The St. Lawrence County Historical Association UARTERLY The St. Lawrence County Historical Association QUAR1~RLY
Volume XXXVIII Spring 1993 No.2
This publication is made possible in part with public funds from the New York State Council on the Arts
Editor: Cornel Reinhart Production Editor: Mark R. Petersen
ISSN: 0558-1931 Copyright St. Lawrence County Historical Association 1993
The Quarterly is published Winter, Spring, Sum mer, and Fall each year by the St Lawrence County His tori cal Association.
Extra copies may be obtained from the St. Lawrence County Historical Association, P.O. Box 8, Canton, NY 13617, at $3.00 each plus 75¢. for postage and handling.
Contributions: The Quarterly welcomes con tributions in the form of manuscripts, drawings, and photographs. H documentation is necessary, were quest that it conform to the MLA Style Manual. A summary of the MLA format is available from the editor. Please address all editorial communications to The Editor, The Quarterly, St. Lawrence County Historical Association, P.O. Box 8, Canton, NY 13617. CONTENTS
Jacqueline Goodman-Draper 1 A Paradise Lost: The Decline of Autonomy Amongst the Mohawks at Akwesasne
Robert B. Shaw 9 Edward Everett, Potsdam Legislator: Author of the Suppressed "Everett Report"
Cover: W.H. Bartlett and H. Griffiths. St. Regis, Indian Village (Courtesy of the Akwesasne Museum and Madelaine Gray)
The Winter and Spring, 1993, issues of The Quarter1 y are devoted to Native American history in St. Lawrence County. A Paradise Lost: The Decline of Autonomy Amongst the Mohawks at Akwesasne by Jacqueline Goodman-Draper
rior to contact with Upon meeting the Mohawks for the deer . . . also many turkeys . . . Whites, Mohawk Indians first time he described their lands as a partridges, hens and pigeons that fly were primarily an seeming paradise: together in the thousands. Also swans, ducks, geese ... lions, bears, agricultural people- The land is good and fruitful in wolves, foxes and many snakes. In growingP com, beans and squash-as everything which supplies human this river is a great plenty of fish. well as hunting and fishing. There needs ... The forests grow (Megapolensis 1644: 168). was an abundance of such foods in the chestnuts, plums, hazelnuts and Another Dutchman, Arendt Van seventeenth century Mohawk Valley walnuts . . . The ground is covered Curler, employed by the Dutch West according to the journals of the Dutch with bushes of bilberries (blueber India Company trading with the Reverend Johannes Megalopolensis. ries), strawberries ... grape vines ... In the forests plenty of Mohawks wrote similarly:
Fig. 1: Construction of a Longhouse. (Drawing Courtesy of the Akwesasne Museum)
Spring 1993 1 The houses were fuJI of com . .. we property owning groups (like the the Mohawks, along with the rest of call maize; yes, in some houses more Mohawk), Engels wrote: "the ad the Iroquois, became middlemen in than 300 bushels ... we ate heartily ministration of the household, the fur trade between the Northwest of pumpkins, beans and veni entrusted to women, was just as much Native Americans and the Europeans son . . . so we were not hungry but a public, socially necessary industry (Goldstein 1969: 47). were treated as weU as possible on as the providing of food by the men." What is most significant in their their land Oamesson 1909: 141). (Quoted inK Sacks 1975: Reiter). participation in this fur trade is the The traditional way of life during Mohawk women, thus, engaged in way in which, aside from engender· this period was collectivist. Goods the "public" act of providing food (en ing wars among different Native were stored in longhouses (similar in tire cultivation of the fields), and exer American tribes for control (against appearance to quonset huts covered cised considerable power in the the Hurons and Algonquins among with bark) and shared amongst economic and political life of the others) it necessitated the break up of several clan-linked families that lived Mohawks. Descent was recognized the collective household (Leacock in each longhouse. Perhaps as many through the female line only and dan 1981). According to Leacock, tending as eight fireplaces burned at any given mothers determined the selection of a fur trapline was more individualist time within a longhouse (Frisch Mohawk political leaders. Such tradi than hunting, fishing or agricultural 1970; 34). These families shared food tions of female political decision pursuits. This in turn, affected the from hunting and fishing. Corn and making, egalitarianism and collective family units, breaking them into bearhead soup and other vegetable life began to erode, however, with the smaller entities, (approaching the goods, both fresh and stored were also introduction of the fur trade and "nuclear family") and detracting from shared. Everyone contributed to the Christianity. the longhouse collective (Leacock process of producing these goods. 1981: 37). The fur trade also neces The household, as the basic social and The Fur Trade sitated trapping for the purpose of ex economic urut was collectivist: all Mohawk participation in the fur change, not use. Thus, the process of work was performed for the trade as well as their introduction to trapping began to undermine the col household rather than for each Christianity contributed to the dis lective contribution of each individual individual's benefit. solution of their traditional, collec to the household's needs. Individual According to one seventeenth cen tivist way of life. Europeans wanted nuclear families might now reap the tury European observer, women were furs and Mohawks knew where and private gains of the fur trade rather more impressive than men in their how to get them. In exchange they than the household as a whole. contributions to the household and were given new and more effective Hence, Mohawk involvement in the community. "The women are obliged tools and weapons, cloth that did not fur trade, as with other Native to prepare the land, to mow, to plant require tanning and foods which Americans, led to the onset of private and do everything . . . the men do could be more readily stored and property, individualism, and destruc nothing;" Megapolensis writes, "ex transported. ln addition, they were tion of collectivism. cept hunting, fishing and going to war given alcohol which often made them against their ene.rnles." (Megapolen more vulnerable to manipulation Effects of Christianity sis 1644: 154-55) (Fadden 1947: 9). The Dutch initially Christianity was another major Recent feminist analyses (Reiter contTolled the Hudson River trade, factor that led to the undermining of 1975, Stacey 1991, Leacock 1980), sug then the French and British com collectivism and to the underdevelop gests that when a woman's contribu panies competed for monopoly of the ment of Mohawk culture. Mohawks, tion to society is "public," within the fur trade along the St. Lawrence alon g with many other Native visible world of politics and River. This commerce demanded a Americans in the seventeenth cen economics, it garners her respect and constant flow of furs. For many, fur tury, were used by both the French position in the community. 1n con trapping displaced other traditional and English in their struggle for con trast, when a woman's contribution is forms of subsistence since they didn't trol over North Arne rica. The French, hidden in the private, domestic realm, pursue both endeavors simultaneous for example, granted exclusive trade their recognition by the larger society ly. When the fur bearing animals in monopolies to private companies in is minimal. Speaking of communal their immediate area became scarce, North America on the condition that
2 Spring 1993 they transform the people there chronicles of their experiences at similarly observed the Mohawks, through religious activity, and render French missions with North "generally live without marriage; and them subservient to colonial rule. The American Native Americans. if any of them have wives, the mar French also used Catholic Jesuits for Leacock and Goodman (1976) used riage continues no longer than seems these purposes. In addition, they such evidence to examine French good to one of the other parties- and used the Jesuits for military purposes: Jesuit Paul LeJeune's efforts to trans then they separate, and each takes to infiltrate Indian communities and form the Montagnais Naskapi Na another partner . . . (Megapolensis convert the peoples to Catholicism; tives of the upper St. Lawrence River. 1644: 172). simultaneously gaining access to im While the Montagnais were hunters Le Jew1e also reproached the Mon portant military posts through the and the Mohawks primarily agricul tagnais on their lack of hierarchical Jesuit colonies, and Native armed for tural, it does not require much im political sbucture. He was dismayed ces, while creating a more malleable, agination to assume that similar that their chiefs held such positions converted population. historical processes were utilized by based on their great oratory skills, not The "political advantage" for the French missionaries in their "work" beea use of their presumed superiority French was of course to have allles on with other natives. over others. Hence, the missionaries the doorstep of the English Discussing the necessity of steal tried to instill deference amongst the colonies. (Frisch 1970: 46) One group ing native children from their parents people to their "leaders": of Mohawks settled at the Jesuj't Mis to another locale in order to resocial They imagine that they ought by sion of Caughnawaga where they i.ze them, Jesuit Paul LeJeune writes: right of birth to enjoy the liberty of were pressed into French military ser The reason why I would not like to wild ass colts, rendering homage to vice, raiding New England, allying take the children of one locality in anyone whomsoever, except when themselves with the French against that locality itself, but rather in some they like. They have reproached me the Senecas. Another strategic other place, is because the Bar a hundred times because we fear our military post was established by the barians cannot bear to have their Captains, while they laugh at and French in 1755 at St. Regis, now children punished, even scolded rna ke sport of theirs. All the ... they take this to such an extent authority of their Chief is in his known as Akwesasne. The English tongue's end; for he ispowerhtl only attempted similar military strategies that upon the slightest pretext they would take them away from us so far as he is eloquent; and even if with their priests. before they were educated (Leacock he kills himself talking .. . he will Christian outposts were used as and Goodman 1976) not be obeyed unless he pleases the military stations but also as dis Savages (Leacock and Goodman Le Jeune proselytized against the 1976). pensers of a distinct colonial ideology freedom of serial monogamy that geared toward"civilizing " the Native both women and men took for The Mohawks were similarly American: resocializing them, and granted among the Montagnais. He known as great orators and opposed transforming them into settled wrote: the concentration of military or politi farmers of New France. Such im cal power and authority in a single ported values included in Since I have been preaching among individual or group of individuals. them that a man should not have Instead, their tendency was to divide dividualism, male dominance and more than one wife, [have not been political hierarchy. The European well received by the women; for authority among a number of equals strategies for attaining such transfor since they are more numerous than (Goldstein 1969: 38). The greatest mations involved taki!lg the children the men . .. the others would have orators were often the spokespersons away from their parents; haranguing to suffer.. . . 1 told a man that it was for the group. This ethnographic men to be masters of "their" women not honorable for a woman to love evidence points to the specific proces and instilling ideas concerning the any one else except her husband. He ses used and chronicled by the Jesuits moral superiority of monogamy as replied, "Thou hast no sense. You in their attempts to "salvage" the the only honorable state of French people Jove only your own Montagnais and Mohawks from children but we all love all the "paganism". In this process, they matrimony. children of our tribe (Leacock and Ethnographic evidence of such Goodman 1976). were "underdeveJoping" the coUec tivist, egalitarian, Native ct.tlture. strategies can be found in the jesuit The seventeenth century Dutch Relations, seventeenth century Jesuit Reverend, Johannes Megapolensis, Coercion of European Values
Spring 1993 3 Native adoption of European autonomy began to be undercut by with the English, took up war against values was not a smooth process. the trading of furs for European the French Oennings Francis 1986: Responses ranged from zealous goods. On the basis of new economic 53). In the meantime, however, at dedication, to indifference, to tremen ties, some Montagnais Naskapi were least one half of the Mohawks, the dous hostility. Many Iroguois tried to interested in attaching themselves to Caughnawagas, had left their prevent their kin's conversion to the mission station and the new homelands 75 years earlier, following Christianity. French missionaries European settlement, thereby avail French Jesuits to New France (New viewed it somewhat differently as ing themselves of the resow·ces these Canada), many of whom ended up in French Jesuit Shea describes the new offered (Leacock 1980: 58). Caughnawaga (Frisch 197: 50). The convert as a fragile believer who must Leacock also argues that epidemic English governor of New York, be protected from their pagan rela disease (in particular small pox), Colonel Dongan, tried to lure these tives: brought by the Europeans, along with Mohawks back to New York in an The Indian convert ... was often alcohol, brought by the fur traders, attempt to alienate thero from the lost by the bad example and corrupt undermined Native American self French (Fadden 1947: 11), even ing influence of his pagan confidence and, to that extent, though they had been denounced by countrymen, already depraved by rendered them more susceptible to the Iroquois Confederacy. The connection with the whites and Catholicism. French, however, had already coerced maddened by the liquor supplied by the Caughnawagas into ntilitary ser Many Caughnawaga Mohawks, the New York traders. Often .. . con vice and the latter, while maintaining however, despite their adherence to verts were subject to persecution trade with non-Catholic Mohawks, from their own kindred (Shea Catholicism, and French alliance still carried out many raids in New 1855: 296). engaged in ''illicit trade" between Al England for the French cause. By the bany and Montreal with their non How does one explain any ad late seventeenth century, the Iroquois Catholic, Native brethren, (allied to herence to Christian values, let alone gained control of the highly profitable the English). This illustrates that ad that of entire groups of Native fur trade by continuing their trade herence to European values and Americans, such as theCa ughnawaga with the English, angering the European countries were not strong Mohawks who left the Mohawk Val French. The Iroquois had already es enough to break Iroquois links to each ley to follow Jesuits into Canada and tablished trading ties with Western other. Clearly the process of "under similarly, the spinoff group who set tribes since their fur territory was developing" a people, (transforming tled at St. Regis? As Carse writes, "it depleted and the English still desired their values, undermining their was the point at which the Mohawks more furs. fn 1755, French Jesuits means of subsistence, and creating de became involved in the politics and from Caughnawaga established the St pendence) is never straight forward. economy of the colonial frontier that Regis settlement. As one might im There is simul tan eo us resistance, par there was a split among Mohawks, agine, St. Regis was founded as both tial acceptance and residuaJ ties with some being induced to participate in an outpost of Catholicism and, as traditional values and family. the French missions of Canada and another strategic miHtary post (Frisch others remaining in the Mohawk val Mcilwain indicates this in refer 1970: 58). The official political al ley (Carse, 1949: 10 quoted in ence to the Catholic Caughnawaga Liance of St. Regis was with the Frisch: 45). Mohawks who maintained their ties French, given that the outbreak of the Leacock similarly argues that Na with other non-Catholic Iroquois: French and lndian War occurred tive acceptance of European religious The intermediaries in this illicit traf simultaneously with the founding of values must be linked to their involve fic were the Caughnawag ... under this settlement (Frisch 1970: 57). ment in the fur trade. That is, once French influence. The relations o£ Nevertheless, as Britain gained embroiled in this trade, Natives be these Indians with their brethren who remained allies of the English more territory near MontreaJ, several came dependent on European resour individuals from St. Regis joined the ces. She suggests the Jesuits and their were never entirely broken off [how ever] in peace or war ... (Mcilwain British cause. During the next round teachings arrived in New Prance a full 1915: xlvi-xlix quoted in Frisch: 57). of hostilities, this time between Britain century after the economic basis for By 1744, Britain and France and the American colonies in the unquestioned cooperation, Rcvol u tionary War of 1776, the reciprocity and respect for individual declared war against one another. Those Mohawks alJjed and trading St. Regis Indians ostensibly chose to
4 Spring1993 remain neutral (Seaver 1918: 580 Revolutionary War, a conflict be given to our fathers, will return to us quoted in Frisch: 69). Other his tween whites, stated: (Fadden, Ray 1947: 15). torians, however, dispute this finding, once again the white men are fight Following the American Revolu some claiming that the St. Regis ing among themselves. They are tion, the Iroquois lost over 95% of Mohawks sided with the British fighting over the lands that they took their lands (Hauptman 1988: 5). (Hough 1853: 122), while others say from us. Why should we take sides There was a continual tug of war be they sided with the Americans (Fad in their fights? Long ago they en tween state and federal jurisdiction den 1947: 15). couraged us to go to war against our over Indian affairs, because New York own people. Did they come to help State wanted access to Indian lands. Loss of Lands us? They gave us weapons and en couraged our tribes to destroy each As early as 1783 the state legislature The signHicance lies not so much other. When we had become weak attempted to expropriate Iroquois with whom the St. Regis Mohawks and our country was soaked with lands for military bounty. Despite sided in these Euro-American con the blood of our people, they came fed era 1 guarantees protecting Iro flicts, but the ways in which the con and occupied them. Let the white quois lands, (the Fort Stanwix Treaty flicts contributed to further men alone. Let them destroy each of 1784), the New York Legislature "underdevelopment" of the Native other. Perhaps when they have passed two laws, in 1784 and 1785, Americans. One old Mohawk chief killed each other off, when they have that facilitated the distribution of any gone, the forests, mountains, lakes who wanted to remain neutral in the "unappropriated landsn as they saw and dvers which the Great Spirit had
St. Lawrence County Historical Sketch: Restrictions on Mohawk Activity at St. Regis Before the War of 1812 Excerpted from Franklin B. Hough's History of St. Lawrence and Franklin Counties, New York (1853)
n the approach of the war [of1812}, the situation of St. Regis, on the national boundary, placed these people {the Mohawks] in a peculiar and delicate positimr. Up to this period, although residing itl both governments, tltey had been as one, and in t1wir internal affairs, were governed by twelve chiefs, who 0 were elected by the tribe, attd held their offices for life. The annuities and presents of both governments were equally divided among them, and in t1te cultivation of their lands, and the division of the rent·s and profits arising from leases, they knew no distinction of party. The war operated with pectiliar severity against them, from tl1e terror of Indian massacre, which the recollectimis and traditions offormer wars, It ad generally inspired the inhabitants. So great was the terror which these poor people excited, that they could not travel, even where acquainted, without procuring a pass, which they were accustomed to obtain from am; of the principal inhabittmts, whose names were publicaly known. A paper, stating that the bearer was a quiet and peaceable Indian, with or without a signahire, they were accustomed to solicit, and this they would hold up in sight, when still at a distance, that those who might meet them should not be alarmed. They were likewise accustomed to require persons traveling across their reserva tion, to have, if strangers, a pass, purporting the peaceable nature of their business. The chiefs, it is said, appointed certain persons to grant these passes, among whom was Captain Polley, of Masse11a Springs. As few of them could read, it became 1tecessary to agree upon some emblem by which. the signification could be known, and the following device was adopted: lf a person were going tltrougll to French Mills, a bow was drawn on the paper, but if its bearer was designing to visit St. Regis village, an arrow was added {i.e., the bow was drawn as if it were strung with an arrow] ... Thus cut offfrom their usual means of subsistence, they were reduced to a wretched extremity ...
Spring 1993 5 fit: "in such a manner as they should the four maJor clans: the wolf, the dJes the international border judge most conducive to the interests bear, the turtle, and the snipe delineated at war's end. The com of the public" (State of New York (Frisch: 77-78). This continued bination of the new"reserve" that was 1889: 10 quoted in Frisch 1970: 71; despite the missionary presence at created, the loss of lands and resour Hauptman 1988: 7). And, as Frisch St. Regis. ces led to the further underdevelop points out, the "pubUc" did not in Nevertheless, the march toward ment of St. Regis Mohawks. Their clude the St. Regis lnclians. Rather, underdevelopment at St. Regis con Jack of freedom of movement about the lands between Lake Champlain tinued, especially during the War of the land, their limited agricultural and and the St. Lawrence River were ap 1812 when most Mohawks sided with hunting resources led to greater de propriated by the State as bonuses for the Americans (Fadden 1947: 15). pendence on Euro-Americans for veterans (non-Native apparently) of Once again, St. Regis became a those goods they were no longer able the Revolutionary War (Frisch: 71). military station, this time with the to attain themselves. The St. Regis Mohawks contested British posted there. They were un The Creation of Colonial Tribal this claim along wjth the six mile able to pursue their traditional means square tract of land that was of subsistence, due to their confine Governments "reserved" for them by Alexander ment to the reservation. Quickly Just as the Jesuits attempted to Macomb, a fur trader from Detroit, thereafter, the Mohawks of St.Regis transform Native political organiza who purchased the surrounding were prevented from travelling. tion to match French tradition in the 3,840,000 acres of land in northern Hunting elk, caribou and deer was seventeenth century, Americans of New York from the state. Disputes curtailed. A system not unlike apart thenineteenthcenturywantedNative ensued between the State of New heid in South Africa was established. leaders, hierarchical organization, York and the Seven Nations of To come and go, Mohawks were re and men to make political decisions. Canada as to the veracity of the Native quired to hold passes stating they Whereas previously, Mohawk chiefs American land claims. The Mohawks were "good Indians." ''They could were appointed for life terms by the sought title to 800,000 acres of land not travel, even where acquainted, clan mothers, the New York State within the State whereas the State without procuring a pass,'' Hough legislature appointed three males to claimed that this title had been sold to writes, "[a] paper, stating that the act as trustees for the Mohawks. Colonel John Livingston, an English bearer was a quiet and peaceable In These trustees were chosen according man, by the Seven Nations (Hough clian ... " (Hough 1853: 155). to American values about age and 1853: 143). By 1796, a trea ty was Such processes exemplify the crea gender. signed and the St. Regis Inclians al tion of Mohawk dependence on the Every year thereafter" writes legedly ceded to the State aU the land State. Their means of independence Hough, they would "hold a town except two parcels one of 6 square was systematically undermined. Just meeting on their said reservation, miles on the Grasse River, and the as the fur trade created a Native de within the state, and, by a majority of other, of two square miles on the Sal pendence on European trade goods, male Indians above 21 years of mon River. They also are said to have the War of 1812 prevented the age ... choose a clerk. ... to make received a lump sum of 3200 dollars St. Regis Mohawks from procuring such rules, orders and regula plus annuities of 535 dollars to be their own means of subsistence, and tions. (Hough 1853: 154 quoted in shared with the Caughnawagas the Indians were forced to ask for sup Frisch 1970: 77). (Frisch 1970: 71). plies from both the American and On the Canadian side of the Aspects of the collective way of life British governments. They received reserve, tremendous resistance ap still persisted among the Mohawks of food and blankets, shoes and tobacco, peared to the enforcement of elected Akwesasne at this time. The annuities much of which found its way over to chiefs over the traditional method of were shared by all members of the St. the British in Canada due to the fact appointment. In 1884 the Canadian Regis community, the lands were cul that British were stationed at St. Regis Parliament passed an Inclian Advan tivated in common and internal tribal during the war. The termination of cement Act stating that the "more ad affairs were still guided by the tradi this war in 1817led to the division of vanced bands of Indians of Canada" tional political organization of 12life the St. Regis reserve in to a Canadian could elect chiefs" with a view to train chiefs, selected by the clan mothers of and American side; the reserve strad- ing them for the exercise of municipal
6 Spring 1993 powers." The St. Regis Indian Agent council with the women of their own autonomy in their economic, political from the Canadian Department of ln clan, and if they fu1d h.is offense of and cultural lives. Native adherence dian Affairs was responsible for car sufficient strength to warrant his to Euro-Cruistian values however, rying out these elections at resignation, these women will call never occurred without strenuous upon the men members of their clan St. Regis. But, in 1890, the people of Native resistance and struggle, a and . . . select another member to Akwesasne let him know of their represent them. The women coun struggle that continues to this day. fierce opposition: cilors each watches over her special The processes delineated here indi The Indian Act only breeds sor charge and informs them of the rules cate that as the Mohawks' traditional row, contention, hatred, disrespect of of their due.ftainsh.ip (Akwesasne economy was undermined, and as family ties, spite against one another, Notes 1974: 7). their resources were lost through and absence of unity among us In The Canadian Department of In broken treaties and outright theft, dians. It also creates two distinct par dian Affairs ignored the Clan their vulnerability to political and cul ties at the elections... . There is only Mothers' petition, as well as their tural destruction became all the one way to recover brotherly feelings, choice of traditional chiefs, and called greater. The result was the beginning that of substituting the seven lords an election anyway. In addition, they of paradise lost: the decline of appointed by each of the seven totems withheld treaty payments until Mohawk political, social and according to the ancient customs elected chiefs were installed. Violence economic autonomy. which we know gave us peace, ensued, an Akwesasne man was Endnotes prosperity, friendship and brotherly killed but, the Canadian government feelings in every cause ... (Rarihok finally got its way with a small group "This paper is a portion of a larger wats, Akwesasne Notes 1974: 6-7). of Mohawk supporters and elected collaborative project with Peter J. Heme, a chiefs were put in place. resident of A.t-.-wesasne, and one of my Over a thousand Iroquois from very talented undergraduate students at Akwesasne,and neighboring The traditional woman's role in Potsdam College. This project is being Mohawk reserves atOka and Caugh choosing chiefs was deemed unaccep funded by the Potsdam College Research nawaga signed the above petition. table by those in the New York State and Creative Endeavors Program; the Nevertheless, according to the lndian legislature who were "negotiating" Potsdam College Faculty and Under Act, the election was still to be held in with the Mohawks, and by the graduate Grants; and the State University 1898. Once again, there was strong Canadian government. Nevertheless, of New York Nuala McGann Drescher Grant. resistance to the election among the as the Canadian case illustrates, such Mohawks. This time the Clan impositions on traditional values and *The Mohawks occupied the territory wh.ich was at Schoharie Creek in the east, Mothers of St. Regis objected to the political structures die hard, met by went to Schenectady in the south and Governor General's plan in Canada: stiff Mohawk resistance. nearly to Oneonta in the 1600s (Frisch We have considered the elective sys Other Canadian attempts to 1970: 23). tem as not being intended for us In diminish further the role of women dians, and we would therefore occurred with the passage of the In Bibliography return to our old method of selecting dian Act in 1868, which defined In 1990 Census Data on fndian Population ofSt. our life chiefs, according to our con dian status by one's father or Regzs Reseroation & in Franklin County, stitution Iroquois Government. As husband, not by the traditional N.Y. U.S. Census Data. Indian and Your Excellency must know, the an matrilineal method of defining one's North American Training Coalition. cient custom ofcreating chiefs is that Washington, D.C., 1990. they are selected according to the family: by one's mother. Hence, a different clans, there being three Mohawk woman who married a non Aluminum Company of America. St. Regis from each clan, and also three native man was no longer considered Tribe Environmental Division Fact Sheets, 1992. women who select her spedal chief an Indian herself under Canadian from among her clan. . . As there is law. Baran, P. Tlze Political Economy of Growth. four distinct clans, there is twelve New York: Monthly Review Press, life chiefs who hold their offices for Summary 1957. life. Carse, N. R. "TheMohawklroquois." Bul This paper delineates the central letin of tile Archaeological Society ofCon · lf any misdemeanor shall offend historical processes that contributed neclicut, 18 (n.d.), 4-53. their clans, these women first hold to the demise of Awkesasne Mohawk
Spring 1993 7 Deloria, V. Custer Died for Your Sms: An Hough, F. B. A History of St. Lnwrence and Private Property." [n Reller, Rnyna. Indian Manifesto. New York: 1969. Franklin Counties. Albany, N.Y.: 1853. n.p.: 1975). "Economic Development of Indian Com Jameson, F. Narrntives of New Netherland Seaver, F. Historical Sketches of Frnnklm munities." In Toward Economic 1609-1664. New York: 1909. County. Albany, N.Y.: 1918. Development for Native Amertcnn Com Jenny, A. "The American Indian: Needs Shea, J. G. History of the CatJwlic Missions munities. Bureau of Indian Af & Problems." In Toward Economic Among the Indian Tribes of the United fairs. Subcommittee on Economy in Development for Native American. Com States. New York: 1855. Government. )oint Economic Com munz'lies. n,p.: 1978. Stacey, J. "Backwards Towards the Post mittee. 91st Congress, 1st Session. Jorgenson, ]. "A Century of Political Modern Family." In A. Wolfe, cd. Washington, D.C.: 1969. Economic Effects on American [ndian Amenca At Cenfrmfs End. n.p.: Basic Emmons, G. "Readjustment with Security Society, 1880-1980." Tile Journal of Eth Books, 1991. for the American Indian." [n Townrd nic Studies, 6 (1978), 3. Steinberg, S. The Ethnic Myth. Athenium, Economic Development for Nntr've Leacock, E. Myths of Male Dominance. N.Y.: 1981. American Communities. n.p.: 1969. New York: Monthly Review Press, St. Lawrence County Historical Society. Fadden, R. History of the St. Regis Ak 1981. "Seaway Plays Santa: Indian Gets wesasneMolzawks. Malone, N.Y.: 1947. Linton, R., ed. Accullumtion in Seven $70,000 for Land." Syracuse Post Stand Frank, A. G. "The Development of Under American [ndiml Tribes. New York: ard, 11 May 1956. development," Monthly Review Press, 1940. St. Lawrence County Historical Society. 18 (]966), 17-31 Mcllwain, C. H. Wraxal/'s Abridgement of "Indians Say Treaties Give Rights to Frisch,}. A. "Revitalization, Nativism and the Indian Affairs. Cambridge, Mass: Island." Syrncuse Post Standard, 3 Tribalism Among the St. Regis 1915. March 1956. Mohawks." Diss. Indiana University Megapolensis, J. "A Short Sketch of the Talbott, S. The Roots of Oppression. New 1970. Mohawk Indians in New Nether York: L981. General Motors Central Foundry Div1sion St. land:' Collecllmls of the New York His You Should be Aware, St Regis Tribe En Regis Tribe Environmental Division torical Society. 1st Ser., 3 (1857), vironmental Division Fact Sheets, Fact Sheets,1992. 137-160. 1992. Goldstein, R. French Iroquois Diplomfltic & Rarihokwats. "How Democracy Came to Military Relations 1609-1701. Mouton: St. Regis," AJ.:wesasne Notes (1974), 6-7. {acqueline Goodman-Draper is an 1969. Reiter, R., ed. Toward An Anthropology of Assistant Professor in the Depart Hauptman, L Formulating American In Women. New York: Monthly Review ment ofSociology at the State Univer dian Policy in NY State: 1970-1986. Press, 1975. sihJ College, Potsdam. SUNY Press: 1988. Reynolds Metal Company. St. Regis Tribe Ibid. The Iroquois Struggle for Surv1va/. Environmental Division Fact Sheets, Syracuse Univ. Press: 1986. 1992. Ibid. The Iroquois and tlte New Deal. Sacks,K. ''Engels Revisited: Women, The S)'Tacuse Univ. Press: 1981. Organization of Production and
8 Spring 1993 Edward Everett, Potsdam Legislator: Author of the Suppressed "Everett Report" by Robert B. Shaw
ARlO
Fig. 1: Map of the Frontiers of the Northern Colonies in 1768. Detail (Photo Courtesy of the St. Lawrence County Historical Association
his story chiefly con during the 1970s. What has not been ridiculous a proposal- as it was then cerns claims of the realized is that Edward A. Everett, a viewed-caused his defeat in the next Iroquois Indian Potsdam lawyer, business promoter Republican primary for his legislative T Confederation to very and one time state assemblyman, an seat and cut short what might have extensive portions of New York State. ticipated this issue and rendered a for been, recognizing his undoubted This highly controversial issue, which mal opinion on it, 50 years earlier. But talents, a brilliant political career. alarmed many governmental units at that time the Indian land claims Edward A. Everett was bom on a and thousands of individual land question was of such little public in Lawrence farm, on September 18, owners and rendered uncertain land terest and Everett's opinion so far out, 1860, of a long line of old New titles that were thought to have been that his legislative report attracted England forebears.1 He was educated beyond challenge for nearly two cen minimal attention, stimulated no at the Lawrenceville Academy, turies, created enormous confusion debate and, in a literal sense, was lost. Potsdam Normal School and Albany and gave rise to prolonged litigation But still, his authorship of so Law School, and admitted to the bar
Spring 1993 9 in 1888. Initially he practiced in to Indians on an individual basis and qu.ired final determination. The dls Potsdam, under the tutelage of Wil the complete abolition of tribal pute was settled without too much liam A. Dart until his death, and then governments. ado, however, by an agreement of continued alone or in partnership By the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix 1786-the Hartford Convention with others. Everett also found time between the then British colonial conveying to Massachusetts the to play an active role in a surprising authorities and the Iroquois Federa ownership of the soil in the land west number of local busmess ventures; tionin 1768, the tribes, particularly the of Seneca Lake, but reserving to New from 1894 to 1897 he was manager Mohawks, were deprived of some of York State the political jurisdiction. and treasurer of the High Falls Sul their eastern most territory, along the The Massachusetts title to this land phite Pulp and Mining Company at Mohawk River, but a line running was not absolute, but rather was Pyrites, and again associated with from Fort Stanwix (Rome) down the defined as a right ofpre-emption only, that enterprise in 1900-04. Later he Unadilla River, thence down the i.e., the first and exclusive right to buy served as president of the Rossie Susquehanna into Pennsylvania, the land from the Indians. The east Electric & Manufacturing Co., besides thence up the western branch of the ern boundary of the Massachusetts controUmg the water power rights at Susquehanna and over the mountains award is generally identified on old Nicholville. Mr. Everett was also in to Pittsburgh, and then following the maps as the "Pre-emption Line." Sub volved with the H. D. Thatcher & Ohio River, was clearly recognized as stantially all of the land where the Co. baking powder and dairy sup the eastern and southern boundaries pre-emptive right was thus conveyed plies business for some years after of the Indian Confederacy. This to Massachusetts corresponded close 1904, when he helped to reorganize treaty designated nearly one-half of ly with territory then in the possession that firm, held the office of president New York province and about a of the Seneca tribe. and perhaps lost some of his own 2 quarter of Pennsylvania as Iroquois Meanwhile, efforts by land com money in the faltering venture. In territory. Their possession of this vast panies and speculators, in alliance 1909, he was made President of the tract was later reconfirmed by a treaty with politicians, to acquire these h"l FuJton Vise & Machine Co. of Low (second Treaty of Fort Stanwi.x) in dian lands were unceasing. Accord ville. 1784 between the Indian tribes and the ing to many accounts, such efforts More pertinent to the present story infant United States, then being were frequently accompanied by was Mr. Everett's election to the New governed under the Articles of Con fraud and trickery. Induced by imme· York State Assembly in 1915 and ser federation. diate cash payments, or promised an vice there until 1922. Everett was ac Notwithstanding this recognition nual pensions, the several Iroquois tive on several committees, chairman of sovereignty by the federal govern tribes graduaUy yielded the greatbulk of two (Conservation and Judiciary) ment, New York state and many of their territory, for surprisingly and a early supporter of the conserva private traders, under the impetus of modest amounts. East of the Pre tion movement, during a time when steady westward pressure on the part emption Line the land was sold to scant attention was paid to that cause. of white settlers, were constantly New York State (or, often, through the In 1919 the New York State legisla soliciting the several Iroquois tribes to state acting only as a dummy to ture established an "Indian Commis sell their lands. Sale of the land in the private parties). West of the line Mas sion," with 13 designated members. western part of the state was delayed sachusetts conveyed its pre-emption After several others had declined the by a jurisdictional djspute between rights, ina few large tracts, to private post of chairman, probably viewing Massachusetts and New York, tracing land companies. By the early 1800s this function as a political dead end, back to a conflict in colonial charters. the Indians had been dispossessed of Everett accepted the responsibility. King Charles I's charter of 1629 to the all land in New York State where as At this time, Indian affairs were unim Massachusetts Company granted recently as 1784 they had held clear portant in this state; there was no substantial territory to the Bay Colony title to about 17,000 square miles awareness of an "Indian problem" or which overlapped the grant by his aside only from a dozen scattered consciousness of past injustices. The son, Charles II, to the latter's brother, reservations. main objective of such committees, the Duke of York) in 1664. In early In 1790, while these real estate both on a national and state level, was American history this territory was a negotiations were in process, the na to promote the "allotment,JT policy, wilderness, but after the Revolution tional government passed an act, the distribution of reservation lands its ownership and jurisdiction re-
10 Spring 1993 that the best solution for the Indians primary a] though he still carried his sonality during the opening decades would be for them to become citizens home town of Potsdam by a wide of this expiring century, and on a and quickly join the prevailing cul margin. Now 62 years old, he simple historical basis he deserves ture. Other publications, and most resumed his law practice, held the of greater recognition for his early role in politicians, simply met the Everett fice of town supervisor, perhaps slip the Indian land claims controversy. report with silence. The legislature ping into semi-retirement. Upon his He would perhaps be surprised if he refused to accept it, and apparently death, on December 22, 1928, he could know that that issue, then of did not trouble to preserve any received lengthy and highly com minimal public interest, would ex copy. Subsequently, some bibliog mendatory obituaries in local plode into a highly important and raphies on Indian affairs have listed it, newspapers, recounting his many divisive problem half a century later. but all copies had been lost, and only public services and making only scant In his premature political pronounce vague memories of what it said sur reference to his position on the Indian ment, astounding as it was in 1922, vive. The report remained entirely question. According to early direc Everett may have beenrightor wrong, hidden until the late 1950s, when tories, the Everett family lived at wlse or foolish, but this should be Helen M. Upton, later a professor at various addresses in Potsdam, at 45 enough to justify his rescue from near Russell Sage College in Troy, elected Maple Street, then at 57 Elm, later still obscurity. to focus her master's thesis on Indian at38 Main, and at the time of his death education and schools in New York at a farmhouse on the back Hannawa Notes State. Quite by accident, Mrs. Upton Road. His son, Cyrus, lived at 11 State 1 See Mrs. McLaughlin's article on discovered that Lulu Stillman, Street as recently as 1975, when "The Everett Farm," in The Quarterly for Everett's stenographer in 1920-22,still Mrs. Upton attempted in vain to ob April1989 for more complete family back possessed a copy.6 This discovery tain papers or documents that might ground. resulted in an expanded study by have been useful in her study. 2 See "The Thatcher Story" by Robert Professor Upton and the eventual Wyant and Victoria Levitt, in ibid., April Everett was, in a sense, a "lost 1987, p.6. publication of her book, "The Everett man" in New York State history. He 3 In the more recent actions by Indian Report in Historical Perspective/' in was 50 years ahead of his time in in tribes to repudiate land sales made since 1980. Ironically, this publication was vestigating and adopting a position sponsored by the New York the Nonintercourse Act, the defendant respecting Indian land claims, a sub states, counties, cities and landowner~ American Revolution Bicentennial ject which remains highly controver have generally offered two defenses: (1) Commission, an agency of the state. sial today but which has long since the Nonintercourse Act was never in A by-product of Mrs. Upton's passed the point where it can be tended to apply to the original states, and scholarship was the republication and casually swept under the table. In a (2) the Indian tribes have lost any right of distribution of the long suppressed modern setting he would have cer action due to the statute of limitations or report. tainly achieved greater prominence the theory of laches. While both of these The release, and then the quick and played a more active role in this positions may hold some merit, each of them has been specifically overruled by suppression, of this report provoked issue, although only with the loss of recent Supreme Court decjsions. no violent public reaction. Everett personal popularity and at the ex 4 However, Everett did oppose the was not tarred and feathered, burned pense of those encomiums in bis notion, accepted by many, that the Indians in effigy, or even, as far as a casual obituaries. In retrospect one believes should be exempt from the fishing and biographer can gather, ostracized by that Everett deserves considerable game laws. In this case h1s position as any of his friends. But his political respect for persevering in his personal chairman of the Conservation Committee career was brought to an immediate beliefs when they necessarily meant perhaps came into conflict with his end. No one could expect that the the sacrifice of his political career? general position on the Indian question. 5 man who recommended giving half ItwouJd be improper, however, to While the Indians were naturally of the state back to the natives should make a major point out of tlus final delighted with Mr. Everett's condusions, be returned to the legislature. In the activity near the end of Mr. Everett's they must have been annoyed by some of h.is wording, particularly the frequent use Fall election of 1922 Everett was career. He was certainly an honorable decisively defeated in the Republican of the verb "cede." The territory in ques and prominent North Country per- tion had been in possession of the Iroquois
12 Spring1993 tribes since long prior to their first contacts 7 Mr. Everett, after his legislative which one of his nephews was a with Emopeans. This possession, with the defeat, engaged actively in the solicitation partner. According to his obituary in the boundaries Mr. Everett cited, had been of various tndian tribes and groups to rep St. Lawrence Herald, his final legal action recognized by the prevjous Treaty of 1768, resent them, on a contingency basis, m was an unsuccessful lawsuit against under the British coloma! regime. The instituting litigation against the state and Alcoa, in Massena, to recover for the Trcatyof1784, in the strict useoflanguage, other parties, for the recovery of land St. Regis Indians the land under the main did not cede any territory; it merely recon which had allegedly been taken from them buHdings of their plant firmed the possession of that territory. by fraud, a hundred years or more earher . 6 Later, in 1975, a second copy, un 8 But thjs is a point of legal eU1ics that Robert B. Shaw is a frequent COil cataloged and unidentified on its spine, we are just now addressing. Everett tributor ofarticles to The Quarterly. was discovered in the Federal Department turned some of his cases over to a larger, of the Interior. associated law firm in New York City, of
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