From ‘Moron’ to ‘Maladjusted’: Eugenics, Psychiatry, and the Regulation of Women, Ontario, 1930s-1960s by Lykke de la Cour A Thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto © Lykke de la Cour 2013 ii Lykke de la Cour Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto 2013 Abstract In the early 1900s, the eugenics movement spurred a number of major developments in Ontario, among them the committal of large numbers of women to the Ontario Hospital, Cobourg under diagnoses of mental defect. A tool of reproductive control, institutionalization was meant to inhibit “feebleminded” women’s procreative capacities. Despite the absence of enabling legislation, evidence suggests eugenic sterilizations also occurred in the province. Drawing on the detailed patient case files of women confined to the Cobourg facility from the mid1930s to mid1960s, this dissertation re-examines the history of eugenics in Ontario to demonstrate not only its profound impact in the decades prior to the Second World War, but also its enduring effects in the postwar era. To illustrate eugenics’ lingering impact, the study explores the interconnections between diagnoses linked to intellectual disabilities and emergent postwar psychiatric classifications of personality disorders to show how eugenics and psychiatric regulation were re-framed after the 1940s and applied to broader groups of women. Examining disability as both a category of analysis and a discursive construct, the dissertation argues that eugenicists re-scripted the notion of mentally ‘unfit’ into a concept of ‘maladjustment’ in the postwar years, and iii then applied it more broadly to justify and advance inequitable social relations across a range of social identities. Eugenics operated both materially and discursively as a mechanism through which particular configurations of gender, race, class, and sexuality, along with disability, were established and regulated. It was ultimately in and through early-twentieth-century eugenics that the ‘bio’ and ‘social’ collided, facilitating new notions of citizenship, modes of state governance, and the emergence of the modern bio- political state. iv Acknowledgements One consequence of taking a long time to complete a doctoral thesis is that inevitably there are many friends, family, and colleagues to thank for their enduring support. First, I would like to begin with thanking a number of professors who contributed substantially to my undergraduate and graduate education at the University of Toronto: Alkis Kontos, Jonathan Barker, Mary Nyquist, Norm Bell, Gina Feldberg, Allan Greer, Ian Radforth, Sylvia Van Kirk, and Marianna Valverde. I will forever be indebted to Sylvia as it was her passionate lectures in an introduction to women’s studies course where I first discovered the fields of women’s and social history. In subsequent courses, Sylvia helped to refine my skills as a Canadian women’s historian, and Marianna quite vigorously reinforced the importance of political theory and analysis in studying the past. These two feminist scholars undoubtedly will chuckle at their juxtaposition, but together they provided an incredibly important, exciting, and formative nexus for a developing historian. I would also like to acknowledge the late Dr. Rose Sheinin, Professor of Microbiology and past Vice-Dean of the School of Graduate Studies at the University of Toronto. It was through a summer research contract with Rose (researching the origins of the Ontario Medical College for Women and Women’s College Hospital) that I got my first ‘taste’ of doing archival research on primary documents and was thereafter forever hooked on history. Scholarships from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada (Doctoral Fellowship and M.A. Scholarship) and the Hannah Institute of Medicine (Associated Medical Services Scholarship), as well as contract teaching at York University, Ryerson University, the University of Toronto, and Trent University, v variously provided funding during the completion of this thesis. I also benefitted enormously from the assistance of archivists, namely Barbara Craig and Stormy Stewart, when they worked at the Archives of Ontario. A year or so ago, an Associate Dean at York University asked whether I had been part of the raucous feminist history group that used to meet at Lynn Marks’ house in Toronto, in the late 1980s to early 1990s. I answered ‘yes.’ Apparently, the Associate Dean had been a fellow housemate of Lynne’s and remembered well our rowdy gatherings, full of academic vim and vigor, spirited political debates, and lots of good laughter and camaraderie. No doubt we kept him up some nights. But I often reflect fondly on that time and the incredibly stimulating environment that our study group provided. So many thanks to those who were part of the group and who have remained colleagues and friends: Karen Dubinsky, Nancy Forestell, Margaret Little, Lynne Marks, Cecilia Morgan and Suzanne Morton. Also formative was the now defunct Luna Circle, an equally stimulating but less rowdy study group devoted to the history of mental health. This group included: Norm Bell, Francois Boudreau, Cyril Greenland, Geoffrey Reaume, Edward Shorter, Harvey Simmons and, on occasion, Jack Griffin. I would particularly like to thank Harvey Simmons for his generous encouragement and support of my project and the pivotal scholarly work that he produced on the evolution of mental health policy in Ontario. It was through Harvey’s research that I first learned of the Ontario Hospital, Cobourg, and knew that it would make an ideal topic for a doctoral dissertation. If it weren’t for Harvey, this thesis, at least in its current form, would not exist. Students and colleagues at York University, where I have taught on contract for the past twenty years, have also provided considerable inspiration and support over the years. vi Through the Department of Social Science, as well as the School of Gender, Sexuality and Women’s Studies, the Department of Equity Studies, and Critical Disability Studies, I’ve had the great pleasure of teaching a broad range of amazing undergraduate and graduate students with a keen interest in equity and social justice issues. Their concerns for both our local and global futures continues to fuel me as a teacher. These concerns also act as a constant reminder of the important role faculty occupy in developing a new generation of critical thinkers. A commitment to critical inquiry is also something I’ve had the wonderful pleasure of sharing with a number of colleagues at York, particularly Barbara Beardwood, Linda Briskin, Jan Kainer, Jon Johnson, Pat McDermott, Gloria Pollock, Harriet Rosenberg, Geoffrey Reaume, Richard Wellen and, before her untimely death, Gina Feldberg. A special thanks to Barbara, Jan, and Pat for co-mixing stimulating discussions, a shared politics, and fun social get-togethers. Cheers too to their partners, Peter Beardwood, Terry Maley and Bruce Smardon, whose company I enjoy immensely as well. I owe alot to Kimberley White, current Chair of the Department of Social Science, for giving me the final nudge (shove really!) to complete this thesis this past winter, to Pat McDermott who provided the initial push that got the thesis ball rolling a few years ago, and. Barbara Beardwood who sustained me intellectually and emotionally in between . Also, a big thank you to Geoffrey Reaume for always being there as a sounding board when I need to talk about my research. To my CUPE 3903 union “sisters” - Julie Allen, Mary Ann Coffee, and Sharon Davidson – I owe a lot. In 2008/9, we shared the experience of one of the longest and most grueling strikes ever at an English-Canadian university, and then subsequently worked together on the CUPE 3903 union executive. This was a life-long bonding experience, to say the least. But I have vii benefitted enormously from their wonderful support, friendship, and commitment to improving the working conditions of university contract faculty. Friends and family have certainly sustained me as well over the years. I doubt that I could have completed this project with out the continued support and sustenance of Liri Sinaj, a neighbor who became one my closest friends and who has had to endure more than she should have to listening to my various stresses about life in academe. Nancy Forestell has been an invaluable feminist friend and ally ever since we met in Alan Greer’s graduate history class years ago. We have shared so many good academic discussions, political commiserations, and great laughs over the years, and will continue to do so, together with her partner, Peter McIinnis whose friendship I also dearly value. Nancy provided invaluable feedback on the initial drafts of this thesis which helped to propel my analysis. I also eternally owe Cecilia Morgan lots of glasses of wine for the stylistic editing she did on the first draft of this thesis as an Internal Examiner. I will forever after be conscious of my use of commas, Cecilia. Thanks too to my friends in the Toronto Rug Hooking community, to my ‘doggy’ friends, and to my cousin, Joanne Carlsen. Sarah, my Labrador retriever, is relieved this project is now finally done so that we can focus on the important things in life, like long walks in the woods. Finally I’d like to thank the members of my thesis defense committee for their contributions, particularly Marianna Valverde and Wendy Mitchinson for their extremely useful comments and constructive feedback. My biggest debt and expression of gratitude goes, however, to my thesis supervisor, Franca Iacovetta, whose support never floundered over the years and who graciously advanced this thesis to defense despite her own overwhelming schedule and workload as President of the Berkshire Conference of viii Women Historians. I owe Franca too lots and lots of glasses of wine over the coming years. This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my parents, Elsa and D’Arcy de la Cour, who are never far from my heart and to whom I owe so much.