DOCSLIB.ORG

Core Stories of Shinto Last Updated 2009-09-21

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Core Stories of Shinto Last Updated 2009-09-21 Cookies on the BBC website We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. If you continue without changing your settings, we'll assume that you are happy to receive all cookies on the BBC website. However, if you would like to, you can change your cookie settings at any time. Continue Find out more This page has been archived and is no longer updated. Find out more about page archiving. Core stories of Shinto Last updated 2009-09-21 This article looks at some traditional stories which set out the foundation of Japan and its people, and demonstrate the close relationship between the kami and Japan. The founding of Japan Core stories of Shinto These texts set out the traditional story of the foundation of Japan and its people, and demonstrate the very close relationship between the gods and the people of Japan. The stories also demonstrate many parallels between human beings and the kami. The foundation of Japan This part of the story makes the following points: Japan was the first land to be created Sexual union is a holy creative process If certain rituals are not properly followed bad things may happen If the natural order of things is disturbed bad things may happen The female should be subordinate to the male Kami are created by the same process as human beings Imperfect children can be abandoned In the beginning, when the universe was created from the pre-existing chaos a number of kami ('gods' in this context) appeared spontaneously. Their relationships gave rise to a brother and sister; Izanagi and Izanami. Izanagi means 'he who invites' and Izanami means Izanami and Izanagi, by Kobayashi Eitaku c.1885 © 'she who invites'. Izanagi and Izanami thrust a jewelled spear into the ocean, and the first land formed where the spear touched the water. This was the central island of Japan. Izanagi and Izanami married and discovered sexual intercourse. Their first child, Hiruko, was born deformed and later abandoned by his parents; legend says the deformity was caused because Izanami had spoken first in the sexual ritual. The couple had sexual intercourse on several other occasions and their other offspring included the other islands of Japan and some of the kami. The land of the dead The land of the dead The next part of the story makes the following points: Kami are not immortal - they are vulnerable to injury and can die When kami die, they rot just like human beings Kami have feelings; they suffer from bereavement like human beings Death is a bad thing that disrupts the harmony of the community Death and decay are the most potent forms of impurity The spirits living in the land of the dead are malicious and lonely, and like to try to drag people from the land of the living Human beings should keep away from anything to do with death The kami have a duty, based on Izanagi's promise, to support birth and life in the world of the living (which, as far as this legend is concerned, means only Japan) The male can subordinate the female Life is more powerful than death Izanami was badly burned during the birth of the kami of fire, and died. This is the first death in the world. Izanagi was furious with sorrow and beheaded the child he blamed for his wife's death. Other kami were born from the blood of the execution. Izanagi was grief-stricken and went in search of her to the underworld - Yomi, the land of the dead. When he found her, Izanami had eaten the fruit of the dead and might be doomed to stay in Yomi for ever. Izanami made Izanagi promise not to look at her, but to give her time to consult with the rulers of the underworld to see if they would let her return to the land of the living. After a while Izanagi broke his promise, and went to look for her. When he found her he saw that her body had rotted and was full of maggots. Izanagi was horrified and tried to return to the land of the living, but his wife/sister, angry and ashamed at being seen in a state of decay, pursued him so that she could force him to live with her in the underworld for ever. Izanagi escaped, and blocked the entrance to Yomi with a boulder so that Izanami could not follow him, forming a permanent barrier between the worlds of the living and the dead. Izanami was furious and said that every day from that moment on she would kill 1000 people every day. Izanagi replied by saying that he would create 1500 new born babies each day. The power of purification The power of purification In this part of the story we learn: Kami are not all-powerful - pollution can affect them too Pollution causes bad fortune to the person who has become impure Pollution can be removed by purification Water and salt are powerful agents of purification Purification is also a highly creative process After escaping from Yomi, Izanagi was contaminated by his contact with death, and as a result was plagued with misfortune. He bathed himself thoroughly in the ocean to wash away the pollution of death. This was the first example of the harae purification ritual. During the purification ritual a number of new kami, including Amaterasu (the Sun Goddess) and her brother Susanoo (the kami of the wind and storms) were created. Amaterasu and Susanoo Amaterasu and Susanoo Some of the things we learn in this part of the story explain ingredients of Shinto rituals and festivals: Amaterasu is coaxed out of the cave © kami are not all-powerful - Amaterasu can't be forced out of the cave by the others, but she can't prevent them seizing her when she eventually emerges kami have the human characteristics of behaving badly, sulking, curiosity, and laughing kami enjoy bawdy entertainment one of way of pleasing kami is to entertain them crudity has a place in entertaining kami dancing has a place in entertaining kami Izanagi gave Amaterasu authority to rule the land. Susanoo was disappointed and angry. His tantrums led him to behave so badly that he was banished from heaven. (Things don't end in disaster for Susanoo, who remains an important and powerful kami. Although he has fearful powers of destruction, he is worshipped at many shrines for having the power to prevent disaster.) Amaterasu was upset by the behaviour of Susanoo, and in a sulk hid herself in a cave. The absence of the sun brought darkness to the world. The other kami gathered outside the cave and asked Amaterasu to come out. She, still sulking, refused. The kami had a party during which a female kami did a sexy dance outside the cave, which make them all laugh. Amaterasu came out of the cave to see what the jollity was about. The other kami grabbed her and persuaded her to take her proper place in the cosmos. The imperial family The imperial family This part of the story establishes the divine ancestry of the Emperors of Japan. Interestingly, it also acknowledges the power of the female, something that is at odds with earlier parts of the myth, and which doesn't seem to have played much part in setting gender roles in Japanese life. Amaterasu had children and grandchildren. In consultation with other senior kami she decided that Japan should be ruled for ever by an Imperial family. She sent one grandchild, Ninigi, from heaven to rule Japan. He took with him a mirror (symbol of Amaterasu) and a sword. His grandson, Jimmu Tenno, is regarded as the first Emperor of Japan from whom all the Emperors right up to the present day have been descended. Jimmu, the first Emperor, by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi c. 1876-1882 © The politics of myth These stories have a clear political consequence. They establish the powerful Yamamoto clan as descended from the gods and having been given authority to rule Japan by the gods. The rival Izumo clan is descended from Susanoo, and so it can be seen as part of the divine plan that they should have a subordinate role. The legend that the Japanese are loosely descended from the Sun Goddess is shown by the symbol of the sun on the Japanese flag. Find out more Beliefs about kami Holy books of Shinto Divinity of the emperor.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Ancient Magic and Modern Accessories: Developments in the Omamori Phenomenon
    Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Master's Theses Graduate College 8-2015 Ancient Magic and Modern Accessories: Developments in the Omamori Phenomenon Eric Teixeira Mendes Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses Part of the Asian History Commons, Buddhist Studies Commons, and the History of Religions of Eastern Origins Commons Recommended Citation Mendes, Eric Teixeira, "Ancient Magic and Modern Accessories: Developments in the Omamori Phenomenon" (2015). Master's Theses. 626. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses/626 This Masters Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ANCIENT MAGIC AND MODERN ACCESSORIES: DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OMAMORI PHENOMENON by Eric Teixeira Mendes A thesis submitted to the Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Comparative Religion Western Michigan University August 2015 Thesis Committee: Stephen Covell, Ph.D., Chair LouAnn Wurst, Ph.D. Brian C. Wilson, Ph.D. ANCIENT MAGIC AND MODERN ACCESSORIES: DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OMAMORI PHENOMENON Eric Teixeira Mendes, M.A. Western Michigan University, 2015 This thesis offers an examination of modern Japanese amulets, called omamori, distributed by Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines throughout Japan. As amulets, these objects are meant to be carried by a person at all times in which they wish to receive the benefits that an omamori is said to offer. In modern times, in addition to being a religious object, these amulets have become accessories for cell-phones, bags, purses, and automobiles.
    [Show full text]
  • LEGEND Credits Contents
    samurai of LEGEND Credits Contents Original Author Introduction 2 Lawrence Whitaker Japan and the Heian Era 4 Developer Darren Pierce Life in Japan 24 Characters 37 Editor Matthew Sprange Equipment of the Samurai 66 Layout Religion and Faith 76 Will Chapman Magic of Japan 90 Interior Illustrations Ways of the Warriors 103 Jesse Mohn, Leonardo Borazio, Nick Egberts, Marco Morte, Nathan Furman Creatures of Japan 113 and Phil Renne Sample file Ki for the Sensei 140 Special Thanks Nicky Wong Glossary 145 Copyright Information Samurai of Legend ©2012 Mongoose Publishing. All rights reserved. Reproduction of non-Open Game Content of this work by any means without the written permission of the publisher is expressly forbidden. Legend is presented under the Open Game Licence. See page 152 for the text of this licence. All text paragraphs and tables containing game mechanics and statistics derivative of Open Game Content and the System Reference Document are considered to be Open Game Content. All other significant characters, names, places, items, art and text herein are copyrighted by Mongoose Publishing. All rights reserved. Printed in USA introduction Ancient Japan has held a long fascination for the west. The formality of the society, steeped in notions of honour and debt almost unheard of in the west; the traditions of the samurai and their code of bushido; the enigmatic ninja and the duality of the Shinto and Buddhist religious philosophies – each contributes to a unique society that is ideal for adventure on many different levels. What Period is the Setting? The most famous feudal period is that of Sengoku (‘warring states’).
    [Show full text]
  • University of Nevada, Reno American Shinto Community of Practice
    University of Nevada, Reno American Shinto Community of Practice: Community formation outside original context A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology By Craig E. Rodrigue Jr. Dr. Erin E. Stiles/Thesis Advisor May, 2017 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL We recommend that the thesis prepared under our supervision by CRAIG E. RODRIGUE JR. Entitled American Shinto Community Of Practice: Community Formation Outside Original Context be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Erin E. Stiles, Advisor Jenanne K. Ferguson, Committee Member Meredith Oda, Graduate School Representative David W. Zeh, Ph.D., Dean, Graduate School May, 2017 i Abstract Shinto is a native Japanese religion with a history that goes back thousands of years. Because of its close ties to Japanese culture, and Shinto’s strong emphasis on place in its practice, it does not seem to be the kind of religion that would migrate to other areas of the world and convert new practitioners. However, not only are there examples of Shinto being practiced outside of Japan, the people doing the practice are not always of Japanese heritage. The Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America is one of the only fully functional Shinto shrines in the United States and is run by the first non-Japanese Shinto priest. This thesis looks at the community of practice that surrounds this American shrine and examines how membership is negotiated through action. There are three main practices that form the larger community: language use, rituals, and Aikido. Through participation in these activities members engage with an American Shinto community of practice.
    [Show full text]
  • The Myth of the Goddess of the Undersea World and the Tale of Empress Jingu’S Subjugation of Silla
    Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1993 20/2-3 The Myth of the Goddess of the Undersea World and the Tale of Empress Jingu’s Subjugation of Silla Akima Toshio In prewar Japan, the mythical tale of Empress Jingii’s 神功皇后 conquest of the Korean kingdoms comprised an important part of elementary school history education, and was utilized to justify Japan5s coloniza­ tion of Korea. After the war the same story came to be interpreted by some Japanese historians—most prominently Egami Namio— as proof or the exact opposite, namely, as evidence of a conquest of Japan by a people of nomadic origin who came from Korea. This theory, known as the horse-rider theory, has found more than a few enthusiastic sup­ porters amone Korean historians and the Japanese reading public, as well as some Western scholars. There are also several Japanese spe­ cialists in Japanese history and Japan-Korea relations who have been influenced by the theory, although most have not accepted the idea (Egami himself started as a specialist in the history of northeast Asia).1 * The first draft of this essay was written during my fellowship with the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, and was read in a seminar organized by the institu­ tion on 31 January 199丄. 1 am indebted to all researchers at the center who participated in the seminar for their many valuable suggestions. I would also like to express my gratitude to Umehara Takeshi, the director general of the center, and Nakanism Susumu, also of the center, who made my research there possible.
    [Show full text]
  • Myths & Legends of Japan
    Myths & Legends Of Japan By F. Hadland Davis Myths & Legends of Japan CHAPTER I: THE PERIOD OF THE GODS In the Beginning We are told that in the very beginning "Heaven and Earth were not yet separated, and the In and Yo not yet divided." This reminds us of other cosmogony stories. The In and Yo, corresponding to the Chinese Yang and Yin, were the male and female principles. It was more convenient for the old Japanese writers to imagine the coming into being of creation in terms not very remote from their own manner of birth. In Polynesian mythology we find pretty much the same conception, where Rangi and Papa represented Heaven and Earth, and further parallels may be found in Egyptian and other cosmogony stories. In nearly all we find the male and female principles taking a prominent, and after all very rational, place. We are told in theNihongi that these male and female principles "formed a chaotic mass like an egg which was of obscurely defined limits and contained germs." Eventually this egg was quickened into life, and the purer and clearer part was drawn out and formed Heaven, while the heavier element settled down and became Earth, which was "compared to the floating of a fish sporting on the surface of the water." A mysterious form resembling a reed-shoot suddenly appeared between Heaven and Earth, and as suddenly became transformed into a God called Kuni-toko- tachi, ("Land-eternal-stand-of-august-thing"). We may pass over the other divine births until we come to the important deities known as Izanagi and Izanami ("Male-who-invites" and "Female-who-invites").
    [Show full text]
  • Island Narratives in the Making of Japan: the Kojiki in Geocultural Context
    Island Studies Journal, Ahead of print Island narratives in the making of Japan: The Kojiki in geocultural context Henry Johnson University of Otago [email protected] Abstract: Shintō, the national religion of Japan, is grounded in the mythological narratives that are found in the 8th-Century chronicle, Kojiki 古事記 (712). Within this early source book of Japanese history, myth, and national origins, there are many accounts of islands (terrestrial and imaginary), which provide a foundation for comprehending the geographical cosmology (i.e., sacred space) of Japan’s territorial boundaries and the nearby region in the 8th Century, as well as the ritualistic significance of some of the country’s islands to this day. Within a complex geocultural genealogy of gods that links geography to mythology and the Japanese imperial line, land and life were created along with a number of small and large islands. Drawing on theoretical work and case studies that explore the geopolitics of border islands, this article offers a critical study of this ancient work of Japanese history with specific reference to islands and their significance in mapping Japan. Arguing that a characteristic of islandness in Japan has an inherent connection with Shintō religious myth, the article shows how mythological islanding permeates geographic, social, and cultural terrains. The discussion maps the island narratives found in the Kojiki within a framework that identifies and discusses toponymy, geography, and meaning in this island nation’s mythology. Keywords: ancient Japan, border islands, geopolitics, Kojiki, mapping, mythology https://doi.org/10.24043/isj.164 • Received July 2020, accepted April 2021 © Island Studies Journal, 2021 Introduction This study interprets the significance of islands in Japanese mythological history.
    [Show full text]
  • Amaterasu-Ōmikami (天照大御神), in His Quest to Slay the Eight-Headed Serpent Demon Yamata-No-Orochi (八岐大蛇) in Izumo Province (出雲国)
    Northeast Asian Shamanism 神道, 신도, 御嶽信仰, 神教, & ᡝᡝᡝᡝ ‘Lady’ Minami “Danni” Kurosaki (黒崎美波、お巫女様) ⛩ My Personal History & Involvement The Kurosaki Clan (黒崎の一族) ● Our earliest ancestor was directly involved with assisting the warrior god Susanō-no-Mikoto (須佐之 男命), the disgraced brother of sun goddess Amaterasu-Ōmikami (天照大御神), in his quest to slay the eight-headed serpent demon Yamata-no-Orochi (八岐大蛇) in Izumo Province (出雲国) ● Since then, the Kurosaki clan has been one of a few influential families in the history of Shintoism throughout Ancient and Feudal Japan ● We are a part of the Ten Sacred Treasures (十種の神宝) of Japanese history; our treasure that was offered to Susanō is the Dragon-repelling Shawl (大蛇ノ比礼) Inheritance of Kannushi/Miko-ship ● Because of our family’s status in traditional Japan after that event, heirship and training is passed down through the branches of the family on who will be the next Danshi kannushi (男子神主, Male Priest), Joshi kannushi (女子神主, Female Priestess), Miko (巫女, Female Shaman/Shrine Maiden) or Danfu (男巫, Male Shaman/Shrine Valet) in that generational line ● Not all kannushi and miko come from a long family line - anyone can be a part of the Shintō clergy granted they apply and go through proper training! ● I belong to a branch of the family, and as the oldest child in my generational line, I am next to succeed the title of (matriarch/patriarch) for my immediate family ● The current matriarch of our entire the clan is Miu Kurosaki, and the current matriarch of my direct immediate family is Hikaru Kurosaki (Luz
    [Show full text]
  • Japanese Myths and Rituals
    97 Association of the Sun and the Rice in Japanese Myths and Rituals Atsuhiko Yoshida Key words：myth， ritual， Shinto， Amaterasu， Izanagi， Mikuratananokami， Susanowo， Ukemochi， Tsukiyomi， Okuninushi， Hononinigi， Amenouzume， Toyouke， Tent6， Daij6sai， Ise， A Izumo， Takachiho， Tsushim3． Summary：The Sun－goddess Amaterasu， being the supreme deity of Shintδ， is closely associated also with the rice crop throughout the mythology as well as in her cult celebrated at the Inner and Outer Shrines of Ise． She even obviously shows some of the characteristic traits common to the rice deities of the East Asian rice cultivators． A similar tendency to connect a solar deity with the rice is found also in folk beliefs and lores all around Japan；one of the conspicuous examples being the Tent6 festival of the island of Tstlshima， in which a straw bag containing grains of a special kind of holy red rice is most solemnly reverenced as an incarnation of a solar deity． The most prominent figure of Japanese mythology is the resplendent Sun－goddess Amatera－ su（Glorious－Shiner－of－Heaven）． She is claimed to be the divine ancestress of the Imperial Family and to rule universe sovereignly and magnanimously from her realm， the Plain of High Heaven（Takamagahara）， where eight millions of celestial deities submit themselves willingly to her command． According to one version of the myth， she is one of the three last born and noblest children of her divine father， Izanagi． This god was sent down in primor・ dial times from Heaven with his sister， the goddess Izanami， who became
    [Show full text]
  • Slide 34. Ebisu Notebook
    Ebisu Notebook. Slide 34, Condensed Visual Classroom Guide to Daikokuten Iconography in Japan. Copyright Mark Schumacher, 2017. In a PMJS posting (10/23/2015), Prof. Raji C. Steineck writes: “Sometime in the medieval period, Ebisu became associated with Izanagi and Izanami's abandoned child Hiruko. There seems to be a story that Hiruko spent time at the palace of the Dragon king, where he transformed into Ebisu. But the literature I've perused so far doesn't mention a source for that myth. Should any of you have come across a pertinent primary source, please do let me know. Ebisu Origins Ebisu Origins Ebisu Origins Bernhard Scheid (Vienna University) writes: One place to begin would be David B. Waterhouse (Toronto University.) writes: Ebisu was Iwai Hiroshi (Kokugakuin University) writes: The Ebisu Shinkō Jiten えびす信仰事典, 1999. I used it partly for my originally the tutelary god of the Nishinomiya Jinja in Settsu, and common practice of enshrining Daikoku and introductory article on Ebisu. There is also an informative online article by from Kamakura times was honoured as a protector of those Ebisu together was already observed from that Darren Ashmore, which contains a modern version of the Ebisu legend of who travel in boats. Worship of him spread to major shrines and period (late Muromachi); the practice originated Nishinomiya Shrine (stronghold of Ebisu worship) in a long footnote. to Buddhist monasteries as well; and through a series of in the fact that the main object of worship identifications he came to be worshipped also by military men. (saijin 祭神) at the Nishinomiya Shrine was It seems quite clear that most Ebisu lore including the Hiruko connection One of these identifications involved the Shintō god Ōkuninushi- Ebisu Saburō, a figure who, however, was can be traced back to the Nishinomiya Shrine probably in the late Heian no-mikoto… who was taken to be ultimately the same as simultaneously identified with Ōkuninushi no period.
    [Show full text]
  • On Ainu Etymology of Names Izanagi and Izanami
    44 CAES Vol. 2, № 4 (December 2016) On Ainu etymology of names Izanagi and Izanami Tresi Nonno independent scholar; Chiba, Japan; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Names Izanagi and Izanami are recorded by completely meaningless combinations of kanji; existing interpretations of these names are folk etymologies, i.e.: it means that Izanagi and Izanami seem not to be words of Japanese origin. Izanagi and Izanami belong to the little amount of kami who form spouse pairs: there is about 6% of such kami in first scroll of Nihon Shoki, such type of kami is rather widely represented in Ainu folklore. Ending gi in Izanagi correlates with ending kur used in male names of Ainu kamuy/heroes ending mi in Izanami correlates with ending mat used in female names of Ainu kamuy/heroes. Component izana seems to have originated from ancient Ainu form: *’iso-ne that means “to be bearful”, “to be lucky in hunting”, “to be rich”; and thus, initial forms of Izanagi was *’Iso-ne-kwr “Bearful man”and initial form of Izanami was *’Iso-ne-mat “Bearful woman”. Key words: Izanagi; Izanami; Shinto; Ainu issues in Shinto; etymology of kami names 1. Problem introduction 1.1. Names Izanagi and Izanami recorded by kanji are ateji Izanagi/Izanaki and Izanami are among central kami1 described in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. According to myths Izanagi and Izanami were those kami who gave birth to Japanese archipelago and to numerous other kami. In current paper I am not going to pay attention to mythological subject lines, but I am going to pay attention to etymology of names of Izanagi and Izanami.
    [Show full text]
  • Did Christ Visit Japan?
    BYU Studies Quarterly Volume 10 Issue 2 Article 2 4-1-1970 Did Christ Visit Japan? Spencer J. Palmer Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/byusq Recommended Citation Palmer, Spencer J. (1970) "Did Christ Visit Japan?," BYU Studies Quarterly: Vol. 10 : Iss. 2 , Article 2. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/byusq/vol10/iss2/2 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in BYU Studies Quarterly by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Palmer: Did Christ Visit Japan? did christ visit japan SPENCER j PALMER the strangest and most incredible tale ever to come out of east asia is that jesus once lived in japan the story deserves critical consideration in the year 1937 during a time of intense nationalism in japan a rather bizarre book appeared on the stands of the japanese book stores its author was a japanese woman yamane kikuko a christian who selected for her book the pretentious title light comes from the east 1 an obvious reference to rabindranathravindranathRabindra nath tagore s celebrated expression in this book mrs yamane claimed that a testament in- spired by jesus of nazareth had been found among a set of family documents in the possession of mr 0omaruO maru takenouchi or isoharainohara ibaraki prefecture see figure 1 he claimed to be the sixty sixth descendant of takenouchi no fukunesukune a noble- man who had
    [Show full text]
  • A History of the Japanese People
    A History of the Japanese People Frank Brinkley A History of the Japanese People Table of Contents A History of the Japanese People......................................................................................................................1 Frank Brinkley.........................................................................................................................................2 FOREWORD...........................................................................................................................................4 AUTHOR'S PREFACE...........................................................................................................................5 CHAPTER I. THE HISTORIOGRAPHER'S ART IN OLD JAPAN.....................................................8 CHAPTER II. JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY.........................................................................................13 CHAPTER III. JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY (Continued)....................................................................20 CHAPTER IV. RATIONALIZATION.................................................................................................29 CHAPTER V. ORIGIN OF THE JAPANESE NATION: HISTORICAL EVIDENCES.....................34 CHAPTER VI. ORIGIN OF THE NATION: GEOGRAPHICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL RELICS.................................................................................................................................................42 CHAPTER VII. LANGUAGE AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS...........................................50
    [Show full text]