- the contrary, attention should be devoted to venia, too, is trying to establish FUAs and ensuring their mutual balance. This analysis’ thus strengthen economic development, im- outcomes revealed an increasing strengthen- prove public services, and sustainable use of ing and dominance of FUA Ljubljana, whose natural resources. To this end, some of its impact is reaching across FUA Postojna, FUA strategic documents, which strongly stress Kranj, and FUA Trbovlje-Hrastnik-Zagorje ob Savi. Similarly, in their study on the Gorenj- 80 79 MOP, 2013; MOP, 2016; SVRL 2016a; Vlada RS, 2016 ska case, Rus, Razpotnik Viskoviæ and Nared 80 Rus, Razpotnik Viskoviæ, Nared, 2013 pointed to the strengthening of the infl uence PROSTOR 212 2[54] 25[2017] 200-215 S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK Functional Urban Areas… Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

of Ljubljana, and at the same time the decline lose their power and are unable to take on of the power of Kranj and the Gorenjska con- the role of connecting urban and rural areas urbation. This loss occurred partly at the ex- in their areas of influence. The strengthening pense of strengthening of Ljubljana, and of only one FUA, e.g. FUA Ljubljana, contrib- partly at the expense of the newly emerging utes to neither Slovenia’s spatial develop- municipalities, which greatly increased their ment in its wider international space nor influence. Furthermore, Nared, Bole, Breg to its internal development at the regional Valjavec et al.81 pointed to the discrepancy level. between the definition of the centrality levels in SPRS and the current situation, as demon- After consolidation of FUAs and strengthen- strated by the example of the overstated role ing regional identity it will be necessary to of Postojna. gradually develop the instruments and regional policy measures, which will gradually Regardless of the fact that this study was di- lead to the establishment of provinces.82 rected mostly at formation of FUAs at the re- Their implementation will require both the gional level, the results showed the manifold institutional or formal framework based on a aspects of the question addressed. Two di- connected sectoral (co)operation (e.g. the mensions of establishing the regional level ministry responsible for spatial planning, open up: (1) Internal development of an in- economic development, regional policy) as dividual region and thus balanced and sus- well as an informal framework supporting the tainable development of the entire country implementation of adopted policies in vari- and (2) competitive ability of a FUA given ous levels and among various actors. At the the neighbouring regions and states. The spatial development policy level, concrete strengthening of FUA Ljubljana can thus be measures must be incorporated into the re- regarded from a viewpoint of external devel- newed Spatial Development Strategy of Slo- opment of Slovenia. The strengthening of venia, as well as their consistent implemen- FUA Ljubljana as a national centre of interna- tation ensured, in particular through the in- tional significance can decrease the role of strument of the regional spatial plan, which FUA Maribor and FUA Koper-Izola-Piran inter- will be enforced by the new law on spatial nationally. The strengthening of FUA Ljublja- planning. na has an even greater impact on its internal development and the role of other urban cen- [Translated by authors; tres of national significance, which thereby Proofread by: Mojca Vilfan, univ.dipl.angl.]

81 Nared, Bole, Breg Valjavec et al., 2017 82 Vlada RS, 2016: 15 * Acknowledgements: The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P2-0227, Geoinformation Infra- structure and Sustainable Spatial Development of Slo- venia) and the Ministry for the Environment and Spatial Planning (research project Professional Support to Focus Groups as Part of Preparations for the Spatial Develop- ment Strategy of Slovenia 2050, Part 1: Functional Urban Areas). * Zahvala: autori se zahvaljuju na financijskoj podršci Javnoj agenciji za istraživaèku djelatnost RS (temeljno fi- nanciranje znanstvenog rada br. P2-0227, Geoinforma- cijska infrastruktura i održivi prostorni razvoj Slovenije) i Ministarstvu za okoliš i prostor RS (istraživaèki projekt Podrška fokusnim skupinama kao dio pripreme Strate- gije prostornog razvoja Slovenije 2050., Dio 1: Urbana podruèja). PROSTOR Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Functional Urban Areas… S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK 200-215 25[2017] 2[54] 213

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(2009c), Analiza razvoj- uploads/2017/01/Vizija-Slovenije.pdf nih virov in scenarijev za modeliranje funk- [4.4.2017.] Fig. 1 Adapted from: Zavodnik Lamovšek, and cionalnih regij. Èetrto poroèilo, Fakulteta za 64. Tomaney, J.; Ward, N. (2000), England and Drobne, 2017: 7 gradbeništvo in geodezijo, Ljubljana; Fakulteta the ”New Regionalism”, ”Regional studies”, 34 Fig. 2 MOP, 2004: 22 za gradbeništvo, Maribor; Oikos, Domžale (5): 471-478, www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/ Fig. 3 Ravbar et al., 2006 49. Pogaènik, A.; Zavodnik Lamovšek, A.; Drobne, 10.1080/00343400050058710 S.; Trobec, B.; Soss, K. (2009d), Analiza kon- 65. Tosi cs, I. (2015), Functional territories for better Fig. 4 Pichler Milanoviæ et al., 2008: 29 ceptov regionalizacije Slovenije s predlogom integrated governance: Towards spatially coor- Fig. 5, 6 Authors PROSTOR Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Functional Urban Areas… S. DROBNE, A. ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK 200-215 25[2017] 2[54] 215 Summary Sažetak

Funkcionalna urbana podruèja kao instrument politike prostornog razvoja na regionalnoj razini na primjeru Slovenije

Koncept funkcionalnih urbanih sustava u posljed- ne za pojedinaène države (Bugarska, Maðarska, 2000. godina za razdoblje prije nastanka SPRS-a, njih se nekoliko desetljeæa u pojedinaènim zemlja- Poljska, Jugoslavija, Švicarska, Italija, Francuska, (b) 2007. godina za razdoblje nakon prihvaæanja ma razvijao neovisno, što pokazuje na globalnu Danska, Nizozemska, Velika Britanija i dr.). Tek po- SPRS-a i (c) 2015. godina, za koju raspolažemo po- prirodu trendova prostornog razvoja gradova i nji- slije prihvaæanja Europskih prostornih razvojnih sljednjim službenim podatcima o radnoj mobilno- hovih širih podruèja na jednoj strani, a na drugoj i perspektiva 1999. godine smjer istraživanja promi- sti izmeðu opæina. Usto, analizu smo izradili na ra- široku moguænost upotrebe tih koncepata za rješa- jenio se u razotkrivanje društvenih, gospodarskih i zini 15 urbanih središta nacionalnoga znaèenja i na vanje društvenih i prostornih nejednakosti, usmje- teritorijalnih osobitosti i potencijala metropolitan- razini triju meðunarodnih urbanih središta (Ljublja- ravanja i proširenja gospodarskih djelatnosti, rje- skih podruèja, srednje velikih i malih gradova u na, Maribor i konurbacija Koper-Izola-Piran). šavanja problema nejednakosti na tržištu rada, za Europi. Današnje istraživanje na tom je podruèju Rezultati istraživanja na razini meðunarodnih urba- primanje i izvoðenje važnih razvojnih odluka na najèešæe rezultat projekata u sklopu transnacional- nih središta u posljednjih petnaest godina pokazali svim razinama odluèivanja. S tog polazišta èlanak ne mreže za prostorno planiranje [European Spa- su da najviše jaèa utjecaj Ljubljane, odnosno da se prvo ukazuje na vrlo aktualne koncepte funkcio- tial Planning Observation Network - ESPON] koja FUP Ljubljana poveæala i zauzima 32% cjelokupno- nalnih sustava koji izlaze iz ideje funkcionalnih po- je pokrenuta 2000. godine. ga teritorija države (u 2000. godini njezin je obu- druèja kao cjelovitih, otvorenih, dinamiènih i neli- U posljednjih nekoliko godina i Slovenija službe- hvat bio samo 16,4%). Suprotno od Ljubljane, FUP nearnih sustava, koji rade na temelju funkcionalnih no prihvaæa koncept FUP-a kao moguæe rješenje za Maribor smanjila se po broju stanovnika, ali i po interakcija izmeðu veæih i manjih prostornih jedini- povezivanje razvojnog i prostornog planiranja s svom utjecaju na okolne opæine. Površina FUP ko- ca, koji se po pravilu ne slažu s administrativnim ciljem uspostavljanja regionalne razine koja još nurbacije Koper-Izola-Piran ostala je više-manje jedinicama. U tim sustavima danas su najaktualni- nije ostvarena. Kako je bilo u Sloveniji veæ nekoliko jednaka, a broj stanovnika poveæao se za 8000. U ja funkcionalna urbana podruèja i funkcionalne ur- neuspjelih pokušaja uspostavljanja regija kao ad- usporedbi s Ljubljanom to je ipak malo jer u FUP-u bane regije. Funkcionalno urbano podruèje [FUP] ministrativnih jedinica, koncept FUP-a pokazao se konurbacije Koper-Izola-Piran živi samo 4,5% sta- jest funkcionalno povezano podruèje urbanoga kao moguæe rješenje za utvrðivanje regionalnog novnika Slovenije, što je devet puta manje negoli u središta i njegova zaleða koje se odredi kao sustav identiteta na pojedinim podruèjima, s daljnjom mo- FUP-u Ljubljana. Usporedba FUP-ova na razini 15 temeljnih prostornih jedinica (najèešæe opæine) iz guænošæu prijelaza na osnivanje administrativnih nacionalnih središta pokazuje detaljnije rezultate. kojih se odreðeni postotak radnika svaki dan vozi regija. Polazište za takvo stajalište veæ je u Strate- Znaèajno su se, pored FUP-a Ljubljana, poveæale na rad u urbano središte. FUP-ovi se mogu meðu- giji prostornog razvoja Slovenije [SPRS] iz 2004. samo još FUP Novo Mesto, FUP konurbacija Slovenj- sobno i prekrivati, no istodobno nije nužno da po- godine i u nekoliko samostalnih geografskih i pro- gradec - Ravne na Koroškem - Dravograd i FUP krivaju cjelokupni teritorij države. Nasuprot FUP-u, stornoplanerskih studija ili studija u sklopu ESPON konurbacije Brežice-Krško-Sevnica. Izmeðu ostalog, funkcionalna urbana regija [FUR] odreðena je kao projekata, u kojima su odreðene moguæe FUP na ustanovili smo da se jedino FUP Ljubljana, FUP Ma- teritorijalna jedinica koja sa svim ostalim FUR-ovi- razini opæina ili razini NUTS 3. Radi najnovijih istra- ribor i FUP konurbacije Koper-Izola-Piran meðusob- ma pokriva cijelu površinu odreðenoga teritorija živanja za potrebe nove strategije prostornog raz- no ne pokrivaju, ali je FUP Ljubljana prekrila cjelo- (npr. države). Obièno se FUR odreðuje na razini voja Slovenije i povezivanja s drugim strateškim kupni FUP Kranj, FUP Postojna i FUP konurbacije NUTS 2 ili NUTS 3 pa je zato manje prilagodljiva od dokumentima i zakonodavstvom, izradili smo po- Trbovlje-Hrastnik-Zagorje. Svi se ostali FUP-ovi me- FUP-a. sebnu analizu FUP-a za Sloveniju. Predložili smo ðusobno prekrivaju u manjem ili veæem obuhvatu. Koncept funkcionalnih sustava prvi se put poèeo prilagoðenu metodologiju koja proizlazi iz metodo- Na temelju izraðene analize možemo ustanoviti da razvijati u SAD-u, a po tom uzoru i u Europi nastaje logija koje prihvaæaju OECD i EUROSTAT. Upotrije- postojeæa nacionalna urbana središta, koja su prva studija gradova i gradskih podruèja [Berry, bili smo kriterije za formiranje FUP-a: (1) najmanje odreðena veæ u SPRS-u 2004. godine, još uvijek 1973.]. Najutjecajnija je metodologija za istraživa- 50% stanovništva ima stalno prebivalište u odre- predstavljaju dovoljno jaku urbanu mrežu na kojoj nje u Europi nastala 1980., kada su Hall i Hay odre- ðenom urbanom središtu, (2) dva ili više urbanih se može temeljiti koncept FUP-a u Sloveniji. Usto, dili 122 urbane regije u 12 europskih zemalja. Na središta pripadaju istom FUP-u ako najmanje 15% ipak treba imati u vidu da FUP-ovi ne pokrivaju cje- temelju te metodologije slijedile su mnogobrojne radnika iz jednoga urbanog središta radi u dru- lokupni teritorij pojedine države, tako da njihova studije [Van den Berg et al., 1982.; Rossi, 1983.; gome urbanom središtu, (3) za analizu preuzeli primjena ima više cilj dopunjavanja funkcioniranja Pumain, 1984., 1989.; Schubert, 1986.; Chesire, smo 15 urbanih središta po SPRS-u iz 2004 godine. administrativnih regija, jer ih ne mogu u potpuno- Hay, 1989.; Chesire, 1995. i dr.] koje su bile izraðe- Analizu smo izradili za tri referentne godine: (a) sti zamijeniti.

Biographies Biografije

SAMO DROBNE, PhD, is an Assistant Professor for Ge- Dr.sc. SAMO DROBNE, docent na Fakultetu graðe- odesy and Geoinformatics at the Faculty of Civil and vinarstva i geodezije na Sveuèilištu u Ljubljani. Ob- Geodetic Engineering in Ljubljana. He published over javio je 45 znanstvenih radova, 5 knjiga, 3 poglav- 45 scientific papers, 5 books, 3 chapters in books, lja u knjigama i održao preko 70 referata na znan- and over 70 contributions to scientific conferences. stvenim skupovima. Assist.prof. ALMA ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK, PhD, grad- Dr.sc. ALMA ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK, docentica. Diplo- uated in 1992, and continued her post-graduate mirala je 1992. godine i nastavila poslijediplomski studies in spatial planning at the Faculty of Civil studij iz prostornog planiranja na Fakultetu gra- and Geodetic Engineering in Ljub ljana [UL FGG], ðevinarstva i geodezije Sveuèilišta u Ljubljani gdje where she obtained her PhD (2007) degrees. je doktorirala 2007. godine.