Vol. 11(8), pp. 883-890, 23 April, 2016 DOI: 10.5897/ERR2016.2685 Article Number: EAA101458351 ISSN 1990-3839 Educational Research and Reviews Copyright © 2016 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR

Full Length Research Paper

Scales and exercises with Aksak meters in education: A study with Turkish and Italian studentsiii

Ajda Şenol Sakin* and Ferda Gürgan Öztürk

1Department of , Faculty of Education, Uludag University Bursa, Turkey. 2Department of Music Education, Faculty of Education, Gazi University Ankara, Turkey.

Received 5 February, 2016; Accepted 31 March, 2016

Musical scale and exercise studies in instrumental education are considered as a fundamental component of music education. During an analysis of methods prepared for instrumental education, it was detected that scale and exercise studies for Aksak meters generally did not exist. This study was conducted to identify the effects of scales and exercises prepared for Aksak meters on performance levels based on opinions from student participants. The “One- Sample Pretest/Posttest” experimental model was used for this research. The sample population used for this study consisted of instrumental (flute) students from Uludağ University, Faculty of Education, Music Education Department in Turkey and flute students from “Alfredo Casella” Conservatory in Italy. From the student evaluations, it was found that the scales and exercises prepared for Aksak meters have a positive impact on performance levels.

Key words: Aksak meter, student views, flute education.

INTRODUCTION

The exercises prepared for an instrument have the consist of exercises and étude studies. George stated utmost importance in increasing technical proficiency and that these exercises and études involve the study of key developing musicality in instrumental education. Demirci and time signatures, rhythmic patterns, scales, arpeggios (2012) states that “practicing scales has important place and chords; and that students should be motivated to in piano (or other instruments) education to improve study exercises for passages that they have difficulty students’ technique and dexterity, and also to improve playing (George, 2007). The Trevor Wye flute method, timing and help ear training mirroring their success in which shares a similar opinion, stated that without scale performing” (Demirci, 2012). This statement shows that and arpeggio studies, finger, mouth, and tongue the benefits that musician gain from practicing scales and techniques cannot be improved (Wye, 1999). exercises are applicable to all instruments. When irregular meters are defined, different terms are George (2007) article “Teaching Flute: Scales and used to describe them including “irregular”, “mixed”, odd” Études”, with flute instructor Patricia George divided flute (Gates, 1962), “asymmetric” or “aksak” (Moelants, 2006; courses into three parts and stated that two of these parts Polak, 2015) meters. This study uses, the “aksak meter”

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: 00905058059362.

Authors agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License 884 Educ. Res. Rev.

term that Constantin Brăiloiu defined in his “Le rythme 2. Is there a difference between the Turkish folk song Aksak” article in 1951. The word “aksak”, used in Turkish performance levels of Turkish and Italian students based music, took its place in music literature on a global basis on posttest results? due to Brailou’s article. “Aksak is a term borrowed from 3. Is there a difference between the students’ Turkish folk Turkish music theory” (Cler to Moelants, 2006). Aksak song performance levels based on both the pretest and meters do frequently occur in Turkish music, but they posttest results? also occur in music from different cultures such as 4. What are students’ opinions on the prepared scales Bulgaria and the Balkans (Petrov, 2012). and exercises? Meters containing units that are played two at a time and three at a time are called aksak meters (Sun, 1997), and time signatures such as 5/8, 7/8 and 8/8 are METHODOLOGY examples of aksak meters. In addition to having different time signatures, these meters are played using different The “One-Sample Pretest/Posttest” experimental model was used in this study. As previous researchers explain it, “In this design, the patterns for the same time signature; in fact the patterns, effect of the experimental process is tested by studying one group. which contain different rhythmic structures, enrich the The measurements of participants based on the dependent variable rhythm. For instance, the 9/8 aksak meter has 4 different were detected before application with a pretest and after application forms (2+2+2+3, 2+2+3+2, 2+3+2+2 and 3+2+2+2). with a posttest using the same participants and the same Moreover, particularly in Turkish Folk Music, one folk measurement methods” (Büyüköztürk et al., 2014). In the one sample pretest-posttest model consisting of flute students, the song may contain one or multiple forms, and each form dependent variable was applied and students before and after the may be played with different rhythmic patterns. Aksak experiment took the two measurements themselves. meters have different rhythmic specialties in time The folk songs used in the study were chosen from the Turkish signatures and rhythmic structures. Taking this situation Radio Television Foundation (TRT) Turkish Folk Music Repertoire into consideration, it seems logical that specific technical based on an analysis of aksak meter folk songs. As a result of this studies should be created for practicing aksak meters in analysis, 12 folk songs with 5/8, 7/8, 8/8, 9/8, 10/8 and 9/16 aksak meters were chosen. Table 1 shows the properties of these folk flute education. However, when the existing flute songs (name, time signature and rhythmic patterns) chosen for the methods were analysed from this perspective, it was method application. observed that aksak meter technical studies were almost To collect pretest and posttest results, an observation form was nonexistent. prepared. During the preparation of the observation form, the The effects of practicing scales and exercises in aksak observation forms used in the Alev Müezzinoğlu’s PhD thesis of meteres prepared to provide a solution to this problem on (2012) named “The Use of Folk Tunes Adapted for Violin Education” and Afşin Öner's (2011) observation form from his PhD musical performances were investigated in this thesis titled “Flute Programme with Turkish Traditional Music experimental study based on students’ self-evaluations. Elements” were analysed. In these forms, students were asked to This study, compares folk song performance levels of evaluate themselves using a 5 point Likert scale based on the Turkish students’ (who encounter folk songs frequently behaviours described below. Based on folk song performances, the and therefore have some information about aksak behaviours observed were; the notes, nuances, breathing spots, articulations, suitable tempo for the musical character, no meters) with the performance levels of Italian students’ unspecified pauses, technical passages performed in rhythm, and (who do not encounter aksak meters in their daily lives rhythmic structures performed correctly. The method application of and education). Thus, based on students’ views, study consists of practicing the scales and exercises that were traditional Turkish Folk song performance levels are prepared by taking the selected folk songs into consideration. compared between the two groups. The experimental process of this study consists of scales and exercises prepared by taking the practice folk songs into account. The maqam scales of folk song are used in scales and exercises. When the scales contained “coma” sounds they were combined Problem statement with the closest tempered sounds such as the technic found in the “Turkish Music Makam Scales” book of Muammer Sun (2007). In The aim of this study was to find answer to the following addition, during the preparation of the scales and exercises, the question: flute methods accepted worldwide which are ’s “Gammes et Arpeges – 480 Exercices” (1933), “Exercices “Do aksak meter scales and exercises prepared for flute Journaliers” (1923), Georges Lambert’s (1994) “Exercices Journaliers”, Th. W. Stepanow’s (1995) “Scales, Broken Chords education have an impact on the folk song performance and Arpeggios for Flute”, “Practice Books for the Flute” by Trevoy levels of students?” four research questions were Wye (1999), M. A. Reichert’s (2013) “Seven Daily Exercises”, V. N. developed based on the problem statement, as follows: Tsıbin’s (1940) “Fundamental Techniques for the Flute Instrument”, Amand Vanderhagen’s (1798) “Nouvelle Methode de Flute”, and To be investigated using the results of students’ self- the “Turkish Music Scales for the Cello” book of Barış Demirci evaluations: (2013) published in Turkey were used (Sakin and Öztürk, 2015).

1. Is there a difference between Turkish folk song Data collection performance levels of Turkish and Italian students based on pretest results? The method application process took two months with the Turkish Sakin and Öztürk 885

Table 1. Properties of the chosen folk songs.

Number of the folk Time signature of the Name of the folk song Rhythmic pattern song folk song 1 Şişmanoğli Vurdiler 5/8 2+3 2 Bulutlar Oynar Oynaşır 5/8 2+3 3 Ben Giderim Batuma 7/8 2+2+3 4 Gelin Alma Havası 7/8 3+2+2 5 Bana Kara Diyen Dilber 8/8 3+2+3 6 Ardıçtandır Kuyuların Kovası 9/8 3+2+2+2 7 Atlar Eğerlendi 9/8 2+3+2+2 8 Kırklar Samahı 9/8 2+2+3+2 / 2+3+2+2 / 3+3+3+3 9 Asmalı Mencere 9/8 3+2+2+2 / 2+2+2+3 10 Böyle İkrar İlen 10/8 3+3+2+2 11 Su İçemem Testiden 10/8 3+2+2+3 / 2+3+2+3 12 Dirmilcik’ten Gider Yaylanın Yolu 9/16 2+2+2+3

students and one month with the Italian students. With Turkish Table 2. The Pretest and Mann Whitney U Test Scores of students, a pretest of 2 folk songs per week was completed, with Turkish and Italian Students. Italian students the pretest consisted of 4 folk songs per week. The students evaluated themselves. After students studied the scales Students N Median U z p r and exercises, they completed the posttest and evaluated themselves again. In addition, positive and/or negative views and Turkish 18 175.5 122 2.778 0.004 0.53 suggestions about the study were collected from the students. Italian 8 252 - - - -

Data analysis

The quantitative data obtained from the observation forms after the Table 3. The posttest and Mann Whitney U test scores of students completed the method applications were tested using the Turkish and Italian students. SPSS-22 statistical package with t-tests and Mann- Whitney U Tests. The test were intended to discover whether there was a Students N Median U z p r significant difference between Turkish and Italian students con- Turkish 18 290 121 2.723 0.005 0.53 cerning the research questions presented earlier. The qualitative data that contained the positive and/or negative views and Italian 8 339 - - - - suggestions of the participants were analysed using the descriptive analysis method.

results were made using a Mann-Whitney U Test. The Participants contributions of the scales and exercises to later performance levels were evaluated by taking the pretest The participants in this study were instrumental (flute) students from Uludağ University, Faculty of Education, Department of Music and posttest point differences into consideration using t- Education in Turkey and flute students from the Alfredo Casella tests. Table 2 shows the pretest score averages based Conservatory in L’Aquila city in Italy. The sample size was 18 on the Turkish and Italian students’ self-evaluations and Turkish students (TS) and 8 Italian students (IS) (N = 26). In this the Mann-Whitney U Test results. study, students were asked to complete a form to collect their When the pretest results were analysed a significant educational levels and determine whether they had studied Turkish Folk Music for the flute prior to the study. The results showed that difference can be observed in the students’ self- none of the students had any formal educational experience with evaluations in favour of the Italian students (U=122, Turkish Folk Music for the flute, and only 2 Turkish students p<0.05). When the averages are taken into consideration, practiced exercises based on Turkish Folk Music in their daily flute Italian students’ pretest scores are higher than Turkish practice routines. These exercises were not rhythmically focused; students’. Table 3 shows the posttest averages of instead, they were generally modal. Turkish and Italian students based on their own

evaluations and the Mann Whitney U Test results. FINDINGS The posttest results showed a significant difference in the scores in favour of Italian students (U=121, p<0.05). This study investigated differences between Turkish and When the averages of the posttest scores were taken into Italian students’ aksak meter folk song performance consideration, Italian students’ posttest scores were levels based on self-evaluation results. The determination higher than those of the Turkish students. Tables 4 and 5 between-group differences on the pretest and posttest shows the pretest and posttest results for the participants 886 Educ. Res. Rev.

Table 4. Pretest/posttest and “t-test” scores.

Variable N Mean SD SE Pretest 26 212.6 43.33 8.497 Final test 26 306.8 57.68 11.313

Table 5. “T-test” scores of the pretest/posttest results.

Variable t p Mean difference SE difference Cohen’s d Final test - pretest 16.23 < .001 94.19 5.804 3.183

Figure 1. Student opinions after the study.

according to their self-evaluations and the t-test results. with Statement I, “I found this study useful.” Two Turkish From Tables 4 and 5 it can be observed that the aksak and 1 Italian student agreed and 1 Turkish student meter scales and exercises prepared for flute education disagreed with Statement II “I found this study based on t-tests of the posttest results (performed after unnecessary.” Seventeen Turkish and 8 Italian students the method application) had a positive impact on the strongly disagreed and 11 Turkish and 5 Italian students performance levels of the folk songs (pretest=212.6, strongly agreed with Statement III “I found the chosen posttest=306.8). In addition, there is a significant folk songs suitable for this study.” Six Turkish and 3 difference between the pretest and posttest scores (p< Italian students agreed, 1 Turkish student disagreed, and .001). A form was presented to the students after the 11 Turkish and 5 Italian students strongly disagreed with study to obtain their opinions concerning the method Statement IV “Choosing different folk songs for the study application and rating for the process. would have been better.” Three Turkish and 2 Italian Figure 1 and Table 6 illustrate and list the student students disagreed, 2 Turkish and 1 Italian student views taken after the study, respectively, which showed partially agreed, 2 Turkish students agreed, and 6 Turkish that 16 Turkish and 7 Italian students strongly agreed and 3 Italian students agreed with Statement V “The Sakin and Öztürk 887

Table 6. Student opinions after the study.

Variable I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI TS 16 - 11 - 3 - - 12 - 12 13 Strongly agree IS 7 - 5 - 1 - - 4 - 6 4

TS 2 - 6 2 6 - - 6 - 6 3 Agree IS 1 - 3 - 3 1 1 4 - 2 3

TS - - - 2 4 4 3 - - - 1 Partially agree IS - - - 1 1 2 2 - - - 1

TS - 1 1 3 3 13 10 - 7 - 1 Disagree IS - - - 2 2 4 1 - 1 - -

TS - 17 - 11 2 1 5 - 11 - - Strongly disagree IS 8 - 5 1 1 4 - 7 - -

Total - 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

pretest phase of the study was hard.” Four Turkish and 1 7/8, 7 Turkish students answered 8/8, 6 Turkish and 1 Italian student partially agreed, 3 Turkish and 1 Italian Italian students answered 9/8, 4 Turkish students student strongly agreed, 3 Turkish and 2 Italian students answered 10/8 and 1 Turkish and 6 Italian students disagreed, 2 Turkish and 1 Italian student strongly answered 9/16. disagreed and 13 Turkish and 4 Italian students As shown in Figure 3 and Table 8, 8 Turkish students disagreed with Statement VI “The Final Test phase of the chose the “Ben Giderim Batuma” folk song, 3 Turkish study was hard.” Four Turkish and 2 Italian students students chose the “Dirmilcik’ten Gider Yaylanın Yolu” partially agreed, 1 Turkish and 1 Italian student strongly folk song, and 2 Italian students chose the “Su İçemem disagreed, 1 Italian student agreed, and 10 Turkish and 1 Testiden” folk song as their study favourites. The other Italian student disagreed with Statement VII “The students chose different folk songs as their favourites. In performance exercise period of the study was hard.” Five addition, among the folk songs considered most difficult Turkish and 4 Italian students strongly disagreed and 3 to play, 8 Turkish students chose “Asmalı Mencere”, 3 Turkish and 2 Italian students partially agreed, 1 Italian chose “Böyle İkrar İlen”, 2 chose “Atlar Eğerlendi”, 2 student agreed, and 12 Turkish and 4 Italian students chose “Bana Kara Diyen Dilber”, 1 Turkish and 1 Italian strongly agreed with Statement VIII “This study was fun student chose “Gelin Alma Havası” and “Ardıçtandır and made me happy.” Six Turkish and 4 Italian students Kuyuların Kovası”, and 1 Turkish and 6 Italian students agreed, and 11 Turkish and 7 Italian students strongly chose “Dirmilcik’ten Gider Yaylanın Yolu” as their disagreed with Statement IX “This study was boring.” favourite and challenging folk songs. Seven Turkish and 1 Italian student disagreed and 12 Turkish and 6 Italian students strongly agreed with Statement X “This study is useful for other courses as RESULTS AND DISCUSSION well.” Finnaly, 6 Turkish and 2 Italian students agreed, 12 Turkish and 4 Italian students strongly agreed, 3 Turkish This study investigated both the effects of aksak meter and 3 Italian students agreed, 1 Turkish and 1 Italian scales and exercises on students’ folk song performance student partially agreed and 1 Turkish student disagreed levels and differences in the success levels of Turkish with statement “Turkish Folk Music exercises should take and Italian students based on self-evaluations. According place more often in flute education.” to the test results, the Italian students achieved higher Figure 2 and Table 7 presents the response of students scores on both the pretest and the posttest than the when asked about their favourite time signatures, 7 Turkish students. The Italian students have better Turkish and 1 Italian student answered 5/8, 5 Turkish and rhythmic resolution and showed a better ability to 1 Italian students answered 7/8, 4 Turkish and 2 Italian decipher written music when practicing performance skills students answered 9/8 and 2 Turkish and 3 Italian despite the fact that they do not typically experience students answered 10/8. Finally, 1 Italian student aksak meters in their daily lives. However, because these answered 9/16. Moreover, when asked about the most results were self-evaluation, it is possible that the Turkish challenging time signatures, 1 Italian student answered students may have been more timid when completing the 888 Educ. Res. Rev.

Figure 2. The students’ favorite and challenging time signatures for studying.

Table 7. The students’ favorite and challenging time signatures for studying.

Variable 5/8 7/8 8/8 9/8 10/8 9/16 TS 7 5 - 4 2 - Favorite time signature IS 1 1 - 2 3 1

TS - - 9 3 4 2 Challenging time signature IS - 1 - 1 - 6

Figure 3. The folk songs students consider as their favourites and challenging to play. Sakin and Öztürk 889

Table 8. The folk songs students consider as their favourites and challenging to play.

Favorite folk song Challenging folk song Variable TS IS TS IS Şişmanoğli Vurdiler 1 - - - Bulutlar Oynar Oynaşır - 1 - - Ben Giderim Batuma 8 - - - Gelin Alma Havası 1 1 1 1 Bana Kara Diyen Dilber 1 - 2 - Ardıçtandır Kuyuların Kovası 1 1 1 1 Atlar Eğerlendi - 1 2 - Kırklar Samahı 1 - - - Asmalı Mencere 1 1 8 - Böyle İkrar İlen - 1 3 - Su İçemem Testiden 1 2 - - Dirmilcik'ten Gider Yaylanın Yolu 3 - 1 6

self-evaluations than the Italian students. Moreover, (IS2, IS8). “Because of this study I was exposed to based on the dates from the observation forms, the Turkish Folk Music” (IS3, IS6). “This experience was very prepared scales and exercises apparently have a positive enjoyable and beneficial for me. The exercises and folk impact on the folk song performance levels of both songs not only let me become acquainted with Turkish Turkish and Italian students. Music but also helped me understand aksak meters and their unique rhythmic patterns. These studies also helped developed my ability to decipher written rhythms” (IS4). Conclusion “This study was very beneficial for me because it taught me different rhythms” (IS7). After completing the study, students were asked to indicate their positive and/or negative opinions and “These studies were not only beneficial for the flute suggestions about the method application. Students’ course but also for the solfeggio course” (IS8). positive views: Students’ negative views:

Turkish students: Turkish students:

“I think that the prepared studies have a contribution to Understanding the exercises would be easier if they were make (TS1, TS7, TS17). I found the musical scale written plainly rather than including examples (TS8). The studies beneficial for gaining a better understanding of exercises were hard for me because I just started the the rhythm (TS2). The studies helped me develop better flute. I could not spare much time to practice but if I work rhythmic knowledge (TS3, TS13). We saw and applied harder, I can overcome the difficulties (TS2). Studying rhythmic patterns that we do not encounter often (TS4, difficult rhythmic patterns and difficult articulations can be TS16). This is an activity that every flautist should tough for beginner-level students (TS18). The exercises participate in (TS11). After the exercises I found I played were boring because they were long (TS8). I need more the folk songs with more enjoyment” (TS11). I very much time to practice the exercises (TS6). The exercises were liked this study, which was prepared based on the a bit boring because the tempo was slow (TS9). The properties of our own music. I understood that we rarely study was exhausting (TS9) (Sakin&Öztürk, 2015). perform in Turkish folk music time signatures (TS15). The exercises were useful for learning new rhythmic patterns (TS4, TS13, TS18) (Sakin and Öztürk, 2015). Italian students:

“More time should have been given for practice before Italian students: the pretest. Then I could have performed better performance” (IS3). “I wanted the exercises to be a bit “The aksak rhythm studies were very beneficial and harder” (IS5). “More exercises should have been studied encouraging for me” (IS1, IS5). “It was a very different before the posttest” (IS7). and important experience for me. We became familiar with different rhythms and melodies in an enjoyable way” Suggestions of the students about the method application: 890 Educ. Res. Rev.

Turkish students: Gates E (1962). Odd Meter Etudes for All Instruments in Treble Clef. Alfred Publishing. George P (2007). Teaching flute: Scales and etudes. I think that the exercises should be studied longer (TS1). https://www.byui.edu/Documents/instructional_development/Perspect We should practice other pieces using similar study ive/V7n2PDF/v7n2_george.pdf methods (TS5). Different rhythmic changes could be Lambert G (1994). Exercises Journaliers. Paris: Edition Henry Lemoine. made in the exercises with the sixteenth notes (TS17). Moelants D (2006). Perception and performance of aksak metres. Musicae Scientiae. Fall, 10(2):147-172. Some exercises could be made more effective for both Moyse M (1923). Exercices Journaliers. Paris: Alphonse Leduc & Cie. rhythm and finger practice (TS18) (Sakin&Öztürk, 2015). Moyse M (1933). Gammes et Arpeges. Paris: Alphonse Leduc & Cie. Müezzinoğlu A (2012). Kemana Uyarlanmış Halk Ezgilerinin Keman Eğitiminde Kullanılması “The Use of Folk Tunes Adapted for Violin Education” (Unpublished PhD Thesis). Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Italian students: Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Öner A (2011). Geleneksel Türk Müziği Öğelerinin Flüt Eğitiminde “We should be exposed more often to help us understand Kullanılmasına Yönelik Bir Model Önerisi “Flute program with Turkish ethnic or unfamiliar music” (IS1). “An ensemble study Traditional Music Elements” (Unpublished PhD Thesis). İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Malatya. could have been included that used aksak meter” (IS2). Petrov B (2012). Bulgarian rhythms: Past, present and future. Dutch J. “More time could have been given before the pretest” Music Theory, 17/3:157-167. (IS3). “Easy duets or trios with aksak meters could have http://upers.kuleuven.be/sites/upers.kuleuven.be/files/page/files/2012 been included” (IS4). “The exercises could have been _3_2.pdf Polak R (2015). Pattern and variation in the timing of aksak meter: harder and they could have been studied longer” (IS5, Commentary on Goldberg. Empirical Musicology Rev. 10(4):329-340. IS6). “We could have made more exercises before the Reichert MA (2013). Seven Daily Exercises, New York: Carl Fischer. posttest” (IS7). “I needed more exercises to grasp the Sakin AŞ, Öztürk FG (2015) Student views on scales and exercises 9/16 time signature better” (IS8). with irregular meters prepared for flute education. Int. J. Arts Sci. 8:85-100. Overall the students evaluated the prepared scales and Stepanow THW (1995) Tonleitern Akkorde und Arpeggien für Flöte, exercises as beneficial and enjoyable and, stated that Frankfurt: Zimmermann. these types of studies should take place in flute Sun M (1997). Şarkılarla Türkülerle Temel Müzik Eğitimi, Ankara: Doruk education more often and that they should be studied for Yayınevi. Sun M (2007). Türk Müziği Makam Dizileri. Ankara: Sun Yayınevi longer periods of time. Tsıbin VN (1940). Basic Techniques for Flute Instrument, Moskova: Devlet Müzik Matbaası. In a future continuation of this study, the students’ Vanderhagen A (1798). Nouvelle Methode de Flute, Paris: Pleyel. observation forms will be evaluated by experts and the Wye T (1999). Practice Book for the Flute, London: Novello &Company Limited. results will be compared.

Conflict of Interests

The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.

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i This article was prepared from the authors’ “Student Views on Scales and Exercises with Aksak Meters Prepared for Flute Education” article by expanding the sample size. ii This article was prepared within the project supported by Gazi University Scientific Research Projects Unit. The project number is 04 / 2015-03.