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Proteolytic Regulation of Parathyroid Hormone- Related Protein: Functional Implications for Skeletal Malignancy

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Proteolytic Regulation of Parathyroid Hormone- Related Protein: Functional Implications for Skeletal Malignancy Review Proteolytic Regulation of Parathyroid Hormone- Related Protein: Functional Implications for Skeletal Malignancy Jeremy S. Frieling and Conor C. Lynch * Tumor Biology Department, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.:1-813-745-8094 Received: 25 April 2019; Accepted: 4 June 2019; Published: 8 June 2019 Abstract: Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), with isoforms ranging from 139 to 173 amino acids, has long been implicated in the development and regulation of multiple tissues, including that of the skeleton, via paracrine and autocrine signaling. PTHrP is also known as a potent mediator of cancer-induced bone disease, contributing to a vicious cycle between tumor cells and the bone microenvironment that drives the formation and progression of metastatic lesions. The abundance of roles ascribed to PTHrP have largely been attributed to the N-terminal 1–36 amino acid region, however, activities for mid-region and C-terminal products as well as additional shorter N-terminal species have also been described. Studies of the protein sequence have indicated that PTHrP is susceptible to post-translational proteolytic cleavage by multiple classes of proteases with emerging evidence pointing to novel functional roles for these PTHrP products in regulating cell behavior in homeostatic and pathological contexts. As a consequence, PTHrP products are also being explored as potential biomarkers of disease. Taken together, our enhanced understanding of the post-translational regulation of PTHrP bioactivity could assist in developing new therapeutic approaches that can effectively treat skeletal malignancies. Keywords: PTHrP; proteases; bone; cancer; parathyroid hormone-related protein; metalloproteases; bone metastasis; osteoporosis 1. Introduction Thirty years have passed since the discovery of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) as a tumor-derived hormone responsible for humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy (HHM) [1]. Subsequent to this discovery, several potent effects of PTHrP in bone biology and cancer-induced bone disease have been identified. Elegant in vivo studies using genetically engineered mice have exposed vital roles for PTHrP beginning during embryogenesis and extending into adult life, suggesting that PTHrP has potent, multi-functional effects. PTHrP is a member of the parathyroid family of hormones. The PTHrP gene, PTHLH, is located on the short arm of chromosome 12 whereas the gene for parathyroid hormone (PTH) itself is found on chromosome 11 [2,3]. The resulting protein is largely conserved among most species, however, alternative splicing produces three unique isoforms of human PTHrP (139, 141, or 173 amino acids) that are differentially expressed in specific tissues [3]. The precise purposes and characterization of these isoforms have not been elucidated at this juncture. However, the presence of varying instability motifs between the mRNA isoforms suggests that each possess distinct half-lives and that some may be more suitable to functioning as a paracrine or autocrine mediator as opposed to the more conventional endocrine activities associated with PTH [4]. As would be expected, the PTHrP protein shares homology with PTH, but this occurs primarily in the N-terminal region, where eight of the initial 13 amino acid residues (Val2, Ser3, Glx4, Gln6, Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 2814; doi:10.3390/ijms20112814 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 2814 2 of 23 Leu7, His9, Gly12, and Lys13) are identical [5]. The remainder of the amino acid sequences show little homology [2]. These similarities contribute to PTHrP and PTH activating a common signaling receptor, the type I PTH receptor (PTH1R) [4]. Likewise, the differences in sequence, particularly His5, provide discrimination between receptors. This is observed in the case of PTH2R, which PTH activates whereas PTHrP does not [6]. PTH1R is a G-protein coupled receptor that predominantly signals through GS alpha subunit (GαS)/adenylyl cyclase/cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)/protein kinase A (PKA) and less robustly through GQ alpha subunit (GαQ)/phospholipase C (PLC)/protein kinase C (PKC) signaling cascades to mediate gene transcription and cell fate (Figure 1). Upon ligation, a series of conformational changes in PTH1R lead to a shift of transmembrane domain 3 away from transmembrane domain 6, permitting access to the cytoplasmic loops by G proteins that are associated with the adenylyl cyclase and PLC pathways [7]. Through these signaling pathways, PTHrP stimulates the accumulation of intracellular second messengers such as cAMP, diacylglycerol (DAG), and inositol triphosphate (IP3) which subsequently leads to activation of PKA, PKC, and release of intracellular Ca2+, respectively (Figure 1) [8]. This can have further downstream effects including cAMP response-element binding protein (CREB) and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) phosphorylation [4,9,10]. PTHrP has also been shown to stimulate phospholipase D via a mechanism transduced by Gα12 and Gα13 through Ras homolog gene family, member A (RhoA) [11– 13]. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that PTHrP can activate ERK1/2 following intracellular internalization of PTH1R, dependent on beta-arrestins [14–16]. PTHrP contains a leader sequence of 36 amino acids (-36 to -1 signal peptide) utilized for intracellular trafficking and secretion [17]. The leader sequence is typically removed as the nascent peptide enters the rough endoplasmic reticulum [18]. After removal of the leader sequence, the resulting product is considered “pro-PTHrP” and is subject to further post-translational modification and activation by proteolytic cleavage. Figure 1. Traditional parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) activities are mediated through a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) called PTHR1. In skeletal tissues, PTHR1 is expressed on the surface of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and chondrocytes. The downstream pathways consist of signaling arms capable of activating protein kinase A (PKA) or protein kinase C (PKC). 1.1. PTHrP in Development and Skeletal Biology Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 2814 3 of 23 Unlike PTH, whose expression is restricted to the parathyroid glands, PTHrP is ubiquitously expressed throughout many tissues, including heart, skin, bone marrow, fetal liver, gastric mucosa, adrenal, thyroid, breast, and parathyroid glands that can act in a paracrine, autocrine, and intracrine manner [19,20]. PTHLH is transcriptionally regulated via regulatory regions and response elements within its promoter. Vitamin D3/Vitamin D receptor, CREB, Ku antigen, Ets1, Tax1, and SP1 have all been identified as factors that may either increase or decrease PTHrP expression [4,21–25]. These factors themselves are controlled by several cytokines and hormones that have been directly linked to PTHLH regulation, including transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), epidermal growth factor (EGF), and Vitamin D3 [26–31]. PTHrP can also be regulated post-transcriptionally by micro RNAs (miRNA) [32]. Gene ablation studies in vivo produce phenotypes that revealed a particular importance for PTHrP in skeletal and mammary gland development. Systemic deletion of PTHrP (Pthlh-/-) yielded a neonatal lethal phenotype, with newborns dying within 24 h of birth due to respiratory failure attributed to defective rib cage formation [33]. These mice also exhibited domed skulls, shortened snouts and mandibles, and short limbs, suggesting specific relevance for PTHrP in endochondral bone formation [33]. Due to neonatal lethality, mice in which PTHrP was delivered or overexpressed in specific tissues were generated, thereby allowing for the analysis of PTHrP in various cell types [34,35]. For example, rescue of PTHrP knockout mice from neonatal death via targeted transgenic expression of PTHrP in chondrocytes revealed a failure of early ductal development and provides evidence of a role for PTHrP in branching morphogenesis in mammary tissues [34]. Further, these mice also display dwarfing and failed tooth eruption [34–36]. Consistent with these findings, PTHrP haploinsufficiency produces mice that appear normal at birth but display low bone mass, decreased trabecular thickness and connectivity, and increased adiposity as they approach three months of age [37]. In accord with the mesenchymal phenotypes described by other studies, it has also been established that PTHrP is critical for regulating growth plate development by controlling the proliferation and differentiation of chondrocytes [38,39]. Throughout adult life, PTHrP remains an important mediator of skeletal remodeling. It is important to note that PTHrP has a bimodal effect on the skeleton, acting primarily on osteoblasts while indirectly influencing osteoclast activity via cytokines such as receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa beta ligand (RANKL) [40]. As a potent mediator of bone metabolism, PTHrP has been the focus for potential therapeutic agents for disorders such as osteoporosis [4]. These studies have shown that PTHrP dosing and level of exposure are critical for the balance between anabolic and catabolic activity, with intermittent dosing regiments being key to generating an osteogenic response [41–43]. Recently, an anabolic PTHrP analog called abaloparatide underwent clinical investigation and FDA approval for osteoporosis (NCT01343004, NCT0167462, NCT00542425). The results of phase III clinical trials showed that treatment of postmenopausal
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