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Evaluating the Suitability of Water Quality Indices for the Health of Urban Waterways a Case Study of the Parramatta River

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Evaluating the Suitability of Water Quality Indices for the Health of Urban Waterways a Case Study of the Parramatta River Water Quality Monitoring ISSN 2206-1991 Volume 3 No 1 2018 https://doi.org/10.21139/wej.2018.011 EVALUATING THE SUITABILITY OF WATER QUALITY INDICES FOR THE HEALTH OF URBAN WATERWAYS A CASE STUDY OF THE PARRAMATTA RIVER W Chirgwin, B Maheshwari ABSTRACT water quality and for community education in urban areas. An appropriate water quality index is important for Keywords: Water quality monitoring, water quality index, developing strategies for public health and wellbeing in urban stream, river health, and public health. a given urban area. This study set out to compare the National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index INTRODUCTION (NWQI) and Canadian Council of Ministers for the One of the most consistently challenging aspects Environment Water Quality Index (CWQI) in terms of of scientific study lies in presenting results accuracy and overall utility, in the context of a parameter- in a manner that can be understood by limited water quality monitoring and management. those outside your area of expertise. To do this, water quality data were collected from the This becomes even more important Upper Parramatta River, Sydney, Australia, a waterway in studies with potential public draining a highly urbanised catchment. The parameters health impacts, as the results must included in this study were dissolved oxygen, pH, electrical then be presented in a manner conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, phosphates understandable by the layperson. (as filterable reactive phosphates) and nitrates. Biological In studies and disciplines where parameters were also tested, with macro-invertebrate numerous parameters influence surveys and bacteriological tests for faecal coliforms, the overall findings this is often total coliforms, Escherichia Coli (E. coli) and enterococci. accomplished through the consolidation of data into a Additionally, corridor imperviousness of tributaries was single value, or index. Such is determined using GRASS-GIS and compared to index the case in water quality. Water results. The results of this study showed that the NWQI quality is a general overarching did not act as an accurate representative of water quality, term used to describe the physical, but did generally behave in line with current models of chemical, biological, aesthetic and urban stream syndrome. The CWQI was found to be more radiological characteristics of water accurate in terms of range but the modified CWQI based (NSW OEH, 2015). on some changes in the CWQI parameters was found to be more accurate. While this study cannot endorse the These characteristics are often made up use of any index studied as a tool for meaningful water of a variety of parameters, with physical, quality analysis, it does suggest that a modified CWQI chemical and biological parameters often being be considered as a tool for the preliminary assessment of represented by a variety of different measurements. 1 Water e-Journal Online journal of the Australian Water Association Water Quality Monitoring The chemical component of water quality is one of of this is what Paul & Meyer (2001) referred to as ‘Urban the broadest, as based on its intended use and the stream syndrome,’ whereby increased urbanisation leads thoroughness of testing. It can include an enormous to changes in local water quality and hydrology. number of parameters, representing selected heavy metal A well-established effect of urban stream syndrome contaminants, levels of arsenic and other metalloids, as well is its tendency to create a flashy hydrography (Paul & as more site-specific chemicals when applicable. Despite Meyer, 2001, Klein, 1979, Walsh et al., 2005). When a this wide range, many studies choose to focus on the waterway has a flashy hydrography, its flow behaviour more general measurements of chemical contamination, is characterised by low flow rates during dry periods, including nutrient levels, pH and hardness. However, the and extremely high flows after rainfall. This effect is also chemical parameter included in the widest range of studies seen in changes to waterway topography, with channels is dissolved oxygen, due to its well-established status as a becoming more highly incised due to increasingly violent water quality indicator (Kannel et al., 2007, Sanchez et al., stormwater flows. 2007, Rudolf et al., 2002). On the other hand, biological components of water quality include measures of indicator The physiochemical effects of urban stream syndrome bacteria such as faecal coliforms and E. coli (ANZECC, are well documented, with higher electrical conductivity 2000a) amongst others. The bacteria tested, and the linked to catchment imperviousness (Tippler et al., 2012). regime within which they are tested, are designed to The behaviour of turbidity is also known to change in areas match the intended use of the water. For example, when affected by Urban stream syndrome, with the characteristic testing water for drinking, objective values are much more behaviour of low turbidity that occasionally increases stringent than for recreational use. during rainfall events. The chemical effects of urban stream syndrome do undergo slight variations based on the local Based on such tests, their component parameters and environment. Some of the common effects include greater objectives, water may then be determined to be suitable variability in dissolved oxygen levels, often characterised or unsuitable for a particular use. As an example, for by a night-time decrease (Paul & Meyer, 2001, Walsh et al., water to be considered fit for drinking purposes, it 2005); an increase in nutrient levels, notably phosphates must perform well against biological characteristics and nitrates, that are exacerbated by rainfall; changes to such as bacteria, and chemical characteristics such as pH; and increased toxicant levels. heavy metal content (ANZECC, 2000a). In contrast, for agricultural activities such as irrigation, water tests Biologically, urban stream syndrome has been linked to will focus on chemical characteristics (most notably decreases in both the biodiversity of macro-invertebrate salinity). Additionally, water quality can be an important assemblages and the prevalence of more sensitive factor in the protection of ecosystems, both aquatic and species, (Collier & Clements, 2011, Davies et al., 2010, terrestrial (NSW OEH, 2015). As such, it is important that Tippler et al., 2012) as well as potential increases in algal water quality be properly maintained biomass (Walsh et al., 2005). in areas outside of basic human use. However, maintaining water quality can be difficult, due to its tendency to react strongly to various environmental factors, such as local geology, and the nature of the water source in question. One of the most influential of these factors, and the factor over which human behaviour has the most control, is land use. URBAN STREAM SYNDROME It has long been established that local land use can exercise a great deal of influence on local water quality and aquatic ecosystems. A key example Water Quality Monitoring Whilet no solid link currently exists between urban stream Many attempts to create an accurate water quality syndrome and bacteriological indicators, the disturbance index have been made. The two indices that stand out of soil may result in the release of sedimentary as the most used, both within studies and as the basis bacteriological populations, which Alm et al. (2003) found of other indices, are the National Sanitation Foundation in wet sand around freshwater beaches. Should that occur, Water Quality Index (NWQI) and the Canadian Council then the released bacteria coupled with released nutrients of Ministers for the Environment Water Quality Index may cause a sharp increase in local bacterial populations. (CWQI). Whilet both of these indices are widely used, flaws within them have prevented either from gaining The main mechanism by which urban stream syndrome is known to act is as a result of catchment universal acceptance. To understand the reasons for this, imperviousness (Paul & Meyer, 2001, Tippler et al., as well as examine and understand previous applications 2012, Collier & Clements, 2011, Walsh et al., 2005). of the indices, it is necessary to review the relevant Catchment imperviousness represents the proportion literature surrounding them. of the catchment that water cannot pass through and is NWQI often extremely high in urban areas. Additionally, only a The NWQI was developed by Brown et al. in 1970. small change in catchment imperviousness is required Generally based on the model proposed by Horton to produce discernible results, with Tippler et al. (2012) (1965) the concept was to update the parameters used, finding that a catchment imperviousness level of 5% their relative weightings, and the Q value given to the correlated with an observable change in water quality i specific parameters. In doing so, a panel of 142 water and macro-invertebrate communities. quality experts were sent three questionnaires (Wills Stormwater infrastructure may also contribute to urban & Irvine, 1996, Varnosfaderany et al., 2009). Using the stream syndrome. First, in regards to the drain and first two of these questionnaires, nine parameters were pipe systems that are found around Sydney, work by chosen to be included in the index, those parameters Wright et al. (2011) found that the erosion of concrete being dissolved oxygen, faecal coliforms, biochemical infrastructure could be considered to be a contributing oxygen demand, pH, turbidity, temperature change, factor,
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