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Gender and Social Exclusion/Inclusion: a Study of Indigenous Women in Bangladesh

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Gender and Social Exclusion/Inclusion: a Study of Indigenous Women in Bangladesh Gender and Social Exclusion/Inclusion: A Study of Indigenous Women in Bangladesh By Soniya Wazed A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Institute of Applied Social Sciences College of Social Sciences University of Birmingham Date of Submission: 02 October, 2012 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Contents Abbreviations i List of tables iii List of figures v Acknowledgements vi Abstract vii Chapter 1 Introduction 1-21 1.1 Background of the study 1 1.1.1 Women in Bangladesh 7 1.1.2 Defining indigenous people in Bangladesh 9 1.1.3 Defining indigenous women in Bangladesh 16 1.2 Rationale of the research 18 1.3 Aim of the study 19 1.4 Structure of thesis 20 Chapter 2 Gender and Patriarchy 22-50 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 Defining gender and patriarchy 23 2.3 Conceptual movement from „women in‟ to „gender and‟ 27 development discourse: 2.4 Historical development of patriarchy 30 2.4.1 Socio-cultural dimension of Patriarchy 31 2.4.2 Political dimension of Patriarchy 34 2.4.3 Economic dimension of Patriarchy 34 2.5 Women‟s current status in Bangladesh 36 2.6 Summary 49 Chapter 3 Social exclusion/inclusion and poverty 51-79 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Historical origins of the concept of poverty and social exclusion 52 3.3 Defining poverty and social exclusion 57 3.4 Poverty and social exclusion: comparing and contrasting notions 63 3.5 Theoretical framework: poverty, gender and social exclusion 67 3.6 Summary 76 Chapter 4 Research questions and Methodology 80-114 4.1 Introduction 80 4.2 Research questions 81 4.3 Philosophical framework 82 4.4 Qualitative research 88 4.5 Study area 89 4.6 Sampling: size and methods of selection 90 4.7 The pilot study 92 4.7.1 Focus-group discussion 94 4.7.2 Issues arising from the pilot study 95 4.7.3 The way forward 98 4.8 Data collection: qualitative methods 98 4.8.1 Semi-structured interviews 99 4.8.2 Observations 100 4.8.3 Recording 101 4.9 Ethical issues 101 4.10 Reflection on experiences in fieldwork 104 4.11 Analytical strategy 108 4.11.1 Analyzing methods 109 4.12 Summary 112 Chapter 5 The role of marriage and socio-cultural life in the processes of social exclusion and inclusion: empirical evidence from indigenous women in Bangladesh 115-155 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 Marriage 119 5.2.1 Age at marriage 119 5.2.2 Forms of marriage 123 5.2.3 Marriage-related customs and practices and the position of women 127 5.2.3.1 The process of marriage registration 127 5.2.3.2 Exogamy and endogamy 128 5.2.3.3 Divorce and polygamy 131 5.2.3.4 Widowhood 133 5.2.3.5 Dowry/bride price 136 5.2.3.6 Domestic violence 140 5.4 Lifestyle and social exclusion and inclusion 147 5.4.1 Food and drink 148 5.4.2 Dress styles 149 5.4.3 Dance 150 5.5 Summary 151 Chapter 6 Education, health and identity as a process of social exclusion/inclusion 156-178 6.1 Introduction 156 6.2 Education 158 6.3 Health 163 6.4 Identity 167 6.4.1 Collective identity 168 6.4.2 Individual identity 173 6.5 Summary 174 Chapter 7 The political process of social exclusion/inclusion: practical experiences of indigenous women in Bangladesh 179-199 7.1 Introduction 179 7.2 Decision-making roles and participation 181 7.2.1 Domestic decisions 183 7.2.2 Public decisions 188 7.3 Structural arrangements 190 7.4 Summary 196 Chapter 8 The economic aspects of social exclusion and inclusion: experiences from indigenous women 200-229 8.1 Introduction 200 8.2 Employment and economic opportunities 203 8.2.1 The nature of work 204 8.2.3 The labour market 208 8.3 Land inheritance rights 212 8.3.1 Current laws relating to the land of indigenous people 217 8.3.2 Constraints of land ownership 219 8.4 Summary 223 Chapter 9 Conclusion 230-252 9.1 Introduction 230 9.2 Gender and Social exclusion and inclusion 230 9.3 Significance of research and methodology 234 9.4 Theoretical implications: gender and social exclusion/inclusion 236 9.5 Policy implications 238 9.6 Recommendations 248 9.7 Conclusions 250 References 253-292 Appendixes 293 ABBREVIATIONS Ain-O-Shalish Kendra (ASK) Analysis of Poverty Trends (APT) Asian Development Bank (ADB) Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) Bangladesh National Women Lawyers Association (BNWLA) Capability Approach (CA) Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) Chittagong Hill Tracts Regional Council (CHTRC) Cost of Basic Needs (CBN) Department for International Development (DFID) Deputy Commissioner (DC) Direct Calorie Intake (DCI) European Union (EU) Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) Government of Bangladesh (GoB) Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Hill District Councils (HDC) Hill District Local Government Councils (HDLGC) Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) International Labour Organization (ILO) i International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Jana Sanghati Samiti (JSS) London School of Economics (LSE) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Ministry of Women and Children‟s Affairs (MOWCA) Non-government organizations (NGOs) Parbotto Chottogram Jana Sanghati Samiti (PCJSS) Power and Participation Research Centre (PPRC) Ready-made garment (RMG) Regional Council (RC) Regional District Council (RDC) Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) UN Platform for Action (PFA) United Nations (UN) United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) United Nations Population Fund (UNPF) United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) World Bank (WB) World Health Organization (WHO) ii List of Tables Table 1.1 Trends poverty measured by CBN 5 Table: 2.1 Definitions of gender 24 Table: 3.1 Definitions of poverty 59 Table: 3.2 Definitions of Social exclusion 61 Table 4.1 Number of interviews conducted by Garo and Chakma communities 91 Table 4.2 Demographic profile of the FGD participants 93 Table 4.3 Identifying social exclusion in relation to emerging themes and 111 sub-themes from empirical data analysis Table: 5.1 Demographic profiles of the participants 117 Table 5.2 Age at marriage reported by interviewees 121 Table 5.3 Key findings and analysis of personal & socio-cultural aspects 153 of the Garo and Chakma communities Table 6.1 Education levels of the Chakma and Garo participants 160 Table 6.2 Key findings and analysis of education, health and identity 175 aspects of the Garo and Chakma communities Table 7.1 Participation in household decisions 182 Table 7.2 Participation in decision-making in Chakma women 184 at the domestic level Table 7.3 Participation in decision making by Garo women at 186 the domestic level Table 7.4 Key findings and analysis of political aspects of the Garo 197 and Chakma communities Table 8.1 Differentials in estimated earned income, in US $, by gender, 201 among SAARC countries, 2007 Table 8.2 Nature of work done by Garo women 205 Table 8.3 Nature of work done by Chakma women 206 iii Table 8.4 Key findings and analysis of economic aspects of the 228 Garo and Chakma communities Table: 9.1 Budget allocations for FY 2007-08 to FY 2009-10 to the 246 Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs Table: 9.2 Budget allocations for FY 2007-08 to FY 2009-10 to the 247 Prime Minister Office iv List of figures Figure: 1.1 Poverty trends in Bnagladesh: 1983-2000 6 Figure: 3.2 Core aspects of the capability approach 68 Figure: 3.3 Capability approach, poverty and social exclusion and inclusion 73 Figure: 4.1 Steps for the overall research process 82 Figure: 4.2 Identifying social exclusion and inclusion in terms of a social 84 constructionist framework Figure: 4.3 Identifying the thesis study areas on a map of Bangladesh 90 Figure: 4.4 The stages of the analytical process 109 Figure: 5.1 A thematic diagram of personal and socio-cultural aspects of 118 social exclusion and inclusion Figure: 6.1 A thematic diagram of education, health and identity as 158 contributory factors in the processes of social exclusion and inclusion Figure: 7.1 a thematic diagram of the political factors involved in 181 exclusion/inclusion Figure: 7.2 Traditional administrative structures 192 Figure: 7.3 Post 1900 CHT regulation, administrative structure 194 Figure: 7.4 Present administrative structure in the CHT 195 Figure: 8.1 A thematic diagram of economic factors involved in social 203 exclusion/inclusion v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I, express my heartiest gratitude to Almighty Allah, Who has given me the opportunity to complete this work successfully. I am also grateful to my supervisors, Dr. Karen Rowlingson and Dr.
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