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A PUBLICATION OF THE HUMANE SOCIETY OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE HSUS WILDLIFE LAND TRUST Volume 8, Number 2, Spring, 2004
Turtles and Highways: Vehicles killed another 250 turtles in just 40 days: Florida cooters, yellow-bellied sliders, musk turtles, mud turtles, Florida softshell turtles, snapping turtles, and box turtles - big and small, new hatchlings, and
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J. A Crossing the Killing Zone 40-year-old adults.
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From flimsy fences to a grassroots somehow she knows that there is water in get out, and race toward her. I would only effort to build an ecopassage the distance. She forces her large, ar- have a few seconds to save her. A line of mored body through the thick vegetation, rush hour traffic is rapidly approaching, By Matthew J. Aresco and by afternoon she slowly climbs the and the turtle has paused in the center of steep slope that leads to the highway, slid- the northbound lane, confused and he roar of an 18-wheeler is ing back down several times before reach- trying to get a bearing on her position. followed by a blast of air as it ing the top. After pausing to rest, she Seeing me running towards her, she pulls passes. Hidden in the low brush leaves the cover of the roadside brush and her head into the safety of her shell, not at the edge of U.S. Highway 27 stretches her neck, using all her senses to aware that the real danger is the rolling near Tallahassee, Florida, is a guide her. Water and a new home are only Continued on page 3 FloridaT cooter, a turtle that hatched from a few hundred yards away, but the land- an egg on the shores of Lake Jackson fif- scape between her and her goal is unfa- teen years ago. She lived well in the lake miliar. She cannot know that the short See Inside and grew large, but today she must leave. stretch of open ground ahead is a killing The lake waters have been slowly reced- zone for turtles, only that she must get to Turtles, continued 3 ing for months, so this morning she the other side. Captive Wildlife 7 crawled out of a muddy, drying pool to Driving north on U.S. 27, I squint and begin a dangerous migration to find new see the familiar silhouette a quarter mile Pumas in the West 11 water. Ancient instincts direct her west; away. I quickly pull my truck off the road,
H E L P I N G G R O U P S B E C O M E M O R E E F F E C T I V E I N P R O T E C T I N G W I L D L I F E A N D T H E I R E C O S Y S T E M S Letter from the Editor Wildlife Tracks Mission and Goals: Over 5,000 wildlife and habitat pro- tection organizations nationwide are hough many of us look forward to spring working to stop the rapid disappearance and summer months as a break from of wildlife and the destruction of their harsh winter weather, this is also a time habitat. Wildlife Tracks combines the T power of information, the power of net- when we are reminded—in a very graphic working and the power of people to way—of our impacts on the natural world: strengthen local, state and national grassroots movements to preserve and re- Roadkill. store wildlife and the ecosystems they In most areas, data on the frequency of need for their survival. road-related wildlife mortality are lacking. But Goals: the number of wild animals killed on roads • To expedite the exchange of expe- certainly seems to increase noticeably at this rience and information between time of year, perhaps due to movements re- wildlife and habitat organizations, while increasing the efficiency and lated to reproduction or a shift in animals’ effectiveness of their efforts. foraging areas between winter and spring. The • To empower the grassroots by shar- ing the successful efforts to preserve loss of individual animals along our roadways wildlife and ecosystems and to in- is bad enough, but these losses could also be spire them to expand their vision considered a reflection of the larger problems and strategy to achieve long-term solutions. caused by highways, such as habitat fragmen- • To assist in building responsible and tation and the inhibition of dispersal or mi- credible organizations by providing information and guidance. gratory movements of wildlife. In this issue of Wildlife Tracks (WT), Matthew Staff: Aresco of the Lake Jackson Ecopassage Alli- John W. Grandy, Senior Vice President, ance describes the large-scale turtle migration Wildlife Programs, HSUS Bette Stallman, Senior Editor across Florida’s Highway 27 that marked the Debra Firmani, Managing Editor beginning of his work to provide safe passage Tanya Mulford, Associate Editor Andrea Cimino, Editorial Assistant for turtles and other wildlife. Here, we do have Jenni Haas, Designer data, thanks to Aresco’s careful record-keep- ing over the past four years, and the tally of Board of Advisors: turtles and other animals that have died Danielle Bays, Kevin Bixby, Henry Brzezinski, David Carle, here—as well as the thousands that would have Linda Hatfield, Anne Miller, died without his help—is alarming. Aresco’s Ruth Musgrave, Diane Nixon, Allen Rutberg, Louisa Willcox tireless work is an inspiration. But, as he points lection from Bernard Unti’s recent book, Pro- out, this cannot continue indefinitely; a per- tecting All Animals: A Fifty-Year History of The Wildlife Tracks Office: manent solution is needed for Lake Jackson Humane Society of the United States. This excerpt The Humane Society of the and for other high-risk roadways. United States chronicles work by The HSUS to improve the Wildlife and Habitat Protection Another form of human-caused mortality welfare of captive wildlife. 2100 L Street, NW may be negatively impacting pumas in the In future issues, we expect to provide ar- Washington DC 20037 Phone: 301-258-3147 western United States. In this issue of WT, ticles on the use of captive wildlife for educa- Fax: 301-258-3080 Wendy Keefover-Ring of Sinapu explains why tional purposes, the public health concerns E-mail: [email protected] the current management of pumas in western related to Canada geese, and the impacts of © The Humane Society of the United States and The states may be resulting in higher mortality than wildlife diseases on conservation. HSUS Wildlife Land Trust, 2004. To reprint any or all of Wildlife Tracks, please contact Bette Stallman at The Hu- puma populations can withstand. Sport hunt- Please contact us if there are specific top- mane Society of the U.S. at the above address. Permis- sion will generally be granted if credit is given to The ing quotas for pumas are increasing in many ics you would like to see covered in WT, or if Humane Society of the United States. western states with few protections for female you would like to contribute an article to WT. The views expressed in these articles represent those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of pumas and cubs. Keefover-Ring warns that lib- Bette Stallman The Humane Society of the United States or those of The HSUS Wildlife Land Trust. The HSUS and The eral puma hunting regulations are especially The Humane Society of the United States HSUS Wildlife Land Trust encourage the grassroots use of all actions that educate and encourage the humane problematic because so few data are available 2100 L Street, NW and proper treatment of human and non-human ani- mals; however, we do not promote or support the use regarding puma population size and demog- Washington, DC 20037 of any action that violates federal, state, or local laws raphy in the west. and regulations in this process. phone: 301-258-3147 We are also continuing our celebration of fax: 301-258-3080 werty the 50th anniversary of The HSUS with a se- email: [email protected] e
W I L D L I F E T R A C K S • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 2 TURTLES, cont. from front page the highway and instead direct thunder of the machines pi- them into a large drainage cul- loted by motorists oblivious vert that connects Lake Jack- to her plight. I snatch her son and Little Lake Jackson. off the road and look back The department agreed to do- as twenty sets of wheels nate some material, 2-foot- rocket over the spot where high woven nylon silt fencing she had rested only a few attached to wooden stakes, the moments ago. same erosion control fencing Scattered along the high- used on construction sites. (I way lay the remains of did not use wire fencing be-
turtles that had not been so RESCO cause even small mesh sizes lucky. On that day, I J. A would allow small turtles to
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counted 90 dead turtles M pass through.) I constructed along a third of a mile sec- Ideally, ecopassages should be designed to mitigate the effects of highway 3,000-foot fences along the tion of the northbound side mortality and habitat fragmentation for the full diversity of fauna affected by a margin of each side of U.S. 27. particular highway, including reptiles and amphibians. of U.S. 27. Here, the four- The bottom edge was buried lane highway was built directly across a movements into consideration. ca. 6-8 inches so that the above ground three-quarter mile section of Lake Jackson height of the fence was ca. 18 inches. The in the 1960s, isolating a 50-acre part of the Preparing for the Migration north and south ends of the fences were lake to the west, now known as Little Lake As spring approached in 2000, and doz- turned back gradually towards the lake at Jackson. Lake Jackson is a 4000-acre State ens of dead turtles began to accumulate least 300 feet to prevent animals from sim- Aquatic Preserve in northwestern Florida, daily along the highway in February and ply wandering around the ends and onto located seven miles north of Tallahassee. March as they left the drying lake, I spent the highway. Many turtles such as snapping It is typical of lakes in this region, domi- many hours patrolling the roadside for turtles, softshell turtles, box turtles, and nated by thick aquatic vegetation and hav- migrating turtles. While Lake Jackson was musk turtles are exceptional climbers and ing a relatively shallow, flat-bottomed ba- slowly drying, Little Lake Jackson still had the fences were angled inward slightly to sin with underlying limestone. plenty of water and the turtles knew it. I minimize this problem. Lake Jackson is a closed basin and the knew I was watching what was only the water depth fluctuates widely, controlled beginning of a massive migration of turtles Monitoring and Rescuing the Turtles naturally by variations in rainfall and by that would attempt to cross the highway The turtle fences were completed just two sinkholes. During drought conditions, in the coming months. After I first discov- in time. The month of April 2000 was ex- a lowering of the water table causes leak- ered signs of the coming migration, ve- ceptionally dry, and hundreds of turtles age into the groundwater through the hicles killed 343 turtles in just 40 days be- continued to migrate toward Little Lake sinkholes, and most of the lake bottom tween 22 February and 3 April 2000: Jackson. I monitored the fence daily and dries; this has occurred nine times during Florida cooters, yellow-bellied sliders, collected turtles walking along the fence the last 100 years, drying on average every musk turtles, mud turtles, Florida softshell and transported them across the highway twelve years. turtles, snapping turtles, and box turtles— in large plastic containers – sometimes The highway was built before State and big and small, new hatchlings, and 40-year- toting six 18-gallon tubs full of turtles at a Federal wetland protection laws were en- old adults—the highway is a blind and sys- time. The fences required vigilant daily acted, and the lake bottom was filled with tematic killing machine. Time after time, monitoring to remove turtles from behind dredge material and concrete rubble. dangerous rush hour traffic forced me to the fences before they either overheated Little Lake Jackson has no active sinkholes stand helplessly on the highway shoulder in the hot sun or were killed by nocturnal and is a deep arm of the lake that was once just a few feet away from the obliteration mammalian predators such as raccoons. part of an old river channel. This road of a 20- to 30-year old turtle that I could Some turtles were observed crossing un- connects north Florida and south Geor- not save. Anger, sadness, frustration, and der the highway through the culvert with- gia to Interstate 10, which brings motor- a deep love for these slow-moving animals out being carried across, but with only one ists to Tallahassee and points south. With motivated me to find a solution to the culvert along a 4000-foot stretch of high- an average traffic volume of 23,000 ve- problem. way, many were not able to locate it. hicles per day, U.S. 27 is an impassable I contacted the Florida Department of From April to August 2000, I counted barrier to turtles and a wide range of other Transportation and proposed a simple, almost 5,000 turtles that left Lake Jackson wildlife—a classic case of poor transporta- low-cost, temporary solution—a low fence and were intercepted by the fence before tion planning that does not take wildlife that would prevent turtles from crossing they reached the highway. Pulses of move-
H U M A N E S O C I E T Y O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S A N D T H E H S U S W I L D L I F E L A N D T R U S T • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 3 ment by turtles corre- highway under normal condi- sponded to the dry down of tions such as nesting in spring several large pools—what and summer, local migration remained of Lake Jack- and dispersal of males and ju- son—during the spring and veniles, and newly emerging early summer. During the hatchlings searching for wa- intense heat of the day, ter. Highway roadsides create turtles would burrow into artificial disturbed and open the soupy mud amidst the habitats that may be attractive, dead and dying catfish, bow- but deadly, to nesting females. fin, and gar. In the early If more females than males evening, turtles of all sizes— are killed on the highway each from large adults to year, populations will eventu- hatchlings no larger than a ally show severely male-biased quarter—would emerge by sex ratios. Normally, sex ratios the hundreds, caked in are nearly 1:1. At Lake Jack- mud, and begin migrating son, I found that sex ratios of in unison towards the sun three turtle species were dra- setting over Little Lake Jack- matically male-biased (65- son. As the lake dried, some 80% males), an indicator of turtles traveled almost a the effects of long-term road mile before they reached morality. the fence. Their shells and limbs often bore testament Tracking Their Numbers to the dangers of being a After almost four years and turtle, from deep boat pro- over 6,000 hours of daily peller scars to alligator bite monitoring of the highway marks. As the final pool and fences, I found that road dried to cracked mud in late mortality and attempted June 2000, I was finding 200 crossings of turtles at U.S. 27
turtles per day at the fence. RESCO are higher than has been Moving along with the J. A documented anywhere else:
TTHEW turtles was a menagerie of A M 8,842 turtles of ten species on other reptiles and amphib- From April to August 2000, I counted almost 5,000 turtles that left Lake a three-quarter-mile stretch of ians, including numerous Jackson and were intercepted by the fence before they reached the highway. highway. Although some green water snakes, banded turtles climbed the fences and water snakes, mud snakes, water mocca- turtles migrated from Little Lake Jackson some found their way around the ends, I sins, pig frogs, leopard frogs, and alliga- back to Lake Jackson as heavy early spring was able to save over 8,100 turtles. Many tors, and these animals were also carried rains and two tropical storms refilled it. other species of reptiles and amphibians across the highway. Alligator tracks were Once again, the temporary fences, com- are excellent climbers, and most of the frequently observed in the culvert. By the bined with intensive daily monitoring, 1,400 individuals of 34 non-turtle species end of July, the northwest part of Lake saved 99% of the turtles from being killed found along the highway were killed by Jackson was completely dry, and the turtles on the highway. traffic. were safely in Little Lake Jackson. One can When the drought finally ended and Road mortality is an increasingly signifi- imagine the carnage along the north- the lake refilled, I hoped that the at- cant threat to the population viability of bound lane of U.S. 27 if the fence had not tempted crossings of turtles and other turtles.1 Recent studies in other parts of been there. species would subside. But the turtles kept North America provide strong evidence that on coming; road mortality and attempted local populations of freshwater and terres- Following Their Return Passage crossings of turtles on U.S. Highway 27 is trial turtles are reduced along highways by Turtles began migrating back to Lake clearly greatest when drought conditions direct traffic mortality and the effects of habi- Jackson following heavy rains in Septem- cause Lake Jackson to dry and during sub- tat fragmentation. Populations of long-lived ber 2000, and the return migration accel- sequent return migrations when the lake vertebrates such as turtles are likely to be es- erated in spring 2001. In 2001, 3,300 refills, but turtles also attempt to cross the pecially vulnerable to road mortality. Demo-
W I L D L I F E T R A C K S • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 4 graphic and life history in population size. In this traits of turtles, including case, low but consistent an- long generation times and nual road mortality rates may naturally high rates of egg be causing long-term popu- and juvenile mortality, lation declines that could limit their annual recruit- eventually lead to extinction ment, or the rate at which of local populations. Alterna- new individuals are added tively, recently abundant spe- to the population. In cies may be experiencing healthy populations, these dramatic reductions in traits are offset by high life- population size and alter- time fecundity as adults ations in demography due to typically have few natural increased traffic volume and predators. However, turtle greater road kill probability. populations may not be RESCO This scenario best fits the
J. A able to compensate for case of turtle populations
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A sudden or chronic losses M near U.S. Highway 27 and of large numbers of breed- Turtle populations may not be able to compensate for sudden or chronic losses many other highways in ing adults, and even small of large numbers of breeding adults. Even small increases in the annual North America where for- mortality rates of mature females can lead to long-term declines. increases in the annual merly rural roads that his- torically allowed successful mortality rates of mature If You Find a Turtle Crossing the Road… females (< 10% per year) crossing of some turtles have can lead to long-term de- experienced a 100-200% in- If you find a turtle crossing the road, you should move it across in clines with little or no crease in traffic volume over the direction it was moving, if you can do so safely. If you cannot tell population recovery pos- the last two decades. For ex- which way it was moving, then move it off the road on the side it was sible. ample, traffic volume in- found. In either case, the turtle should be carried off the road as far as At Lake Jackson, the creased by 162% from 1977 possible. Large snapping turtles or softshell turtles do not need to be number of females killed to 2001 on U.S. Highway 27. picked up and can simply be dragged by grasping the rear margin of annually along the high- Predictably, the probability the shell or the tail. Although they may attempt to bite, they cannot way during nesting sea- of a turtle successfully cross- reach around to the rear of their shell. An uninjured turtle found in son could be sufficient to ing U.S. 27 decreased from the road should never be “rescued” by moving it away from its home cause long-term popula- 32% in 1977 to only 2% in habitat to some other area. In Florida, gopher tortoises are frequently tion declines when com- 2001.2 Lastly, for new road moved by people with good intentions, but such relocations can spread bined with relatively slow construction, long-lived spe- disease (such as upper respiratory tract infections) among popula- growth to maturity (e.g., cies with long generation tions or result in tortoises being transported to unsuitable habitat. 10-12 yrs. for Florida times may exhibit a lag time Relocated turtles will often attempt to return to their home habitat cooters) and low levels of between current road mor- and will wander for days, again encountering roads or predators. recruitment. Large num- tality rates and observable bers of turtles are road population declines. Clearly, killed during both periodic dry-downs season. The combined effects of annual additional studies should be initiated and in years of normal lake levels. The road mortality and periodic mass mortal- throughout North America to carefully mass migration and mortality at U.S. ity during droughts could potentially deci- quantify both direct mortality and demo- Highway 27 represent turtles from at mate entire populations of six turtle spe- graphic effects. Conservation measures least 25% of the total lake area (1000 acre cies at Lake Jackson: yellow-bellied sliders, for freshwater turtles should consider northwest sub-basin); the loss of 25% of Florida cooters, musk turtles, Florida their annual and seasonal overland move- the entire turtle population every 12 softshells, mud turtles, and Florida snap- ments that frequently require them to years due to traffic mortality is a severe ping turtles. cross roads. bottleneck event and a population sink (an area in which high mortality or low Interpreting the Data Addressing the Long-Term reproduction causes a local population Without appropriate baseline data, it How can we eliminate road mortality at decline). At Lake Jackson, 6-22% of fe- may be difficult to detect if turtle popula- Lake Jackson and elsewhere? Although the males in each population are killed an- tions in areas affected by road mortality nylon silt fences were an effective short- nually along the highway during nesting have already undergone historic declines term solution to the turtle road mortality
H U M A N E S O C I E T Y O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S A N D T H E H S U S W I L D L I F E L A N D T R U S T • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 5 sign consists of a lipped, four-foot- often overshadowed by their vulnerabil- high concrete guide wall and a se- ity to habitat destruction and fragmenta- Lake Jackson culvert ries of culverts. This system has tion and the dangers of roads and high- proven effective in diverting wild- ways. A migrating turtle knows where it life from the highway, virtually wants to go and moves with single-minded Little Lake eliminating mortality and facilitat- purpose toward its goal. As stewards of the Jackson ing under-highway movements.3 environment, we should follow that ex- ample and ensure that turtles and other Mobilizing Local Effort wildlife are protected from the hazards Over the last two years, I have that we create. begun a grassroots effort to work with the Florida Department of LAKE JACKSON ECOPASSAGE = drift fences = migration directions Transportation, Leon County gov- CONTACT LIST ernment, and other agencies to Lake Jackson Ecopassage Alliance secure funding and to assure the P. O. Box 180891 problem, they require constant mainte- construction of a permanent ecopassage Tallahassee, Florida 32318 nance and monitoring to remain effective. along U.S. 27 to prevent future mortality www.lakejacksonturtles.org The fencing material degrades rapidly in of turtles and other wildlife. I established [email protected] direct sunlight and is easily damaged by a website, www.lakejacksonturtles.org, and mowers, vandals, ATVs, and storm water a citizen’s action group, called the Lake Letters or emails to the following key run-off. On several occasions, I found road- Jackson Ecopassage Alliance, in order to decision-makers would be helpful: killed turtles next to single breaks in the develop and demonstrate broad-based Leon County Board of County Commis- fence. Also, because there is only one cul- support for the Lake Jackson Ecopassage. sioners vert for the entire stretch of highway, turtles Recently, the Florida Department of Leon County Courthouse, 5th Floor have difficulty finding it, so they must be Transportation allocated $125,000 for a 301 South Monroe Street carried across the road or they may suc- feasibility study to determine the most ap- Tallahassee, Florida 32301-1853 cumb to heat or predators as they search propriate design to solve this unprec- (850) 488-9962 for a way across. Although I have been able edented road mortality problem and to FAX (850) 488-1670 to accomplish this task for the last four reestablish natural migration patterns. [email protected] years, clearly, a more permanent solution Although the design and construction of to this significant wildlife mortality prob- a permanent ecopassage may still be years Tallahassee-Leon County Planning lem is needed, both for this stretch of U.S. away and funding sources remain uncertain, Department (MPO) Highway 27 and other high-risk areas. this is an important first step toward meet- Mr. Jack Kostrzewa, Acting Director A permanent wildlife crossing or ing Federal Highway Administration City Hall, 300 S. Adams Street “ecopassage,” consisting of a guide wall and (FHWA) requirements for possible Federal Tallahassee, FL 32301 multiple culvert system, would solve this funding or Florida Department of (850) 891-8600 continuing wildlife mortality problem. Transportation’s Ecosystem Management FAX (850) 891-8734 Ideally, ecopassages should be designed to funds. In the meantime, I continue to walk [email protected] mitigate the effects of highway mortality the fences and carry turtles across the high- (Endnotes) and habitat fragmentation for the full di- way in plastic containers with duct tape in 1 Gibbs, J. P., and W. G. Shriver. 2002. Esti- versity of fauna affected by a particular hand to patch the holes. As I watch the rain- mating the effects of road mortality on turtle highway, including reptiles and amphib- populations. Conservation Biology 16:1647-1652. fall deficit increase for 2004 and the lake 2 Aresco, M. J. 2004. Highway mortality of ians. Therefore, rather than focusing on a level slowly drop, I ready the fences for an- turtles and other herpetofauna at Lake Jackson, single species, a multi-species approach other mass migration of turtles. Florida, USA and the efficacy of a temporary fence/culvert system to reduce road kills. Pro- that seeks to restore the ecological connec- ceedings of the 2003 International Conference tivity of fragmented areas should be the A Final Word on Ecology and Transportation, Center for Ecol- primary goal. An ideal prototype for a ogy and Transportation, North Carolina State The migration of thousands of turtles University, Raleigh, N.C. multi-species ecopassage design for rep- at Lake Jackson and their ability to find 3 Barichivich, W. J., and C. K. Dodd, Jr. 2002. tiles, amphibians, and mammals was re- water during drought is truly an incred- The effectiveness of wildlife barriers and under- passes on U.S. Highway 441 across Paynes Prairie cently constructed by the Florida Depart- ible natural wonder. Turtles possess a te- State Preserve, Alachua County, Florida. Phase II ment of Transportation at the Paynes Prai- nacity for survival that reflects millions of Post-Construction Final Report. Florida Depart- rie State Preserve along two miles of U.S. ment of Transportation Contract No. BB-854. years of adaptation to dynamic environ- Florida Caribbean Science Center, Gainesville, Highway 441, south of Gainesville. This de- ments. Yet the resiliency of turtles is too Florida, USA. e
W I L D L I F E T R A C K S • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 6 At century’s end, The HSUS focused its efforts on framing the problem of captive wildlife as a circular or interconnected process, in which zoos, circuses, auctions, animal traders, hobby breeders, exotic meat purveyors, canned hunt operators, animal parks, pet shops, and other individuals and institutions comprised an intricate network for animal exchange.
THE HSUS IS THE NATION’S LARGEST Coming to the Aid of Captive Wildlife ANIMAL PROTECTION ORGANIZATION WITH In 2004, The Humane Society of the United States celebrates its 50th anniversary. To NEARLY EIGHT MILLION MEMBERS AND CON- commemorate the work of those five decades, an official historical publication was commis- sioned by Humane Society Press and written by Bernard Unti. Protecting All Animals: A STITUENTS. THE HSUS IS A MAINSTREAM Fifty-year History of The Humane Society of the United States is available for purchase in both hard and soft cover online. The first chapter—a stand-alone historical overview of the VOICE FOR ANIMALS, WITH ACTIVE PROGRAMS organization—is available on the web in PDF format at www.hsus.org. For this issue of Wildlife Tracks, we have excerpted and adapted the captive wildlife
IN COMPANION ANIMALS, WILDLIFE AND HABI- portion of the history. We wish to emphasize that the excerpt is part of a history specifically of The HSUS; while the text occasionally mentions collaborations with other groups, it is not
TAT PROTECTION, ANIMALS IN RESEARCH, intended to be an all-inclusive history of all contributions of groups and individuals to advancing the issue. Indeed, without the ideas, energy, and dedication of all who work on behalf of wildlife, none of the advances we have seen would have been possible. FARM ANIMALS AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICUL-
TURE. FOR 50 YEARS, THE HSUS HAS PRO- An Evolution of McMahon demonstrated in a widely pub- TECTED ALL ANIMALS THROUGH LEGISLATION, Awareness and Action licized confrontation with USDA officials over a shipload of animals in 1966. The LITIGATION, INVESTIGATION, EDUCATION, hen The HSUS began its work, it USDA had forced the Maaslloyd, a Dutch was focused on cruelties far more freighter, to halt outside New York Har- ADVOCACY AND FIELDWORK. THE NON-PROFIT Wconspicuous than those that could bor, because of fears concerning hoof and be found in the nation’s zoos. While zoos mouth disease, several cases of which had recently surfaced at two of the ship’s ports ORGANIZATION IS BASED IN WASHINGTON, were not uncontroversial within the move- ment before 1970, they did not receive of call in Africa. A Nebraska congressman much scrutiny from humane organiza- asked The HSUS to intervene when the DC, AND HAS 10 REGIONAL OFFICES ACROSS tions, nor did animal protectionists USDA declared that if no overseas quar- present a coherent or even a very public antine site could be arranged, the ani- THE COUNTRY. ON THE WEB AT critique of keeping wild animals in cap- mals—bound for American zoos—would tivity. have to be dumped overboard. McMahon WWW.HSUS.ORG. The HSUS did care about the welfare and HSUS board member Edward Bostick of captive animals, though, as Frank had a stormy meeting with USDA officials,
H U M A N E S O C I E T Y O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S A N D T H E H S U S W I L D L I F E L A N D T R U S T • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 7 who finally admitted that the Department of Defense had offered a small island in Long Island Sound to serve as a quaran- tine site for the required sixty days. The USDA finally relented and cleared the ship for entry into the harbor. When the Maaslloyd finally reached the docks, gov- ernment officials saw McMahon—trium- phant—standing on its bridge, having convinced the captain of a small boat to take him out to the ship in the middle of the night, while it was still outside the three-mile limit in order to guarantee the outcome.1
Investigating Conditions The HSUS’s real zoo-related activities began in 1971, when John Hoyt hired zoo Public misgivings about animal welfare in American circuses increased in the wake of several specialist Sue Pressman, from Boston’s high-profile cases of abuse and mistreatment. Franklin Park Zoo, as Director of Wildlife Protection. It was a timely appointment, work against roadside menageries and most zoos. Their continuing popularity, for zoos were now subject to minimum other substandard facilities. The organi- HSUS staff members asserted, rested upon standards enforceable under the Animal zation did not take a position against all their status as a relatively inexpensive rec- Welfare Act amendments of 1970. One of zoos, however, and pledged continued reational option, not on their claims to Pressman’s first assignments was to con- support for endangered-species breeding provide the public with an introduction duct an investigation of zoos, roadside and educational programs managed by to the value of ecosystems, habitat protec- zoos, and other captive animal displays in zoos. Staff members inspected numerous tion, and endangered species protection.4 the United States. The HSUS position was roadside zoos, zoo parks, and other facili- characteristically pragmatic. “The HSUS ties, and interceded in cases where travel- Rescuing and Relocating Victims does not believe in caging animals,” the ing acts and shows were the source of ani- Staff members’ knowledge of zoos and article announcing Pressman’s appoint- mal misery. In such instances, The HSUS the needs of their captive populations ment declared, “but until a practical al- often functioned as a self-declared “goad, sometimes led to happy outcomes, and ternative is put into effect, it intends to exposing a problem and stimulating ac- The HSUS was involved in many success- work toward improving the condition of tion from law enforcement agencies.” By ful efforts to relocate displaced or relin- all caged animals.” 1983, however, HSUS staff members had quished wild animals, beginning with Pressman visited many zoos during her inspected 363 zoos nationwide, and Pressman’s years of service (1971-1986). time at The HSUS, and her inspections singled out ten of the nation’s worst. 3 One of the best known of these interven- and reports garnered significant public In 1984, the board of directors revised tions came in 1981, when Pressman ad- attention, prompting zoo officials to em- HSUS policy, adopting the position that dressed the situation of the chimpanzee bark on crash cleanup strategies both be- animals should not be taken from the wild Ham, the first animal sent into space by fore and after the exposure her visits gen- for public display at zoos, which, to a con- the United States. Zoo staff had never erated. “We thought long and hard” be- siderable extent, were responsible for been able to find a suitable group envi- fore sending Pressman out to do such zoo “abuse, neglect, suffering, and death of ronment in which to situate Ham, whose surveys, John Hoyt recalled. “Zoos are like animals.” When it came to support for unusual background had included almost apple pie. Very rarely do you see the bad endangered-species breeding and educa- no socialization whatsoever with others of side. … Some of the ones we identified tional programs, moreover, few zoos, it his species. He had lived alone for 20 did disappear. We tried to help those that appeared, met satisfactory standards. years. Pressman urged Ham’s transfer to wanted to improve.”2 There was no place for zoos that could not the North Carolina Zoological Park, improve on their programs of care and where he was paired with a lonely female Establishing a Comprehensive Policy education. The wildlife section was an chimp of comparable age.5 The HSUS first adopted a comprehen- early and stalwart critic of ineffectual edu- Sometimes, such interventions could sive policy position on captive animals in cation programs, underscoring the super- involve many animals. John Dommers in- 1975, as its board of directors pledged to ficiality of what passed for instruction at tervened helpfully in 1987, when a small
W I L D L I F E T R A C K S • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 8 sue on behalf of The who knows enough about animals to know HSUS for some years, the whether the animal is being cared for and organization had not got- treated properly.”8 ten directly involved, in As word of the investigation spread, the part because the Ameri- ranks of The HSUS’s movie industry in- can Humane Association formants swelled. A congressional sponsor (AHA) had a Hollywood of animal welfare legislation began to ex- office charged to look out amine the possibilities of protection for for abuses. The movie and captive animals. Jack Valenti of the Motion television western were the Picture Association of America took notice focus of attention for and warned colleagues of “the extent to many years, and humane which The Humane Society … is check- organizations campaigned ing through undercover agents [about] with some success against such cruelty.”9 the use of trip wires to yank the legs out from Working Undercover at Circuses The HSUS was an early and stalwart critic of ineffectual under horses, particularly In the 1970s, The HSUS also kept an education programs, underscoring the superficiality of what on overseas sets. However, eye on circuses, because in that case, too, passed for instruction at most zoos. the scrapping of a produc- 1970 amendments to the Animal Welfare tion code led to a rise of Act established requirements for adequate zoo in Connecticut closed its doors, help- abuses by 1966, and even the trip-wire treatment and care. Both Frank McMahon ing to find new facilities for a group of made a triumphant return. Animals suf- and Sue Pressman checked out the animal animals, including primates. In the early fered and died (like the donkeys in quarters of major circuses whenever they 1990s, New England Regional Office staff- “Patton”) in a spate of movies where the got the opportunity to do so. In 1977, in- ers Arnold Baer and Frank Ribaudo drew bullets and knives were real, and by the vestigators Frantz Dantzler, Phil Steward, The HSUS into a similar situation involv- mid-1970s, Hollywood wasn’t even sending and Marc Paulhus joined Pressman in an ing Rhode Island’s Slater Park Zoo, long the scripts to humane groups for review.7 investigation of traveling circuses. As a re- reviled by local animal protectionists as a In 1975, The HSUS decided to do more sult of their efforts, one operator was ar- substandard facility. Staff members worked to establish the facts about the perform- rested three times in three different states with city authorities to explore all options ing animal industry. Pressman went on for his neglect of primates. In 1980, Press- for improving the situation, and ultimately several trips to California and spent weeks man actually joined the circus, working influenced the 1993 decision of the at a time undercover, observing the living undercover for several months on a clean- Pawtucket City Council to close the zoo as quarters, training methods, and standards up crew, traveling with several troupes and a cost economy. As Richard Farinato of care in the industry, and questioning observing the lives of performing animals. noted, there were approximately 200 such actors, actresses, producers, cameramen, Especially in the smaller “mud shows,” she municipally owned zoos at the time, but scriptwriters, trainers, and others for in- witnessed terrible shortages of water for “few cities are getting into the zoo busi- formation concerning persistent allega- cleaning animals, cooling them down, and ness and many of them will be looking to tions of neglect and abuse. Pressman saw quenching their thirst; days of being get out—for the same reasons that existed animals (whose owners had in many cases chained in the heat; starvation and mal- at Slater Park.” The HSUS helped to relo- reaped thousands of dollars from their nutrition; and inadequate veterinary cate Slater Park’s animals to more suitable performance work) confined in the worst care.10 facilities, including the Black Beauty possible housing, subjected to abusive By June 1997, when The HSUS Ranch and Wildlife Rescue and Rehabili- training methods, deprived of proper nu- launched a concerted campaign to raise tation Center in Texas.6 trition and exercise, and denied any kind public awareness of the suffering of wild of preventive veterinary care. Animal train- animals in circuses, it had more than two Addressing the Television and Movie ers occupied a netherworld of deliberate decades of experience with “The Big Lie Industries cruelty, rampant opportunism, and shame- Behind the Big Top.” A videotape and edu- During the 1970s, recognizing that zoos less deceit in pursuit of profit. “Nine dif- cation kit of the same name went out to were not the only places where captive ferent trainers told me they owned Gentle hundreds of organizations nationwide, as animals were kept, The HSUS put Sue Ben, the bear from the TV series of the public misgivings about animal welfare in Pressman’s talents to use in investigations same name, and almost as many people American circuses increased in the wake of the television and movie industry. Al- told me they owned the Mercury cougar,” of several high-profile cases of abuse and though Mel Morse had monitored the is- Pressman recalled. “It is a rare producer mistreatment.
H U M A N E S O C I E T Y O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S A N D T H E H S U S W I L D L I F E L A N D T R U S T • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 9 Exposing “Game Ranches” sentences (not long enough, in the opin- substantially during this period, as media From the 1980s onward, The HSUS also ion of many observers), but also barred exposés revealed gross neglect, impen- worked to expose the proliferation of them from any further contact with ani- etrable secrecy, and the zoo community’s “game ranches,” where those with the mals for eight years.12 reluctance to accept thoroughgoing money could purchase the right to shoot mechanisms of regulation to prevent just about any animal they desired—at Connecting the Links of Abuse abuse and suffering. close range and with little or no personal At century’s end, the wildlife section Bernard Unti received his doctorate in U.S. risk. The ranches were intimately tied to focused its efforts on framing the prob- history in 2002 from American University. His lem of captive wildlife as a circular or book, Protecting All Animals: A Fifty-Year His- interconnected process, in which zoos, tory of The Humane Society of the United States, circuses, auctions, animal traders, is available from Humane Society Press. Visit hobby breeders, exotic meat purvey- www.hsus.org or contact [email protected] for ors, canned hunt operators, animal ordering information. parks, pet shops, and other individu- als and institutions comprised an in- (Endnotes) tricate network for animal exchange. 1 “HSUS Fights to Save African Animals from Watery Grave,” HSUS News (September 1966), 8; While they advanced differing ration- and “Frank McMahon Loses Fight for Life,” HSUS ales for their activity, all of these par- News (Summer 1975), 6. ticipants bore some responsibility for 2 “HSUS Investigates 64 Zoos,” HSUS News (July 1971), 1; Jack Anderson, “Some Zoos Called animals’ suffering and death. Inhu- Dens of Horror,” Philadelphia Bulletin, 26 July 1971; mane and abusive conditions pre- “Most Large Zoos Obey Law, Philadelphia Spokes- man Contends,” Philadelphia Bulletin, 26 July 1971; vailed in many facilities, and the often “Zoo Conflicts Cause Suffering for Animals,” underhanded means by which the traf- HSUS News (Spring 1975), 13; “HSUS Tells Pitts- fic was carried out made it difficult for burgh Its Zoo is Stagnating,” HSUS News (Sum- mer 1975), 12; “Trenton Zoo ‘Barbaric,’” Phila- 13 humane advocates to scrutinize. delphia Bulletin, 30 May 1980; and John A. Hoyt Given the transnational scope of so Interview, May 31, 2001. 3 “The Humanitarian as Irritant,” HSUS News many of the issues it had to confront, (Summer 1981), 2; Sue Pressman, “Ten Substan- the wildlife division also developed an dard Zoos,” HSUS News (Summer 1983), 10-14; ever stronger role in promoting re- Report of the President 1989; and John W. By 1983, HSUS staff members had inspected Grandy, “Zoos: A Critical Reevaluation,” HSUS 363 zoos nationwide, and singled out ten of sponsible and humane management News (Summer 1992), 12. the nation’s worst. of captive wildlife in other nations. In 4 John W. Grandy, “Zoos: A Critical Reevalua- tion,” HSUS News (Summer 1992), 12. a highly publicized case, HSUS repre- 5 “HSUS Releases Tuffy from Tank,” HSUS News the trade in exotic animals, something sentatives assisted South African humane (November 1971), 1; “HSUS Saves Bear in Con- organizations in the case of the Tuli el- demned Cage,” HSUS News (Summer 1972), 1; that The HSUS investigated at some “Ex-Bank Bear Gets New Lair,” Washington Star, length during the 1980s and 1990s, send- ephants, in which a court of law ruled that 7 November 1974; and “It’s Lonely at the Top,” ing staff members out to auctions and traditional elephant training methods HSUS News (Spring 1981), 3. 6 “Zoo Closes,” HSUS News (Fall 1987), 31; other sites important to wildlife exchange. were cruel, and a number of the animals and Randall Lockwood, Ph.D., “Life After Slater In 1985, investigator Eric Sakach accom- were set free in protected parklands in Park,” HSUS News (Fall 1993), 25-26. South Africa. 7 T.E.D. Klein, “They Kill Animals and Call It panied officials of the Oregon State Po- Art,” New York Times, 13 January 1974. lice, the USDA, and the Central Coast It was fitting that, in April 2003, more 8 “Cruelty to Animals in the Film Industry,” Humane Society on a raid of an exotic than thirty years after The HSUS under- HSUS News (Autumn 1975), 3-6. 9 “Sue Pressman Means Business,” HSUS News game ranch in Siletz, Oregon. The opera- took its first extended investigations of (Winter 1976-77), 10-11. tor of this substandard facility was charged captive wildlife cruelties, Richard 10 “HSUS Alert: It’s Circus Season,” HSUS News Farinato, HSUS Director of Captive Wild- (June 1974), 3; and Jeanne Roush, “Animals Un- with multiple counts of cruelty to animals der the Big Top,” HSUS News (Spring 1981), 18- under state law.11 life Programs, was quoted in numerous 21. In 1996, Northern Rockies Regional stories about dismal management at the 11 Oregon Ranch Raided,” HSUS News (Win- ter 1985), 35; “Animal Welfare Organizations and Office director Dave Pauli coordinated National Zoo. If zoos made any progress Government Officials Try to Close Shoestring Op- The HSUS’s response to a tragic episode during the last quarter of the twentieth eration,” HSUS News (Fall 1985), 26-28; “Exotic Animal Auctions,” HSUS News (Spring 1988), 7-9; that resulted in the killing of sixteen li- century, it was due in some measure to and Allen T. Rutberg, “Wildlife: Wanted Dead or ons who escaped from an Idaho game the steady surveillance, criticism, and con- Alive,” HSUS News (Winter 1992), 23-25. farm. The HSUS’s testimony helped to structive input that The HSUS had pro- 12 “Spotlight,” HSUS News (Summer 1996), 2. 13 Michael Winikoff, “Blowing the Lid off Canned ensure that the shocking negligence of the vided since 1970. Public skepticism about Hunts,” HSUS News (Summer 1994), 38-43. operators not only earned them prison the legitimacy and quality of zoos grew e
W I L D L I F E T R A C K S • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 10 The State of Pumas in the West: Are We Heading Towards Overkill?
THIS ARTICLE IS ADAPTED FROM A REPORT BY SINAPU, THE STATE OF PUMAS IN THE WEST. TO READ THE ORIGINAL REPORT IN FULL, ALONG WITH FULL BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SEPARATE REPORTS FOR EACH OF TWELVE WESTERN STATES, VISIT: WWW.SINAPU.ORG/PAGES/PUMASTATERELEASE. HTML
By Wendy Keefover-Ring, Director Carnivore Protection Program Sinapu
xtraordinarily asocial, fiercely territorial, and secretive, pumas E(Puma concolor) lie below the radar screens of many conservationists and re- searchers, despite the fact that these im- portant native carnivores are often sub- jected to liberal hunting and trapping No state wildlife agency has accurate population data for these rare golden cats. Instead of regulations in states that have little or no using science, game and fish agencies and commissions are happy to advance “data” from data on their population sizes. hound-hunting outfitters (the industry that profits from high-paying, puma-killing clients) to derive density estimates that result in high hunting quotas. Pumas (also commonly referred to as cougars, mountain lions, panthers, or catamounts), generally occur in low den- where they can best stalk and ambush the Americas through unregulated hunt- sities because they are obligate carnivores, their prey.2 ing and trapping, and, in the United meaning that they must kill and consume Pumas are considered by some biolo- States, bounties and federal eradication prey for their survival (unlike facultative gists to be both an umbrella and a keystone programs. In the United States today, pu- carnivores, such as coyotes or bears, which species. An umbrella species requires mas are known to inhabit the intermoun- acquire some calories from plant materi- large, connected tracts of suitable habitat tain West, and a remnant population in als).1 Pumas’ prey, usually deer or elk, are for survival; a keystone species is one the Southeast, the federally endangered dispersed across wide areas, thus pumas whose role in an ecosystem far outweighs Florida panther. Some biologists believe themselves require expansive habitats to the roles of other species and whose ef- that a few Mid-western populations may sustain themselves. Males’ home ranges, fects are disproportionate to its abun- have avoided complete extirpation. Pumas for example, often exceed 100 square dance (i.e., such a species has a large eco- also appear to be re-colonizing some parts miles. Unlike wolves or coyotes, which are logical impact relative to its biomass). of the Midwestern and Eastern United coursing (chasing) predators, pumas am- Because of the puma’s integral ecological States, moving into these areas from the bush their dinner and are thus best suited role, its conservation will ultimately pro- West and from Canada.4 to “edge” habitats—the transitional zone tect a myriad of plants and animals.3 In the mid-1960s and early 1970s, West- between vegetative plant types, for in- By the turn of the twentieth century, ern states ended the payment of bounties stance, between forest and grasslands— pumas had been extirpated from most of on pumas, changed the species’ status
H U M A N E S O C I E T Y O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S A N D T H E H S U S W I L D L I F E L A N D T R U S T • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 11 under the state game regulations To understand the way puma from “varmint” to “big game” animal, populations respond to hunting and began to regulate the hunting pressures, one must understand and trapping of pumas. (The excep- something of their evolution. Native tion is Texas, where pumas still have carnivores such as pumas did not no protection from hunters or trap- evolve with the same selection pres- pers, and the number of pumas sures (e.g. predation) as prey spe- killed is not tracked by the state.) cies, and thus pumas’ life history Some biologists believe that, as a re- differs from those of their prey. Spe- sult of these regulatory changes and cifically, pumas (and other large the ending of bounties, puma popu- carnivores) are not fecund. Female lations have begun to rebound.5 pumas give birth to two to three kit- Other biologists argue that the num- tens every two years, yet many of ber of pumas killed by sport hunters In those hunted populations where females are killed, it is those youngsters die within a few from the 1970s to the present time more likely that kittens will be orphaned and die from months as a result of predation, dis- starvation or predation. may exceed the number of pumas ease, or starvation. Mother pumas killed during the period when boun- invest between 11 and 16 months ties were offered.6 The loss of even a small number of pu- raising the lucky survivors. When pumas Across the West, puma hunting has sig- mas in a population can have serious ef- reach an age at which they are ready to nificantly increased in popularity since the fects. A southern Utah study demon- disperse to establish their own home 1980s (see Figure 1). In fact, in all ten of strated that even minimal human-caused range, they often die as a result of being the western states that track hunter-caused reductions in a puma population for two hit by a motor vehicle or intraspecific puma mortality, the number of pumas consecutive years can limit the strife—that is, they frequently die in fights killed in recent decades by sport hunters population’s ability to rebound.8 And yet, with older cats that are already established has increased. This upward trend is par- despite killing record numbers of pumas, in a home range.9 Thus, the recruitment ticularly dramatic in Idaho, Colorado, states governments have no information rate to the breeding population is low. Utah, and Montana. Colorado, for ex- about the size of their puma populations, Therefore, they are susceptible to over- ample, sold 416 licenses in 1982, com- because present methods for estimating kill.10 pared with 1,806 licenses in 2002; and the them are expensive and time-consuming. Another factor is the nature of hunt- number of pumas killed by sport hunters Other than California—which banned the ing: in any hunted population, human in that state also increased dramatically: sport hunting of pumas in 1990—and, hunters may select individual animals dis- In 1980, Colorado hunters killed 81 pu- more recently Montana, no state has taken playing especially valued characteristics— mas; in 2001, they killed a record 439 pu- measures to prevent overkill of pumas. i.e., “trophy-quality” animals. Over the mas. Of Western states, only
Montana has recently taken Figure 1 4000 steps to decrease hunting Pumas Killed by Sport Hunters in 10 Western States quotas—and this was only 1982-2002 3500 WY because hunters themselves complained of their lack of WA 3000 success. No Data for: UT Idaho, 1982 2500 Oregon, 1982-1991 OR EFFECTS OF SPORT Utah, 1982-1988 HUNTING ON PUMAS NM 2000 Loss of habitat, habitat NV fragmentation, and over- 1500 hunting by sport hunters MT and poachers pose the larg- ID 1000 est threats to puma popula- CO tions. For example, in a Mon- 500 tana study, 36 of 38 radio- AZ collared pumas died as a re- 0 sult of human action—
7 1997 mostly from sport hunters. 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
W I L D L I F E T R A C K S • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 12 long term, the removal of individuals with increase hunter and poacher access to tions are thriving or whether there are specific traits could alter the gene fre- remote areas and result in numerous ve- more humans living and recreating in quencies in a puma population in a way hicle-animal collisions. Even secondary puma habitat, and thus more observers of that is detrimental to the reproduction roads and non-motorized trails can alter a relatively small number of pumas. At and survival of that population and which, animal behavior and effectively reduce present, western states don’t monitor their therefore, decreases the extent to which connectivity in habitats—which, in turn, puma populations—with the exceptions of pumas are adapted to their environ- influences wildlife populations and eco- Montana and Colorado, where new stud- ment.11 system functions. For large carnivores such ies of a limited geographic area are un- High human-caused mortality of fe- as grizzlies, wolves, pumas, and black derway. Thus, it is possible that pumas are male pumas, in particular, has the poten- bears, roads not only alter survivability but currently over-exploited throughout 20 tial to devastate puma populations. Fe- they can also disrupt gene flow by inhibit- much, if not all, of the West. males act as the biological bank account, ing dispersal. The precautionary principle warns us that and their reproductive and nurturing Loss of prey can also contribute to the it is imprudent to wait for “incontrovert- roles are vital to the conservation of this decline of large carnivores. Normally, deer ible scientific evidence of harm before species. In those hunted populations are at the top of the puma’s menu. While preventive action is taken,” because we where females are killed, it is more likely deer in the United States are likely more may cause “irreversible harm” to human that kittens will be orphaned and die from numerous in many areas now than prior health, ecosystem health, and to the 21 starvation or predation. Kittens orphaned to European settlement, their populations economy. Thus, it makes sense for west- before the age of nine months typically have declined in the West following the ern states to conservatively manage puma die.12 No western state (except California) historic highs between 1930 and 195017; populations until better evidence can be adequately protects females who have kit- ironically, the deer population peaked gathered. Failure to do so may result in tens. Colorado and other states attempt because at the turn-of-the-century, domes- unsustainable puma mortality. to provide some protection for females tic livestock over-grazed grasses, which by limiting the duration of the hunting were replaced by “browse,” woody plants COMMON JUSTIFICATIONS FOR PUMA season and/or by prohibiting the killing and shrubs that are preferred by deer. The HUNTING IN THE WEST of lactating females or females accompa- recent mule deer decline is probably due nied by kittens. It is nearly impossible, to a number of factors, including habitat 1. LIVESTOCK-PUMA CONFLICTS however, for hunters to determine loss, fire suppression, increases in exotic Hunters and state wildlife and agricul- whether a female cat has dependent kit- plant species and their distribution, com- tural agencies often point to potential kill- tens, because very young kittens never petition with other wild ungulates such as ing of livestock as one justification for travel with their mother.13 Moreover, elk, and infectious diseases such as bovine hunting these native carnivores. However, puma-hunting seasons usually occur in viral diarrhea and chronic wasting dis- predators accounted for only 3.5% of the West in the weeks after the peak ease.18 cattle and calf losses in 2000, according birthing months, when most kittens are In spite of the many factors limiting to the National Agricultural Statistics Ser- only a few weeks or months old, although puma populations—loss of habitat and vice (NASS). Sheep experience higher females may produce kittens at any time prey base, increased mortality due to hunt- losses from predation than do cattle, prob- of year.14 During hunting season, there is ing, and naturally low recruitment rates— ably because thousands of years of artifi- always a chance that a female is raising the data regarding puma populations in cial selection have resulted in sheep that 22 kittens. Logan and Sweanor estimate that the West is very limited. Only a handful of have poor predator avoidance strategies. between 38 and 56% of the females killed puma studies have been of adequate du- NASS reports that predators accounted for by hunters each year are likely to have ration and quality to obtain detailed data 30% of sheep mortality. Of these sheep dependent cubs.15 Only Idaho, Montana, regarding such basic factors as population and lamb losses, only 8.4% could be at- and Wyoming set female sub-quotas in an size, age and sex ratios, mortality and re- tributed to pumas in 2000 (compared to attempt to protect females. cruitment rates, and population trends 18.5% for domestic dogs and 62% for coy- over time. Because there are minimal data otes). The leading causes of death for both OTHER STRIKES AGAINST PUMA SURVIVAL on puma populations and available meth- cattle and sheep are respiratory and diges- To make matters worse, pumas have lit- ods for estimating puma numbers or tive problems, complications during calv- erally lost ground as well as their food sup- population trends are expensive and time- ing or lambing, weather, poison, and 23 ply. Growth and sprawl in the West for- consuming, state wildlife managers rely theft. However, pumas are often ever remove habitat needed by pumas and heavily on anecdotal evidence provided scapegoated for livestock losses. their prey. Roads spider web through largely by puma hunters—who benefit fi- No evidence supports the notion that once untrammeled areas and harm wild- nancially from taking clients on hunts.19 sport hunting reduces livestock-puma con- life in many ways.16 For example, roads Thus it is unclear whether puma popula- flicts. Sport hunters are unlikely to target
H U M A N E S O C I E T Y O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S A N D T H E H S U S W I L D L I F E L A N D T R U S T • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 13 policy.24 In Colorado, for ex- acquire empirical data regarding puma ample, the Colorado Mule populations, states rely on anecdotal evi- Deer Association, some wild- dence supplied by puma hunting outfit- life commissioners, and puma ters. No state wildlife agency has accurate hunting outfitters believe that population data for these rare golden cats. predators are to blame for Instead of using science, game and fish “decimating” the state’s mule agencies and commissions are happy to deer population. This un- advance “data” from hound-hunting out- founded belief drives many fitters (the industry that profits from high- state wildlife agencies in the paying, puma-killing clients) to derive den- West, the U.S. Department of sity estimates that result in high hunting Agriculture’s Wildlife Ser- quotas. If states do not begin to enhance vices, and even federal lands their data collection and analysis, we may managers, such as the Bureau hurt puma populations in the West. of Land Management, to The increase in roads, development, make decisions that encour- and sprawl in the West are enormous fac- age the destruction of large tors in puma population viability over the carnivores. long term. To make matters worse, some This simplistic notion that hunting groups and livestock growers be- predators alone control prey lieve that reducing puma populations will species’ numbers is generally increase deer or other ungulate (e.g. not supported in the scientific pronghorn, bighorn sheep) populations literature. Instead, several and will result in fewer livestock losses. As studies have shown that preda- we have shown here, those concerns are tor-prey relationships are af- generally based in myth and not on bio- fected by a myriad of factors, logical data. Meanwhile, trophy hunters Pumas are considered by some biologists to be both an including habitat loss, continue to kill pumas in escalating num- “umbrella” and a “keystone” species. An umbrella species requires large, connected tracts of suitable habitat. A weather, annual precipitation, bers across most of the West. keystone species is one whose role in an ecosystem far disease, and livestock grazing. We may kill pumas to the point of no outweighs the role of other species and whose effects are In a recent synthesis of preda- return; in fact, in the not so distant past, disproportionate to their abundance. tor-prey interactions, biolo- we very nearly succeeded in eradicating gists found that when a prey them from the entire lower 48 states. Con- accurately those pumas that are actually population is at or above its forage carry- versely, if we protect pumas and their habi- killing cattle and sheep. In fact, hunting ing capacity, predators have little effect tat, we will protect the integrity of our na- pumas can exacerbate conflicts if resident on that prey population. It is only when tive ecosystems and conserve habitat for a adults are removed and are replaced by prey species fall far below the forage car- myriad of other plants and animals—all younger animals. Young (one to three rying capacity that the removal of preda- necessary for balanced, healthy ecosys- years of age) pumas are more likely than tors may benefit prey species. Yet decision tems. What is the legacy that we want to older adults to come into conflict with live- makers often use this argument to justify leave our grandchildren? We hope it is a stock and humans. Unexploited puma killing predators rather than looking at West full of the native species that make populations tend to contain a larger pro- underlying causes—such as habitat loss, up the region’s wild, natural heritage, in- portion of older animals, have a lower rate overgrazing by domestic livestock, fire cluding keystone species such as the puma. of reproduction, and lower survival of ju- suppression, extreme weather conditions, veniles compared with moderately or disease from livestock, and increase of ex- ADDITIONAL READING: heavily hunted populations. Nevertheless, otic plants.25 Myopic blaming of predators Logan, K. and Sweanor, L. 2001. Desert puma hunters claim they are providing a for loss of prey—and the implementation Puma: Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation benefit to livestock producers. of blanket predator removal strategies— of an Enduring Carnivore, Island Press, is well documented in the scientific litera- Washington DC. 2. REDUCING PREDATORS TO INCREASE ture. For more information on habitat loss “VALUABLE” GAME SPECIES: and roads, see: centerwest.org/publica- In many western states, dominionistic A TIME FOR CONSERVATIVE tions/tracking_site/population.html. values—i.e., “the human inclination to MANAGEMENT OF PUMAS IN THE WEST subdue and master nature”—drive wildlife Because it is difficult and expensive to See sidebar on page 16.
W I L D L I F E T R A C K S • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 14 10 Miller, B., large cat special- Outfitters charge $3,500 for a 7-day hunt ist, Denver Zoo. Personal com- <.saddlemountainoutfitters.com>; and High munication. Lonesome charges $3,500 for a 5-day hunt 11 Coltman, D.W., et al. 2003.
H U M A N E S O C I E T Y O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S A N D T H E H S U S W I L D L I F E L A N D T R U S T • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 15 PUMAS, cont. from page 14
REDUCING HUMAN CONFLICTS
Few people are killed or attacked by pumas.26 And most • Homeowners should not feed or Americans believe that it is unacceptable to exterminate otherwise attract deer to their prop- entire puma populations to reduce all risks to humans.27 erties. Plant only native vegeta- For those who choose to live or recreate in puma country, tion—because it is less of an attrac- common sense precautions can help you reduce already tant. Deer-proof fences that are 6 negligible risks:28 to 8 feet tall will deter both deer and pumas. It may even be neces- • Mountain lions are crepuscular: they sary to discontinue feeding birds if hunt at dawn and dusk. So be most pumas have been sighted in your vigilant at these times. neighborhood. The birdseed will • It is best not to travel alone in puma attract rodents and other mam- habitat. Trail runners and mountain mals, which may, in turn, attract a bikers should run or ride with others. puma. Solitary individuals are three times •Homeowners should install light- more likely to have an encounter or sus- ing in areas where family or pets tain an attack than are a pair of people may be outside after dark. or a group. • Do not allow pets to roam at night. • Homeowners living in puma country In puma country, keep pets on a should eliminate hiding places for pumas leash and securely confined at such as dense vegetation near the house— night. Tightly secure the tops of especially in children’s play areas. kennels or keep pets inside the • Most victims of puma attacks (64%) house or other building. are children. Children under 16 who • If you encounter a puma: keep eye are not accompanied by an adult are contact, move backwards slowly. at the greatest risk. In puma country, Raise your arms over your head to do not allow children to play outside appear larger. If you are wearing a at dawn or dusk. Put children’s play jacket, grab the corners and lift areas where they can be supervised. over your back (like wings) to ap-
Printed on 100% postconsumer paper with soy-based ink. Consider fencing children’s play ar- pear larger. Yell. Throw rocks or It is unclear whether puma populations are eas—pumas prefer to ambush their sticks. Be very aggressive, never sub- thriving or whether there are more humans living prey; a fence is a good deterrent. missive. If attacked, fight back. e and recreating in puma habitat, and thus more observers of a relatively small number of pumas.
Wildlife Tracks NON-PROFIT ORG. THE HUMANE SOCIETY OF THE US POSTAGE UNITED STATES PAID Wildlife Department and THE HUMANE The HSUS Wildlife Land Trust SOCIETY OF THE UNITED STATES 2100 L Street, NW Washington, DC 20037
W I L D L I F E T R A C K S • S P R I N G 2 0 0 4 16