1

Chapter I Introduction

1.1 Background of the study Literature is often perceived by the critics as the most perfect embodiment of man’s thought over their humanities. Wellek and Warren (1956) show that the representation of life by the author consists of the “natural world and inner or subjective world of the individual (p.94). Through Wellek and Warren’s opinion, we can see the vast region of a man’s life that a literary work could compile. The “natural world”, the surrounding world of the author, would intertwine with the author’s “inner world”, the author’s own world in which the author perceived the world in front of it and construct it in their mind. However, the debate over the relation between the two worlds of the author still persists until today. Below, the opinion of Wellek and Warren (1956) represent the idea that it is the inner world that plays the major part in determining the author’s creativity. On the contrary, Pierre Bourdieu (1995) represents the idea that it is the natural world who determines the author’s creativity. Pierre Bourdieu (qtd. From Dhakidae) interestingly explains his idea on the relation between the author and the reality through the concept of “the genesis of the producer’s habitus”, in which a writer takes his stand, determines his character and in turn, chooses a literary genre, who is considered as the best medium in conveying his thoughts. This habitus, derived from the actual reality, will sustain the author’s creativity, since this habitus is the manifestation of the “conjunction between the author’s experiences and the author’s creativity” (Dhakidae, 1995, p.90). Consecutively, the work of the author would function as a reflection of the society (p.77). Such function cannot be derived perfectly from the kind of literature that merely based on imagination, on the “inner world” of the author as Wellek and Warren (1956) has mentioned before. However, some cases show how the literary work of an author does not automatically correspond to the author’s attitude toward the society. Jean Paul Sartre for instance, his critical attitude toward the society does not determine his literary works to be the medium 2

of his critical attitude. In fact, many of Sartre’s thoughts tampak individualistik [seem to be individualistic] (Kurnia, 2004, p.108). Contrary to Bourdieu, Wellek and Warren (1956), consider a literary work cannot easily be perceived as a reflection of the society, since, first, it will be untrue to acknowledge that an author “expresses the whole of life – or even the whole life at a given time” (p. 95). Such acknowledgement will burden the author. Secondly, Wellek and Warren (1956) believe that the representation of the author’s surroundings in their work is a “result and a cause of artistic value” (p.95) However, the most comprehensive understanding upon the relation between literature and reality comes from Karl Marx (1976), who considers that literature is not a separate and self-enclosed region. Yet, Marx later on never continues his opinion toward literature. It is George Lukacs who makes a prolongation of Marx’s ideas in the field of literature. Lukacs (1997) explains more specifically, that the author’s understanding on reality can only be achieved if the author “recognizes the dialectics of the reality” (p.12). What Lukacs actually means is that the author should the reality around him/her in detail. In biographical story such as Max Havelaar or the Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company, clearly, according to Van Niel (1989), “embellished and interlaced” his story with “good accounts of the sanctimonious Dutch bourgeois merchant class” (p.1) who make a comfortable living upon the misery of the indigenous. According to Wellek and Warren (1956), biography is a study of the man of genius, of his moral, intellectual, and emotional development. Moreover, Williams (1999) points out that while reading the biography of a selected individual, one does not only “see the author’s individual and development but also a more general development” of the author. Thus, through biographical novel, the author directly share the reader his/her subjective thoughts on his/herself and surroundings. Consequently, every literary work cannot be merely seen as a literary work alone, which excludes the sociological and historical background of the author and the author’s surroundings. The elements which gave birth to the Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company for instance, are 3

not only Multatuli’s confiscation and his contemplation concerning the condition of the indigenous, or his relation with his surroundings, but also the historical circumstances where he lived in. The clear check point which explains the attachment of literary works with reality can be derived from the opinion of (1995, ¶ 10), a famous Indonesian novelist: That each work of literature is the autobiography of its author at a certain stage and in a certain context. Hence it is also the product of an individual and is individual in character. Presenting it to society is no different from contributing to the collectivity. Also in regard to the relations of power, and to the prevailing standard of culture, the writer's attitude as an individual is disseminated, aware of it or not. It is clearly shown then, that Multatuli has somewhat fulfilled what Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1995) mentioned about the author’s duty, which is “to make an evaluation and reevaluation of the establishment in every walk of life” (1995, ¶ 11). That duty is taken because the author’s concerns are dissatisfied, cornered, and even oppressed by the establishment in effect. As what Multatuli experienced during his stay in . He was unable to fight against the injustice toward the indigenous, even in his office as an assistant resident of Lebak. His last efforts of carrying renewal in Dutch East Indies finally find its manifestation in his biographical novel, which contains his ideas and experiences. Such attitude draws my amazement toward Multatuli, which, compared to other authors, not only does he have the quality as an author but he also possesses a great deal of the sense of humanity, which he shares through his work. Also, my amazement is due to his ability in blending his sense of humanity with literary. Had Multatuli not written Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company, the exploitation toward the indigenous through will be commemorated today only through the work of L. Vitalis in 1851. Vitalis once published a critique toward the forced labor in Dutch East Indies, complete with evidences and statistics. However, the effect of Vitalis’ work was “practically zero” since Vitalis did not have ability to evoke the imagination and 4

consciousness of the reader by utilizing “a brilliant style of language” (lewat gaya bahasa yang menggemparkan) (Hartoko, 1985, p.107). Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company records Multatuli’s experiences as a young civil servant in the Dutch East Indies. Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company, also presents the condition of the indigenous’ life under the Cultivation System, which obviously bears a consequence of its recognition in public as a political novel. Since his first post in Natal, in the west coast of Sumatra, he already applied his strong feeling of humanism in his duty. As a result, he was shocked when he encountered extensive barriers which obstructed all his efforts to recover the condition of the indigenous’ life. This barriers came from both his fellow colonial official and, ironically the indigenous’ itself, especially the regents. Multatuli finally came to the conclusion that the only way to help the indigenous and to restore his position in the Dutch colonial official was by publishing the book containing his life and experiences. History shows how Multatuli was quite succeeded in conveying the facts happened in Dutch East Indies to the public of the (Van Niel, 1989, p. 28). Multatuli is the pseudonym of Eduard Douwes Dekker. It is taken from Latin, which means: “I have endured much” (Multatuli, 1987, p.1). He was born in Amsterdam, as the son of a Dutch sea captain. Later on, Multatuli studied at the Latin School in Amsterdam, since he was predetermined to become a chaplain, just like his brother Piet, who had served as a chaplain for his whole life (Van den Bergh, 1981, p.1) However, he left his studies after three years and worked in an office and a textile business. By the age of eighteen he went to Dutch East Indies on his father's ship. Multatuli lived nearly 20 years in Dutch Indies, where he held a number of governmental posts at the East Indian Civil Service from 1838 to 1856. Multatuli, reared in the bourgeoisie family, reacted against the oppression of the indigenous of the Dutch East Indies as the bourgeoisie did. Under such circumstance, the bourgeoisie showed their ambiguity; in one hand, they expected their social status remain in its place, yet, in another hand, they also “aspire to be 5

the supreme mediators and mediators of class conflict” (Novack, 1997, p.21) which occurred in the society. This complex situation faced by Multatuli later on developed himself as a distinct individual. Engels argued that human derive their moral ideas “in the last resort from the political relations on which their class position is based” (Novack, 1997, p.4). Therefore, two different individuals from different class positions will develop their own distinct ideas on society, or even contradictory ideas and action. Marx’s well known adagium on such matter will give us clearer view, as he states “it is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness” (Eagleton, 1976, p.4). Why is only Max Havelaar who becomes a distinct individual then? It is because the majority of Dutch or Westerners who live in the Dutch East Indies are not able to see the Dutch East Indies society in detail. Besides Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company, Multatuli also produced other fine literary works, varying from novels to plays. Yet, many of them are unfamiliar to the reader outside Holland. Van Niel (1989) considers that among all Multatuli’s collected writings, only Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company which “made his (Multatuli) reputation and clearly conveys his perception of ”. Also, his later works after Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company are much more about his theological contemplation. Ideën (Ideas) for instance, there we can infer the basic of Multatuli’s thoughts, which become the fundamental of his ideas. Van Den Bergh (1984) interestingly shows us how Multatuli employed and developed Christianity to sustain his social awareness (p.43). In 1843, he worked on the play entitled De Eerloze (The Dishonoured) which was later published as De Bruid Daarboven (The Bride up There). Following the publication of Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company in 1860, Multatuli continued to write extensively in the field of literature, his works were rapidly published in the next following years of his life. In 1861, Over Vrijen Arbeid In Nederlandsch Indie (On Free Labour in the Dutch Indies), Wijs Mij De Plaats Waar Ik Gezaid Heb (Show Me The Place Where I Sowed), and Minnebrieven (Love Letters) was published. Few years later, in 1865, another Multatuli’s work 6

was once again published such as the second volume of Ideën and De Zegen Gods door Waterloo (God’s blessing through Waterloo). In 1867, Een en ander naar aanleiding van Bosscha’s ‘Pruisen en Nederland’ (Some Reflections In Reply To Bosscha’s ‘Prussia And The Netherlands’) was also published. After that, in 1870, the last year of the Cultivation System, he published Nog eens: Vrye Arbeid in Nederlandsch Indie (Once Again: Free Labour in the Dutch Indies). This work is the extension of his previous work concerning his contemplation in the condition in the Dutch East Indies. In 1871, Duizend-En-Eenige Hoofdstukken Over Specialiteiten (Thousand And One Chapters About Specialties) was published. During 1871-1877 Multatuli had finished the third to seventh volume of Ideën (Ideas) (“Life and Works of Multatuli” ¶ 23). The first reason for choosing Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company is due to the exciting combination between the author’s perception of his surroundings and his perception toward himself (how he perceived himself). Among his works, only Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company which reveal the author’s anxiety both toward his surroundings and hisself. Despite his own ruined life, the author still persisted to pursue the improvement for the indigenous. Aside from being the medium of his anxiety toward the indigenous’ life, Multatuli also intended to write the book in order to recover his position as a colonial official. Multatuli (1987) himself admitted that one of his purposes in writing the book was to make improvement in the position of the Javanese and rehabilitation for himself. Secondly, my reason in choosing Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company is much more to the extrinsic side of the work. After its publication in 1860, this work caused a great sensation, especially among the Dutch liberal movement and the Colonial officials at that time, although the publication of the book did not immediately stop the exploitation toward the indigenous. In fact, Multatuli spent his last years engaged in political and economic polemics. Dhakidae (1995) maintained that Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company did not only clearly depict the reality, but also “disturbed the maintenance and reproduction of the current social power” (p.90). Next, Dhakidae (1995), explained that the disturbance toward the social 7

power (the Dutch East Indies Colonial Government) is due to the writer’s sympathy toward the indigenous and also his advocacy toward the indigenous, by “exposing the corrupted colonial administration service” (p.90) D. H. Lawrence, in his introduction to the 1927 English translation of the novel, called Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company as “a most irritating work”. Roy Edwards (1987), on his introductory note of Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company added that the book seems to be “the medley of situations and characters” (p.10), in which the reader will be a bit confused of its structure. Moreover, according to D.H. Lawrence, this work on the surface is a tract or a political pamphlet, which raised more or less the same issue as Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom's Cabin did (“Multatuli” ¶ 12). Lawrence also noted that "Instead of pity the poor Negro slave we have pity the poor oppressed Javanese” with the same urgent appeal for legislation, for the Government to do something about it. Although technically, D. H. Lawrence (qtd. From introductory note of Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company) considered Max Havelaar as a “greatest mess possible” (Multatuli, 1987p.10) According to Toer (2002 ¶ 17), the publication of Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company in 1859 had more or less the similar effect of the publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin, which gave ammunition to the American abolitionist movement. Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company became the weapon for a growing liberal movement in the Netherlands, which fought to bring about the reformation in Dutch East Indies. Helped by the publication and the vast influence of this work, the “energized liberal movement” was able to shame the Dutch Government into creating a new policy known as the ethical policy, the major goals of which were to promote irrigation, inter island migration and education in the Dutch Indies. Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company is also acknowledged to be the only record of the tragic events happened in during 19th century, and served as a potret yang menyetel kembali cerita superioritas penguasa dan ketidakberdayaan orang yang mendiami kepulauan 8

Nusantara [portrait of the superiority of the ruling oligarchy and the vulnerability of the people who inhabit Nusantara archipelago] (Kompas, November 17, 2002) Most Indonesians would recall the time when they were still on the elementary school when they heard the name of Multatuli, a gentle stranger from Holland who had a lot of empathy toward the exploited indigenous of Dutch East Indies. Or else, they would confuse Eduard Douwes Dekker with his nephew, E.F.E Douwes Dekker, who shares the same concern toward Indonesian people. Although Max Havelaar is widely published nowadays, most Indonesians can infer nothing from the book. Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1986 ¶ 9) himself admitted that he had the first impression of the name of Multatuli as “far behind in the past, during my childhood, and it seemed so strange”. The exploitation toward the indigenous faced by the main character (Max Havelaar) is known as Cultuurstelsel (Cultivation System). Yet, what is Cultivation System actually? According to Kartodirdjo (1999), the essence of Cultivation System is that the indigenous, as a substitution for land taxes, should provide a sum of crop in the same value as the land taxes (p.13). Furthermore, Kartodirdjo explained that the crops were used to fulfill the demand of export commodities expected by the government. The indigenous should hand 2/5 of their total harvest or substituted by handing 1/5 of their working hours within a year for the colonial government (Kartodirdjo, 1999, p.13). After being posted in the residency of Lebak, Max Havelaar quickly makes use of his power as an Assistant of Resident to take legal action toward the Regent of Lebak, who Max Havelaar assumed to be the exploiter of the indigenous’ people. Especially, after he compiled and studied the data left by Mr. Sloterring, the previous Assistant Resident. The Regent later on insisted that Max Havelaar must withdraw his legal action. On the contrary, instead of being assisted by his superior in facing the regent, he was transferred to another residency. Also, according to Roy Edwards in the introductory note of Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company (1987), Max Havelaar was “sharply rebuked” for his action toward the Regent (p.5) According to Pramoedya Ananta Toer (2000), the main character actually did not completely write on Cultivation System since he was posted in , an 9

area which did not directly suffer from Cultivation System due to the bad nature of the land. Also the main character seemed to be unaware to the existence of the indigenous’ rulers. Max Havelaar did not understand that the power of the Regents was also a part of Cultivation System policy, where the Dutch East Indies colonial government employed in order to manage the Cultivation System, especially to halt the possible social unrest done by the indigenous. Before the Dutch colonial government established their existence in Indonesia, these Regents possessed no hereditary rights at all since their Kings have stronger power. After the Dutch colonial government pushed the indigenous kingdoms, these Regents were given back their hereditary rights and also position as an indigenous assistants to the Resident (the Dutch colonial official) in order to manage the production of crops or district heads (p.20). Max Havelaar, the main character, has become the spokesperson of the mute indigenous for the exploitation done by the Dutch Colonial government. Interestingly, the main character, although he recognizes the exploitation experienced by the indigenous, and how the exploitation operates, still he finds failure in improving the indigenous’ life. Hence, after considering the relation between the main character’s failures and the situation he faces, I decide to take this subject as the topic of my thesis.

1.2 Statement of the problem I am curious to know what the causes of the main character’s failures in improving the indigenous’ life are.

1.3 Purpose of the study The aim of the study is to find out the causes of the main character’s failures in improving the indigenous’ life.

1.4 Importance of the study I hope that the thesis will meet the lack of analysis and discussion on Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company, that is ironically neglected among other great works from the same period such as Mas Marco 10

Kartodikromo’s Student Hidjo, who was written as an instrument to fight against the injustice and the exploitation of the Dutch colonial rule toward the indigenous of the Dutch East Indies. In addition, Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of a Dutch Trading Company also seems to be forgotten, compared to literary works such as E. Breton de Nijs’ Faded Portraits or G. Francis’ Njai Dasima, which provide cultural explanation on our nationality and historical root on our national identity. In Hartoko’s (1985) terminology, those literary works are our “link” to our past (p.62) Besides, I also hope that this thesis can serve as a historical analysis which is needed by the English Department, Petra Christian University to conduct historical or cultural research on Indonesia’s history, especially through the literary works which is produced in the era of colonialism. Lastly, I do not only encourage my fellow students of English Department to make this kind of literary work as their thesis considering the vast area of this literary work left to be analyzed. I also hope that this thesis would be acknowledged by my fellow students of English Department as an open invitation from me to explore the root of our national identity and to celebrate our cultural heritage.

1.5 Scope and limitation The scope of the analysis will be in the causes of the main character’s failures. I will limit the discussion on the main character since he is the only obvious character in the story who contradicts himself against the apparatus of the prevailing Dutch East Indies society and their oppression toward the indigenous. Besides, the main character also makes a contact with the victim of the apparatus, the indigenous of the Dutch East Indies, although indirectly.

1.6 Methodology & Research Procedure In understanding and analyzing the novel, I will conduct a library research and collect the materials needed for my analysis, such as internet, journals, and newspaper. I will employ historical approach in analyzing the novel, considering that the story is based on actual happening. 11

The historical approach I choose for analyzing the novel is the theory developed by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Marxism. Upon the effort in understanding the society, according to Marx (Bressler, 1998, p.219), we will discover that the structure of the society is “built on a series of ongoing conflicts between social classes”. Moreover, the underlying reasons for the conflicts are “the varying ways of the member of society work and their economic resources” (p.219). Marx maintains that the various methods of economic production and the social relationships form the economic structure of the society called the base. From this base, arises the superstructure, or a multitude of social and legal institutions, political, and educational systems. In return, those which arise from the base lengthen its influence downward to the base through “religious beliefs, values, and a body of art and literature (p.219). Specifically, I will use historical materialism. This theory explains “the general laws and forces for the development of society” (Lorrimer, 1999, p.20). Lorrimer also maintains that historical materialism trying to reveal the essence of an event by understanding “the material relation which is lay on the basis of the phenomenon that sprung from the object” (p.21) By employing the theory to analyze the novel, I will be able to know historical background of the story needed and to analyze the prevailing society where the main character lives. Hence, having analyzed the historical background and elaborated it with the analysis of the story, I can see what are the causes of the main character’s failure in improving the indigenous’ life. However, in order to sharpen the analysis, I fully realize that I cannot merely employ historical materialism. Therefore, in order to strengthen and deepen the analysis, I will employ the theory of history and class consciousness by George Lukacs to decode the complex relation between the main character’s consciousness, his surroundings, and his attitude toward his surroundings. Lukacs (1990) himself noted that by relating consciousness to the whole of the society “it becomes possible to infer the thoughts and feelings which men would have in a particular situation” (p.51). Last but not least, I will also employ history and class consciousness theory to draw the characterization of the main character as well as other characters appear in the 12

novel which provide different point of view on the main character’s characterization.

1.7 Organization of the Study This neatly arranged thesis consists of four chapters. The first chapter is the introductory part that contains sub chapter items such as the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the importance of the study, scope and limitation, methodology and organization of the study. The next chapter contains historical approach used for analyzing the novel and the historical background of the novel as well, which are Historical Materialism and History and Class Consciousness. History and Class Consciousness theory will serve as a supporting theory for Historical Materialism, which is needed for analyzing the story. However, the discussion will mostly undergo on the basis of Historical Materialism. The third chapter will contain my analysis on the main character’s failures on the improvement of the indigenous’ life. Finally, the last chapter will be about my conclusion upon the whole study.