Paper invited for the International Conference: Freedom of Expression, , , Riga 14-17 October 1998

Eva Kodric-Dacic

National and University of

Abstract

According to a short review of the 200-year history of the National and University Library, (Slovenia), librarians have always been a part of the censorship process, regardless of the rule and its socio-economic order. In the quality of state employees they had to observe instructions imposed by the authorities, thus hiding library materials away from library users in every prescribed manner. Materials that have been banned in various periods of time are now preserved in the library. Awareness of professional principles in terms of resisting censorship has also contributed to this.

Introduction

Some twenty years ago, within the interval of five years, two outstanding Italian authors portrayed the image of librarian in their works. Librarians working for special libraries, to be exact. The first one is situated in a medieval monastic library, the second one, however, happens to be our contemporary, enrolled with a chemical company. Although engaged in the same business, the authors' approach to librarian's work could not differ more:

Umberto Eco, author of the first description (in his famous novel Il nome della rosa, could it be anywhere else?), sees a librarian as a person full of dignity, possibly exercising fatal influence on the course of events: we become acquainted with Malahija the librarian as he enters the library, firm of step, rather tall and excessively slim: »Mestizia e severit`a predominavano nelle linee del volto e i suoi occhi erano così intensi che a un solo squardo potevano penetrare il cuore di chi gli parlava, e leggerli i segreti pensieri, così che difficilmente si poteva tollerare la loro indagine e si era tentati di non incontrarli una seconda volta«. At first sight he seems to be steadfast ruler of the library. Later on, however, his image is considerably altered to a sort of humble watchdog and effective tool in the hands of a man who not only possesses knowledge, but firmly insists on his principles in terms of preserving the existing social and ecclesiastic order (Jorge from Burgos).

Two hundred years later the invention of press changed the real library custodian as well. In place of Jorge from Burgos inquisition and censorship stood in as respective exponents of church and temporal powers. Thus employees of libraries established and financed by the state (which are currently under research) used to enter the government service by joining the press control.

Librarians, being experts in humanities, are included into the system of press control directly, performing functions of censors and librarians at the same time, thus taking special care of dangerous .

To achieve this goal libraries set about the very selection of the books (and users) intended for study. On the other hand, libraries, in co-operation with government officials, take in and store copies of confiscated and banned books. Aided by the government authority, they succeeded in obtaining legal deposit copies.

1 of 10 In the library I work for (National and University Library, Ljubljana) the previously defined roles of librarians can be easily followed right from the beginning (1774) up to nowadays. Numerous rules and fleeting occupational forces that were succeeding one to another, left traces in the library catalogues, testimonies of hostile and feared ideologies: Austrian Empire, French occupation 1808-1812, Austria-Hungary, , second World War with the Italian and German occupation, and Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Habsburg Monarchy: from 1774 to 1918

The establishment of the Lyceum Library in Ljubljana (1774) coincides with the severed press control in the Austrian Empire during the last quarter of the 18th century. In 1782, censorship is put forward as a special government service in Vienna, functioning under the auspices of police from 1801 to 1848, year of its abolition. Trying to severely limit the invasion of unwanted ideas, the Government had to meticulously control imports of foreign literature as well as to limit circulation of works with delicate content, already present in the country. »Not even a sunbeam, from wherever it shines, must not be unexamined and uncontrolled in the Monarchy for the foreseeable future«, reads the introduction to censorship regulations from 1810: its consequences can be noted in our library's catalogues.

Thus censorship was not really limited only to examinations of manuscripts as preventive measures, but it was trying to control every single area related to the press: process and printing machines, publishers and authors, distributors and – libraries. Being aware that too restrictive a control would suffocate research and development, censorship started differentiating not only between legal and banned books, but it began defining books that could be distributed or read under special limitations and conditions. Levels of suppression were stipulated:

admittur, standing for documents allowed to be advertised in newspapers and sold in public; transeatur, standing for documents, inappropriate for public sale, and without any other serious limitations. They can be sold and published in catalogues, nevertheless advertising in newspapers is not allowed; erga schedam conceditur, designing documents authorised to be read by specialists and researchers against a written evidence issued by the police office; damnatur, used to identify documents with the aim of undermining the Government, or considered to be immoral. Permission to read those was released by the Court Police Office who was required to deposit lists of people studying those books with the Emperor on a quarterly basis.

In 1815, however, censorship re-examined previously approved books which resulted in publication of newly drafted lists of works with limited use:

Catalogue revu et corrige des livres prohibes, français, anglois et latins. (S.l.), 1816, Catalogo de’libri italiani o tradotti in italiano: proibiti negli stati di sua Maesta l’imperatore d’Austria. Venezia, 1815, Neu durchgesehenes Verzeichniss der verbothenen deutschen Bü cher. Wien, 1816

Having this said, university and college libraries were nevertheless in a position to collect and store all banned material, along with items with limitations of use. Libraries were regularly informed about any suppressions: from 1816 onwards they were receiving lists of banned publications, issued bimonthly. Libraries received detailed instructions about how to handle banned books

2 of 10 through Library prescription, released in 1825 by the Court Research Committee (Stud. Hof.-Commision). This regulation describes and stipulates organisation and operation of university and research libraries. Nine items (100. – 108.) relate to work with publications, banned by censorship:

The principal is held responsible for manipulation of banned and in erga schedam marked publications in the library.

In accordance with the Decree of the Supreme Police and Censorship Office all university and college libraries shall be issued with , published in 1815 and 1816, together with the newly compiled list of previously banned books in German, Italian, French, English and Latin. All libraries shall receive lists of newly banned or erga schedam limited books or otherwise not allowed to go to print. Lists shall be dispatched by the Presidency of the Country Office (Präsidium der Landesstelle). Lists shall be collected for library use only and therefore stored with care. Hand-written lists shall be bound to volumes with hardback. In doing so, the bookbinder shall be controlled.

Lists shall not be distributed (according to the above statement) or released to circulate, not at least to booksellers, antiquarians or with the aim of . Officials in possession of lists shall be held responsible for any misuse, since they are intended for in-house use.

If the library used to hold banned or erga schedam limited books, the information about that should have been given discretely and only »wenn das Werk von einem Professor oder von sonst einer Person, welche durch Stand und solidere Bildung ganz unbedenktlich ist, verlangt wird, wenn zugleich rücksichtwürdige Gründe zur Lesung dieses Werkes sich zeigen, und wenn daher die Erwirkung der erforderlichen erscheint«/. In case a banned or erga schedam limited was required by another person, loan had to be declined for some banal reason without emphasising it had been banned. The library staff were not allowed to provide information about banned publications, but not (yet) received.

Periodically, the newly banned books shall be added to the supplement of printed list from 1816.

Banned publications shall be neither discarded nor stored in the same location.

The of each of a banned or erga schedam limited work shall be accompanied by PR (prohibitus) or E.S. (erga schedam) indication. The same indication shall figure on the catalogue card intended for the in-house catalogue which only librarians have access to.

Use of any such (or secret) indications in other catalogues is strictly forbidden. If such indications are nevertheless found, they should be deleted without leaving traces.

Printed lists of books approved by censorship shall be collected, bound and exhibited in the library. Only small groups of library users had the opportunity to get an insight into those lists within library room, since one could easily find out about the banned books, basing the conclusions on the lists of approved books.

3 of 10 This was, by and large, official instruction which was far from being observed at least in the every-day practice of the Lyceum library. Lists of banned books have remained unbound even nowadays. Printed lists from 1815 and 1816 were not supplemented at all; The PR indication can however still be seen on the catalogue cards belonging to the in-house catalogue. As it is evident from the accession list, many of those books were given to the library by the Revision Office.

The Library holdings were rearranged at the beginning of the 1830-ies and the then principal Matija Èop even asked the Court Research Committee to advise him on completing the lists of 1815 and 1816, but received no reply. The catalogue of banned books supposed to have been started in the Library at the same time, has not been preserved either.

The March Revolution brought about the freedom of the press. In 1848 the proclamation of freedom of the press made it possible to dismiss the Court Police Office, along with the censorship service. Revision Offices (Revisionsamte) and censors were cancelled, but lists containing banned books continued to exist. The April 1848 proclamation reminds libraries that the abolition of censorship had resulted in considerably changed legislation on book circulation in public libraries' reading rooms. Scientific works, up to then banned for public use, were made available to users. Restrictions were however set on immoral and not religious books, which were separated from circulation licence once again, together with those stimulating disobedience to law.

The decree from 1853 follows the streamlined policy. The management of a state library is required to take care in making available certain categories of books for study: books with a strong religious, political or social emphasis, spreading intolerable tendencies and ideas, are recommended to remain out of reach, especially to students. Libraries had to find happy medium not to hinder research.

Lists of banned books are now distributed publicly (at the beginning, they figure in printed form, along with publication in the official gazette). Lists held by the Library sometimes witness meticulous care to note the place and date of the official statement of ban.

According to new government instructions, banned books do not belong to libraries any longer. Nowadays we can only guess what kind of policy used to be undertaken by the Lyceum library when faced with user requirements for banned publications. Books from that period with PR or E.S. indications on catalogue cards are still preserved even nowadays.

Kingdom of Yougoslavia: from the end of the to the beginning of the World War II

The reaction of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and to October Revolution, along with events in the Soviet Russia, seem somehow even more restrictive, when compared to the reaction of Austrian censorship to the French revolution. The latter was selective in the use of measures aimed at enlightened literature, cult of Napoleon and later at emerging tendencies for independence with several nations. In 1922, The censorship service in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes simply prohibited the flow of all publications from the Soviet Russia. This was followed in 1925 by the ban of all Hungarian newspapers, printed in Hungary, and again in 1929 the Act on Protection of Public Safety and Order in the State prohibited compilation, printing, publishing and distribution of publications with the aim of promoting communism, anarchy, terrorism etc.

Similarly to practice under the Habsburg rule, special procedures to handle banned material in libraries were set up. This time round the Library does not receive any instructions coming from the police or ministry, but they seem to be self-imposed: »Confiscated items should be clearly marked as such and access is allowed to serious researchers only. Confiscated issues of a given periodical should be therefore separated from the whole serial«. Banned books which found their way to the Library, were marked with a red line in the bookmark area; in the catalogues, indications of the kind

4 of 10 however have not been found.

Samples of books bearing such markings are, for example, books published in a series Sittengeschichte der Kulturwelt und ihrer Entwicklung, banned in 1934; then La dictature du Roi Alexandre, published in Paris in 1933 by Svetozar Pribièeviæ, opponent of the Government.

The number of banned books, acquired by the Library, was relatively small when compared to public statements in official gazette from the period. On the other hand, it is all the more surprising that during the inter-war period the Library did not acquire a single publication from the Soviet Russia.

First initiatives to criticise or even break the existing bans date from that period. In the professional circles, librarians started to oppose the censorship, advocating free and unlimited access to publications for libraries, regardless of their contents. Thus in 1936, Avgust Pirjevec, librarian in our Library, protested against the fact that the Ljubljana University was reluctant to receive publications from the Soviet Russia, sent as a gift. All recent gifts intended for study in scientific institutes should have been deposited with the police headquarters. He supports the idea of free access for research libraries to acquire literature. The same author (Knjižnice in knjižnièarsko delo, 1940) warns the libraries when considering German literature: a great many publications of the so-called scientific nature could have been exposed to tendencies in daily politics rather than laws of science.

Reports on collecting illegal imprints, published by the communist party, date from the same period. They were stored by the library director alone.

World War II

During the second world war two occupation rules followed in Ljubljana: the Italian from the beginning of the war in 1941 until the capitulation of in 1943, and the German occupation beginning in Autumn 1943 until the end of the war. The censorship system was a sophisticated issue with both intruders, but the library moves to the new building in 1941, and the January 1944 fire which destroyed a part of the Library, prevented them from extensive weeding.

It seems that the Italian rule did not interfere with the library's policies. No documents have been found to support intentions to weed, and there are no signs of censorship markings in the library catalogues. But traces of German censorship are well documented in the catalogues. A list of banned titles was forwarded to the Library from the Regional Press Office at the Regional Government in Ljubljana, together with the confiscated books, which were frequently sent to the library. The Press Office reminded the Library that books should have been deposited with the Library, without however allowing public access to them. Consequently, catalogue cards for the books in question are »equipped« with the sign S – very likely to stand for SPERRE/blockade/. The same indication was repeated in the accession catalogue.

It seems that in those days the safest and the easiest way to preserve the books was to hide them. The majority of books preserved in a substantious black chest, stored in the Manuscript department, date probably from that period, still waiting to be processed. The contains mostly German publications issued during the inter-war period. Among them already mentioned series: Sittengeschichte des Intimsten, Sittengeschichte des Lasters, Sittengeschichte des Geheimen und Verbotenen... Also to be found: works by famous sexologists: Hirschfeld-Linsert's Liebesmittel; extensive Fuchs's work: Die Frau in der Karikatur, and Illustrierte Sittengeschichte. Some exceptions quite apart, books happen to be intact, without even bearing the Library stamp. It is almost impossible to find out where the books came from. Some of them were probably part of the private library; others were perhaps washed up as a remainder of the inter-war legal deposit, and another group must have come into the chest after the second world war since they already bear the National and University Library stamp. Five works which should have been part of the

5 of 10 chest at least judging from their subject (among them Hierschfeld's Sittengeschichte, Fuchs's Illustrierte Sittengeschichte and Geschichte der erotische Kunst) even found their way to library's shelves. In the post-war period they were discovered In the Manuscript Department, catalogued as rara, since the library allegedly wanted to protect them from use.

But books inside the black chest were not the only group of hidden books in the library. Collection of illegal imprints thrived also during the second world war, based on a clandestine agreement with the Resistance Movement which from 1942 onwards took on the task of providing legal deposit copies (5) of illegal publications.

Republic of Yugoslavia: from 1945 to 1990

As soon as the weapon was silenced after the war, the new authorities prepared lists of banned material. This time round it happened to be a direct opposite of what the library had been requested to do under the German occupation. The Department for People's Education, an office under the auspices of the then Ministry of Education, released in Summer 1945 three lists of banned authors and works, following the guidelines issued by the Library Revision Committee. Libraries were required to remove everything »opposing our views on the most important questions …..« and because of »pro-fascist orientation of the author, although his earlier works do not reflect this yet (Knut Hamsun etc.)« Lists did not include some propaganda imprints with anti-Resistance contents, rejecting the new social order or disseminating religious intolerance. In this way, librarians found themselves once again playing the role of censors in terms of making decisions which material fell into which category. A circular accompanying the list wanted the librarians to inform the Ministry about any book or author that should have been banned due to its contents and not figuring on the list.

Libraries were expected to remove all those books from public use. Loan was however allowed to cater for the needs of research: readers had to be issued with a written permission in order to borrow. Authorities in education, government or trade union were licensed to release such statements.

The National and University Library took into account all those instructions since catalogue records of the books in question were marked with a red line in the bookmark area. Owing to a great number of banned books the red line happens to be the most evident sign of censorship. It is almost impossible to browse the catalogue without having to bump into the red line. On the other hand, books remained without any special markings whatsoever keeping the previously assigned place in the stacks. At the beginning, the Library did not fully observe all instructions laid down by the circular, since catalogue records of banned books were kept in the public catalogues and material published by collaborative forces could be accessed by readers without any limitations. Later on catalogue records were set apart and kept in the Manuscript Department where they served as a record basis to the so-called D-collection. It took several decades for those books to become fully available again, despite the fact that the lists of banned books had been withdrawn in 1951, nor had any warrants been issued.

After the second world war a collection with limited access was taking shape. Librarians hailed it as the D-collection which stood for Director's collection. The collection contained all publications that had been banned for various reasons (not only political) and then stored in the director's office. Items were usually banned by the authorities using the institute of warrant, along with publications that were judged by librarians themselves as unsuitable for circulation (for example the first Slovenian sex manual was stored there for the reason of its preservation). With the course of events, the D-collection outgrew its initial purposes, thus becoming a collection of emigrant imprints. The Library was carefully planning and preparing the collection of publications issued by people who had left Slovenia after the second world war. Legal grounds for this activity can be found in the National and University Library's Foundation Act (1945) which assigned the Library the

6 of 10 privilege to collect »books and other imprints whose distribution is banned whatever might be the reason«. This legal move (undoubtedly due to legal deposit implications) was coupled with the director's strong awareness of the mission of the national library which proved to be of crucial importance.

It goes without saying that the collection of emigrant literature could not be developed to such a degree without a silent consensus of the authorities. Namely, the Library received publications previously seized by the police. In 1974 a bill was passed (Act on import and distribution of foreign mass media and on foreign information activity in Yugoslavia) specifying that state, research and archival establishments were entitled to import banned publications for research purposes.

So much for the law. But in daily practice, even institutions possessing licence to receive publications, issued by adversely oriented organisations, encountered problems: many written consents had to be obtained. On the other hand, companies dealing with import of publications did not express a commercial interest for such publications, for it was mostly limited to booklets in a single copy or two.

The library's main goal was to complete the picture of the second world war in Slovenia also with documents published by the collaboration movement. However, cataloguing of those materials began only in 1979. The Library set about the cataloguing rules for banned literature even earlier. In 1976 a document Procedures to follow in cataloguing the D-collection imprints was prepared. Head of the Acquisitions Department was eventually chosen to select the D-copies. (S)he was requested to inform the director about any D-publication before letting it go to the cataloguing process. A red sheet of paper was inserted into the book and each cataloguer had to put down the date of receipt and eventually sign it. Head of Departments were the only people allowed to catalogue D-publications, and the books were given the highest priority. As long as the books moved around the library waiting to be fully catalogued they had to be locked up. When they reached the stacks, they were stored in a special place, also protected and locked up, together with other rare and precious materials in the library.

Newspaper and other periodical issues of Yugoslav origin (to be distinguished from emigrant imprints) that had been banned were kept separately from the rest of the periodical in question, following in this way a special treatment. Books with the same origin were also stored in the D-collection.

And librarians can be seen again as people charged with responsibility to determine access to materials:

»Anybody noticing a volume which should have been included into the D-collection is required to report immediately to the Head of Acquisitions who in turn is in charge to transfer it. Catalogue records shall be removed from the public catalogues and transferred to the D-collection catalogue.«

The first evidence of borrowing items from this collection dates from 1978. A year later the Library assigned the first cataloguer to handle the materials. The collection is getting a clearly defined profile concentrating on emigrant literature. In the eighties all records which had been removed in the post-war period, are returned to public catalogues. Beside the emigrant imprints, the collection stores publications with military contents, publications by the Home Office and foreign banned books (for example, Amnesty International Annual Report). Also in the collection, banned books written by Yugoslav dissidents, but there are (with one exception only) no publications by the so-called »inform-bureau« people.

During the 80-ies the library was acquiring emigrant imprints mainly through personal contacts and exchanges. Library was co-operating with all emigrant organisations and individuals willing to co-operate, sending Slovene books in exchange. By the end of the 80-ies the size of the

7 of 10 D-collection amounted to 700 bibliographic units. Catalogue records and books are marked with a big red »D« in front of the bookmark. Nowadays this is considered to be one of the library's special collections, following the general regulations in borrowing procedures.

The D-collection publications could not be retrieved using public catalogues, it is true, but they were nevertheless regularly listed in the Slovene National . The existence of the D-collection was revealed to library public at the beginning of the eighties and holdings for the first time described.

Conclusion

According to a short review of the 200-year history of the National and University Library, Ljubljana, librarians have always been a part of the press control system, regardless of the rule and its socio- economic order. State libraries seem to be last branches suitable for the government to exercise control and to limit the flow of ideas. The press control system is not limited to revision and approval of manuscript alone, but it also implies control (and there is no difference between the pre-March revolution period, and period with freedom of press formally declared) of the book-writing, printing process and machines, paper, as well as control of published books through legal deposit mechanisms, distribution of the press, and use of literature.

This is the reason why we, librarians in state libraries, do not manage our organisations in the way the blind Jorge from the Eco's novel used to. Our work does not necessarily follow the self-imposed principles in the profession. For the authorities have us at their very disposal as a handy tool in making their point. One would be tempted to say that this represents one of the reasons for bad reputation of the profession and surely adds a contribution to a description of modern librarian, given by the excellent Italian author Primo Levi:

"La bibliotecaria,…,custodiva la biblioteca come lo avrebbe fatto un cane da padagliaio, uno di quei poveri cani che vengono deliberatamente resi cattivi afuria di catena e di fame;…, poverina era poco mene che un lusus naturae: era piccola, senza seno e senza fianchi, cerea, instristita e monstruosamente miope, portava occhiali talmente spessi e concavi che a guardarla di fronte I suoi occhi, di un celeste quasi bianco, sembravano lontanissimi, appiccicati in fondo al cranio."

We could hardly fall deeper. Of course, the above citation is heavily one-sided; the other half of our image rests on our knowledge and striving to make familiar to people all those treasures we store. But then, that is another story altogether.

Literature

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