1 a Women's History of War (1750-1815) – Course Description

A Women’s History of War (1750-1815) – Course description - Special Subject 2021-2022 Renaud Morieux

NB. Because this is a new Special Subject, this is not yet the final version of this course (but it is very close to it!). For the same reason, there is no sample exam paper.

As Margaret Hunt writes in a recent article, ‘While there have been exceptions, most military history is still represented as a male event. The focus of the ‘military revolution’ scholarship still tends to be military institutions, logistics and success in battle, while the literature on the fiscal-military state compounds this by tying military affairs tightly to the traditionally masculine sphere of politics. This does not only have implications for studying women and gender’.1 While most eighteenth-century women were not involved in the conduct of war, the so- called ‘new history of war’ has indeed drawn attention to life on the homefront. Surprisingly, however, there is no work of synthesis, at least on the early modern period and the eighteenth century, addressing the political, cultural, economic and social consequences of war on women. War was a ‘normal’ activity in the eighteenth century. Did war reinforce gender roles, did it give new opportunities to women, or did both phenomena take place simultaneously? How did women experience life without their husbands? It is well-known that for sailors’ wives, living without their husbands for weeks, even months at a time, was a common experience, which raises the question of the specificity of the ruptures induced by war in comparison with times of peace. The absence of a husband often led to the increase of the domestic roles of the woman, but also created professional opportunities. Yet this distance, temporary or permanent, could also imply abject poverty for women in difficult times. Another concern regards the social effects of men’s return from war. It is well known that the troops’ demobilization was always a factor contributing to disorder in the eighteenth century, in addition to growing unemployment. How much was the violence of the battlefield transferred to the household? Can one establish a link between sexual violence against foreign women and domestic violence? Furthermore, armies and military institutions continue to exist in peace time, and the interactions between these men and women were notoriously fraught, a phenomenon that can be traced in judicial records. Another problem, on which historians of contemporary wars provide useful insights, is the reinsertion into civil, familial or parish life by prisoners who had been captive for years. How many stayed in their countries of detention? Married there and had families? War had consequences on civil societies at large. For many enslaved women, wars could mean the brutal destruction of their families and forced removal by new masters; for others, the redrawing of imperial boundaries and the promises of emancipation offered opportunities to conquer their freedom.

The history of women and gender is at the heart of this proposed paper, which aims to question the hypothetical specificity of a ‘feminine’ experiences of war, by paying attention to a wide spectrum of experiences. In order to acclimatize students to these discussions, the

1 Margaret Hunt, ‘War’, Unpublished conference paper, Leverhulme Network on Gender and Work, 2020, used by permission. 2 first two sessions will cover theoretical issues regarding gender and feminist history, the history of war and the history of violence. Because eighteenth-century wars were global, the geographical coverage is expansive, from Europe to North America, and from India to the Atlantic Ocean. The relation between general processes and local contexts will also be explored. This Paper pays attention to lived experiences as well as discursive practices. Various sources will be considered, such as legal treaties, political discourse, visual representations, female memoirs, family correspondence, fiction, or economic data.

Teaching The paper will be taught in 16 two-hour seminar style classes in the Michaelmas and Lent Terms. These seminars will be structured around student presentations, with topics assigned early in Michaelmas. In addition, two classes (one in MT and the other in LT) will focus on specific primary sources (2x1 hour). There will be a film screening in Michaelmas, followed by a class (1 hour). COVID allowing, one of the classes focusing on specific primary sources will be organized around a visit to the Fitzwilliam Museum in Lent. A fieldtrip to the Cambridgeshire Archives in Ely will take place in Lent (2 hours + 1 hour class).

Exams preparation: Michaelmas: one Q&A class on gobbets (1 hour). Lent: one gobbets practice session (1 hour), and one class discussing strategies for researching and writing the Long Essay (1 hour). Easter: revision sessions, on gobbets (2 x 1 hour), and on the Long Essay (1 hour).

The total contact time will be 42 hours of teaching.

The topics studied in Michaelmas will focus on the experience of war; we will turn to the homefront in Lent.

MT. Michaelmas Term: Women’s experiences of war Week 1. Introduction. Writing the global history of gender and women in wartime: historiography and methodology [lecture + seminar – 2 hours]

Week 2. Global comparisons and local variations [lecture + seminar – 2 hours]

Week 3. Fighting Women [seminar – 2 hours] Film screening followed by class [1 hour]

Week 4. Army wives and camp followers in Europe [seminar – 2 hours]

Week 5. Refugees, exiles and forced (im)mobility (India and North America) [seminar – 2 hours]

Week 6. Violence towards women (North America and Ireland) [seminar: 2 hours] CONTENT WARNING Class: Legal sources [1 hour]

Week 7. Enslaved women [seminar: 2 hours]

Week 8. Female captives and ‘conversion’ in colonial North America [seminar: 2 hours] Class: Gobbets Q&As [1 hour]

Lent Term: The effects of war on women at home Week 1. Wars and the gender order: marriage and adultery [seminar: 2 hours] Class: Visual sources (1 hour) – if possible, held at the Fitzwilliam

Week 2. Wartime politics and patriotism (the American Revolution) [seminar: 2 hours]

Week 3. Women’s role in wartime popular subversions (the French Wars) [seminar: 2 hours] Fieldtrip to the Cambridgeshire Archives in Ely (2 hours).

Week 4. Women writing the war (the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars) [seminar: 2 hours] Class: Fieldtrip discussion and presentations [1 hour].

Week 5. Women’s work (Europe and the Caribbean) [seminar: 2 hours] Class: gobbets practice [1 hour]

Week 6. Widows and single women (India and North America) [seminar: 2 hours]

Week 7. Maintaining family ties at a distance: The sailors’ sisters, wives and mothers [seminar: 2 hours]

Week 8. Interactions with foreign prisoners [seminar: 2 hours] Class: strategies for researching and writing the Long Essay [1 hour]

Easter Term Revision sessions. Gobbets (1 hour) Gobbets (1 hour) Long essay (1 hour)

Michaelmas Term: Women’s experiences of war

1. Introduction. Writing the history of gender and women in wartime: historiography and methodology [lecture + seminar – 2 hours]

This session will primarily focus on the secondary literature, including research on contemporary conflicts and feminist theory. We will discuss one key methodological challenge, i.e. the difficulty of ‘finding’ the women in these documents, by bringing to the fore the problem of the silences of the archives.

Reading (indicative) Jean Bethke Elshtain, Women and War (University of Chicago Press, 1987). Frey, Linda S. and Marsha L. Frey (eds.), Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Europe, 1618– 1900 (Greenwood Press: 2007) Joshua S. Goldstein, War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa (Cambridge University Press, 2001) Hacker, B C and Vining, M (eds) 2012, A Companion to Women’s Military History (Brill, 2012). Karen Hagermann and Jane Rendall, ‘Introduction: Gender, War and Politics: Transatlantic Perspectives on the Wars of Revolution and Liberation, 1775-1830’, in Karen Hagemann, Gisela Mettele and Jane Rendall Gender (eds.), War and Politics: Transatlantic Perspectives 1775-1830 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010): 1-37. *Karen Hagermann, Stefan Dudink, and Sonya O. Rose (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Gender, War, and the Western World since 1600 (Oxford University Press, 2000), introduction. Ebook Margaret R. Higonnet and Patrice L.-R. Higonnet, ‘The Double Helix’, in M.R. Higonnet et al. (eds.), Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars (Yale University Press, 1996): 31–50. ebook Olwen Hufton, The prospect before her: a history of women in Western Europe, I, 1500- 1800 (London, 1995): 217-50 Lynn II, John A., Women, Armies, and Warfare in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2008) Natalie Zemon Davis, The Return of Martin Guerre (Princeton UP, 1983).

2. Global comparisons and local variations [lecture + seminar – 2 hours]

Defining war, in the eighteenth century as in the present, is more complicated than it sounds. Some military conflicts were not considered legitimate and were deemed to be ‘rebellions’ or ‘insurrections’. This could justify a more ruthless conduct towards the enemy and civilians. ‘Civil wars’ and imperial wars, in particular, raise specific questions for women and the family.

Reading (indicative) C. B. Stevens, ‘Women and War in Early Modern Russia (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries)’, A Companion to Women’s Military History, 74 (2012) 5

Bernadette Whelan, 'The weaker vessel'?; the impact of warfare on women in seventeenth-century Ireland', in Christine Meek and Catherine Lawless (eds), Studies in medieval and early modern women (Dublin, 2005).

3. Fighting Women [seminar – 2 hours]

Warfare was not only a masculine enterprise. Some cases of female participation in warfare are well-documented. These actions, which often entailed crossdressing, were usually described as transgressions to the male patriarchy. The disproportionate space that these women occupy in popular culture needs to be explained and compared to what we know about ‘real’ women on the battlefield. We will also interrogate the very definition of the category ‘women’, to think about non-binary genders.

Primary sources (indicative) Christian Davis, The Life and Adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, the British Amazon, Commonly Called Mother Ross; who served as a foot-soldier and dragoon, in several campaigns, under King William and the late Duke of Marlborough; Containing Variety of Transactions both serious and diverting: Wherein she gave surprizing Proofs of Courage, Strength, and Dexterity in handling all Sorts of Weapons, rarely to be met with in the contrary Sex; For which, besides being otherwise rewarded, she was made a Pensioner of Chelsea College, by Queen Anne, where her Husband now is a Serjeant, and she continued to her Death. The whole taken from her own mouth, and known to be true by many Noblemen, Generals, and other Officers, &c. mentioned in her Life, and still living, who served in those Wars at the same Time, and were Witnesses of her uncommon Martial Bravery, 2nd edn, (London: Richard Montagu Publisher, 1741). 229 pp. [selection] Anonymous, The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of Susanna Cope; The British Female Soldier Cheney, Banbury (1810) N. A. Durova, The Cavalry Maiden: Journals of a Russian Officer in the Napoleonic Wars, trans. M. Fleming Zirin (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1988). 242 pp. Hannah Snell, The Female Soldier; or the Surprising Life and Adventures of Hannah Snell, Born in the City of Worcester, who took upon herself the name of James Gray; and, being deserted by her husband, put on mens apparel, and travelled to Coventry in quest of him, where she enlisted in Col. Guise's Regiment of Foot, and marched with that Regiment to Carlisle, in the Time of the Rebellion in Scotland; shewing what happened to her in that City, and her Desertion from that Regiment. Also a full and true account of her enlisting afterwards into Fraser's Regiment of Marines, then at Portsmouth; and her being draughted out of that Regiment, and sent on board the Swallow Sloop of War, one of Admiral Boscawen's Squadron, then bound for the East-Indies. With the many Vicissitudes of Fortune she met with during that Expedition, particularly at the Siege of Pondicherry, where she received Twelve Wounds. Likewise, the surprising Accident by which she came to hear of the Death of her faithless Husband, whom she went in quest of. The Whole Containing The most surprising Incidents that have happened in any preceeding Age; wherein is laid open all her Adventures, in Mens Cloaths, for near five Years, without her Sex being ever discovered (London: Richard Walker, 1750). 188 pp. [selection]

Further reading (indicative) 6

Dianne Dugaw, Warrior Women and Popular Balladry, 1650–1850 (Cambridge, 1989). *Fraser Easton, ‘Gender’s two bodies: women warriors, female husbands and plebean life’, Past & Present 180 (2003) Hopkin, David, “The World Turned Upside Down: Female Soldiers in the French Army of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars,” in Soldiers, Citizens and Civilians: Experiences and Perceptions of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1790-1820, ed. by Alan Forrest, Karen Hagemann and Jane Rendall, Basingstoke 2008: 77-95. *Jen Manion, ‘The Sailors and Soldiers’, in Female Husbands: A Trans History (Cambridge UP, 2020): 68-103 J.L. Tones, ‘A dangerous amazon: Agustina Zaragoza and the Spanish Revolutionary War, 1808-1814’, European History Quarterly 37/4 (2007): 548-61

4. Army wives and camp followers in Europe [seminar – 2 hours]

This session focuses on women workers in army camps or on campaign, in particular the sutlers (food sellers in army camps, vivandières (food and drink sellers), women nurses, and prostitutes. We will also discuss the recent historiography of ‘care’.

Primary sources (indicative) . Iconography ‘Soldiers on a march – to pack up her tatlers and follow the drum’ (1794) ‘Soldiers on a march’ (1811) ‘Soldiers recreating’ (1798) W.H. Pyne, ‘Camp scenes’, Etchings by and after W.H. Pyne (Pyne and Nattes, 1803), National Army Museum, 1967-5-12 Thomas Rowlandson, ‘English Barracks’ (1788). National Army Museum George Moutard Woodward after Thomas Rowlandson, ‘Soldiers on a March’ (1811). Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library. ‘The deserter aprehended’, 1815 . Rebecca Probert ed., Catherine Exley’s Diary: The Life and Times of an Army Wife in the Peninsular War (Brandram, 2014), 22-55. 34 pp. . Newspaper accounts of army wives: Leeds Mercury, 31 August 1811; Caledonian Mercury, 8 May 1813; Caledonian Mercury, 15 August 1814

Further reading (indicative) Thomas Cardoza, ‘Habits Appropriate to Her Sex’: The Female Military Experience in France during the Age of Revolution’, in Karen Hagemann, Gisela Mettele and Jane Rendall Gender (eds.), War and Politics: Transatlantic Perspectives 1775-1830 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010): 188-205. B. C. Hacker, ‘Women and Military Institutions in Early Modern Europe: A Reconnaissance’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 6 (1981), 643–71. Holly A. Mayer, ‘Bearing Burdens: Women Warriors, Camp Followers and Home-Front Heroines of the American Revolution’, in Karen Hagemann, Gisela Mettele and Jane Rendall Gender (eds.), War and Politics: Transatlantic Perspectives 1775-1830 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010): 169-187. 7

Maria Sjöberg, (2011). ‘Women in Campaigns 1550–1850 Household and Homosociality in the Swedish Army’. The History of the Family 16, no. 3: 204–216. J. Padiak, ‘The “Serious Evil of Marching Regiments”: The Families of the British Garrison of Gibraltar’, The History of the Family, 10 (2005): 137–150 Taylor, Peter, and Hermann Rebel (1981). ‘Hessian Peasant Women, Their Families, and the Draft: A Social-Historical Interpretation of Four Tales from the Grimm Collection’. Journal of Family History 6, no. 4 (December): 347–78. Wilson, Peter H. (1996) ‘German Women and War, 1500-1800’. War in History 3, no. 2: 127-160

Film screening followed by class [one hour]

5. Refugees, exiles and forced (im)mobility (India and North America) [seminar – 2 hours]

Women constituted a majority among the civilians who were left behind in times of transitions of sovereignty, especially in imperial contact zones. Many women were also forcefully removed. This session focuses on the case of the American War of Independence and India at the turn of the nineteenth century. During and after the American Revolution, many ‘Loyalist’ women left their country for Canada and Europe; from there, they would write to their families who had remained in America. In India, the territorial expansion of the East India Company against its European and India rivals led to the break-up of families and the forced displacement of men, while their wives and partners had to stay put. This session will consider two kinds of sources: family correspondence and official taxonomies.

Primary sources (indicative) The Pondicherry lists of 1799 (East India Company, British Library). 60 pp. Margaret Conrad, Toni Laidlaw, and Donna Smyth (eds.), No Place Like Home: Diaries and Letters of Nova Scotia Women 1771-1938 (Formac Publishing Company, 1988): 48-59. 12 pp. ‘The Diary of Sarah Frost’, in Walter Bates, Kingston and the Loyalists of the “Spring Fleet” of 1783; with Reminiscences of early days in Connecticut; to which is appended a diary written by Sarah Frost on her Voyage to Saint John, New Brunswick, with the Loyalists of 1783 (n.p., n.d.): 26-37. 12 pp. Raymond C. Werner (ed.), ‘Diary of Grace Growden Galloway’, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vols. 55 (1931) and 58 (1934). page numbers TBD

Further reading (indicative) Tony Ballantyne and Antoinette Burton, eds, Moving Subjects: Gender, Mobility and Intimacy in an Age of Global Empire (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2008). Carol Berkin, Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), ch.3. North Callahan, Flight from the Republic. The Tories of the American Revolution (The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1967) 8

Durba Ghosh, ‘‘Decoding the Nameless: gender, subjectivity, and historical methodologies in reading the archives of colonial India,’’ in Kathleen Wilson, eds., A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity, Modernity, 1660-1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004 Joan Rezner Gundersen, "we bear the Yoke with a reluctant impatience" : The War for Independence and Virginia's Displaced Women in: War & society in the American Revolution : mobilization and home fronts, ed. by John Resch and Walter Sargent (DeKalb (IL): Northern Illinois University Press, 2006), pp. 263-90. Micheline Kerney Walsh, 'Irish women in exile, 1600-1800', The O'Mahony Journal 11 (1981)

6. Violence towards women (North America and Ireland) [seminar: 2 hours] CONTENT WARNING

Was violence towards civilians, and specifically women, justified in the law of nations? What are the links between wartime rape and colonisation? Can one draw a connection between sexual violence against foreign women and domestic violence? Could war traumas be left behind once the conflict was over? This session considers judicial sources and newspapers and raises methodological as well as ethical issues.

Primary sources (indicative) Varnum Lansing Collins (ed.), A Brief Narrative of the Ravages of the British and Hessians at Princeton in 1776-1777 (New York Times and Arno Press, 1968). Newspapers 1798-1800 on Irish rebellion (Freeman’s Journal) Newspapers 1776-80 on American Revolution TNA, ADM 123/6 (Tenterden, 1779) TNA, ADM 98/4, fos. 173-4, 178-9 (11, 23 Nov. 1747). 4 pp.

Further reading (indicative) Sharon Block, “Rape Without Women: Print Culture and the Politicization of Rape, 1765–1815,” Journal of American History 89, no. 3 (2002): 849–68 Sharon Block, ‘Rape in the American Revolution: Process, Reaction, and Public Re- Creation’, in Elizabeth D. Heineman, Sexual Violence in Conflict Zones : From the Ancient World to the Era of Human Rights: 25-38 Anna Clark, Women’s Silence Men’s Violence: Sexual Assault in England 1770-1845 (London: 1987) Michael Durey, ‘Abduction and rape in Ireland in the era of the 1798 rebellion’, Eighteenth-Century Ireland 21 (2006): 27-47 Holger Hoock, ‘Jus in bello , Rape and the British Army in the American Revolutionary War’, Journal of Military Ethics 14 (2015): 74-97 Maeve Kane, ‘She Did Not Open Her Mouth Further”: Haudenosaunee Women as Military and Political Targets during and after the American Revolution’, in Women in the American Revolution : Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World Muravyeva Mariana, ““Do not rape and pillage without command”: sex offences and early modern European armies”, Clio. Women, Gender, History, 2014/1 (No. 39): 55-81

Class: Legal sources (1 hour)

7. Enslaved women [seminar: 2 hours]

Enslaved women were usually captured as the result of wars, which were not always described as such by their captors. After the War of American Independence and the Haitian Revolution, thousands of enslaved people managed to secure their freedom, by fighting off the claims of their former owners through creative legal strategies and by changing allegiances and escaping abroad. A large proportion of these fugitives were female: almost half of the 3,000 ‘Black Loyalists’ who departed from New York to Nova Scotia in 1783 were women and girls. This session follows on the issues addressed in the previous one, but the questions we are asking stem from the paucity of first-person testminonies from these women. How can historians try to recover and write about their experiences?

Primary sources (indicative) The Black loyalist directory: African Americans in exile after the American Revolution, edited with an introduction by Graham Russell Hodges (1996). Page numbers TBD. Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, 1789-1804: A Brief History with Documents (Bedford Cultural Editions, 2016): ‘Geneviève Labothière Secures Her Brother’s Freedom, 1796-1801: 129-131. ‘Marie-Rose Masson. Letter to the Marquis de Gallifet, July 27, 1802’: 175-176. 5 pp.

Further reading (indicative) Amelang, J. (2014). Writing chains: Slave autobiography from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. In S. Hanß, & J. Schiel (Eds.), Mediterranean slavery revisited, 500–1800/Neue Perspektiven auf mediterraner Sklaverei, 500–1800(pp. 541–556). Zurich: Chronos Verlag. Laurent Dubois, ‘Gendered freedom: Citoyennes and War in the Revolutionary French Caribbean’, in Karen Hagemann, Gisela Mettele and Jane Rendall Gender (eds.), War and Politics: Transatlantic Perspectives 1775-1830 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010): 58-70. Marisa Fuentes, Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016) Jessica Marie Johnson, ‘La Traversée: Gender, Commodification, and the Long Middle Passage’, in Wicked Flesh: Black Women, Intimacy, and Freedom in the Atlantic World (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020): 77-120. Rebecca J. Scott and Jean M. Hébrard, "Rosalie of the Poulard Nation: Freedom, Law and Dignity in the Era of the Haitian Revolution," in Assumed Identities: The Meanings of Race in the Atlantic World, ed. John D. Garrigus and Christopher Morris (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2010): 116-43. The Black loyalist directory: African Americans in exile after the American Revolution, edited with an introduction by Graham Russell Hodges (1996), introduction: xi-xlvii.

8. Female captives and ‘conversion’ in colonial North America [seminar: 2 hours]

In North America, the prisoners of the Powhatan Amerindians were conceived as and given the role of mediators, which reveals a belief in the notion that assimilation or cultural 10

‘conversion’ was possible. They could be incorporated into the society of their captors through marriage or adoption, as living proofs of mutual goodwill. Many French, Spanish or English captives in the hands of Amerindians ‘went native’, refusing to return to their families at the close of the wars, even when treaties were concluded between Amerindians and Europeans to this effect. By looking closely at captivity narratives written by women, we will interrogate the problematic distinction between fiction and testimony.

Primary sources (indicative) [All on ECCO]. Bleecker, Ann Elisa. The history of Maria Kittle. By Ann Eliza Bleecker. In a letter to Miss Ten Eyck, 1797. 71 pp. Johnson, Susanna. A Narrative of the Captivity of Mrs. Johnson Containing an Account of her Sufferings, During Four Years with the Indians and French. Walpole, NH: David Carlisle, 1796. 144 pp. Hanson, Elizabeth. An account of the captivity of Elizabeth Hanson, now or late of Kachecky; in New-England: who, with four of her children and servant-maid, was taken captive by the Indians, and carried into Canada. Setting forth The various remarkable Occurrences, sore Trials, and wonderful Deliverances which befel them after their Departure, to the Time of their Redemption. Taken in substance from her own mouth, by Samuel Bownas printed and sold by Samuel Clark, in Bread-Street, near Cheapside (London). 1760. 32 pp. Rowlandson, Mary. A narative [sic] of the captivity, sufferings and removes of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, who was taken prisoner by the Indians, with several others, and treated in the most barbarous and cruel manner by those vile savages: with many other remarkable events during her travels. Written by her own hand, for her private use, and now made public at the earnest desire of some friends and for the benefit of the afflicted. Printed and sold by Nathaniel Coverly, in Black-Horse Lane: North-End (Boston). 1770. 48 pp.

Further reading (indicative) James Axtell, ‘The white Indians of colonial America’, WMQ, 32 (1975), 55–88. Juliana Barr, “From Captives to Slaves: Commodifying Indian Women in the Borderlands,” Journal of American History, 92:1 (2005): 19-46 Linda Colley, Captives Alden T. Vaughn, and Daniel K. Richter, ‘Crossing the cultural divide: Indians and New Englanders, 1605–1763’, Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, 90 (1980), 23– 95.

Lent Term: The effects of war on women at home

9. Wars and the gender order: marriage and adultery [seminar: 2 hours]

This session focuses on the normative order which was asserted during periods of war, through the case of marriage and adultery, and assess its novelty.

Primary sources (indicative) . Visual representations. 11

Greenwich cartoons. Louis-Léopold Boilly, Reading of the Bulletin of the Grand Army (1808) Gillray, Flannel-armour; - female patriotism, - or - modern heroes accoutred for the wars, 1793 An officer of light dragoons taking leave of his wife (1795) . ‘John Weller vs Charlotte Weller’ (1763), in A New collection of trials for adultery: or, general history of modern gallantry and divorces, Printed for the Proprietors, and Sold by J. Gill, 1799. 20 pp. . The Examiner, 14 August 1808. 3 pp. . Hints to the public and the legislature, on the prevalence of vice, and on the dangerous effects of seduction (E. Wilson, 1811): 40-47. 8 pp. . Trial of Susannah Brookes, 8 May 1799, pp. 273-4; Trial of Sarah Marchant, alias Hart, and Matthew Hart, 28 May 1800, pp. 354-355; Trial of James Williams, 14 July 1802, pp 387-388, Old Bailey Proceedings. 4 pp. . ‘Lamentation of the Sailors & Soldiers Wives for the loss of their Husbands’, (London: T. Batchelar, ca. 1807-1810). 1 p.

Further reading (indicative) Hagemann, Karen, “The Military and Masculinity: Gendering the History of the French Wars, 1792–1815,” in War in an Age of Revolution, 1775-1815, eds. Roger Chickering and Stig Förster, Cambridge and New York, 2009: 331-52 Jeannine Hurl-Eamon, ‘Did Soldiers Really Enlist to Desert Their Wives? Revisiting the Martial Character of Marital Desertion in Eighteenth-Century London’, Journal of British Studies, Volume 53 , Issue 2 , April 2014: 356-377. Jennine Hurl-Eamon, Marriage and the British Army in the Long Eighteenth Century: “The Girl I Left behind Me” (Oxford University Press, 2014). Catriona Kennedy McCormack, Matthew, “Citizenship, Nationhood, and Masculinity in the Affair of the Hanoverian Soldier, 1756”, Historical Journal 49:4 (2006): 971-93. Gretchen van Slyk, ‘Women at War: Skirting the Issue in the French Revolution’, Esprit Créateur Vol. 37, No. 1: 33-43.

Class: Visual sources (1 hour) – if possible, held at the Fitzwilliam

10. Wartime politics and patriotism (the American Revolution) [seminar: 2 hours]

Did war ‘politicize’ women? Does it make sense to talk about a ‘female patriotism’? What forms did female political participation take during the wars? This session looks at political practices, as they were apparent in political activism specifically involving women during the American Revolution, especially through the case of boycott and consumption habits.

Primary sources (indicative)

Newspaper articles on the Irish women’s boycott movement during the War of American Independence: Freeman’s Journal, 5 Oct. 1779, 18 Dec. 1779. 3 pp. 12

Esther de Berdt Reed, Sentiments of an American Woman (1780). 2 pp. [Esther de Berdt Reed] Ideas, relative to the manner of forwarding to the American Soldiers, the Presents of the American Women. 2 pp. Benjamin Rush to John Adams, 13 July 1780, in Lyman Henry Butterfield (ed.), Letters of Benjamin Rush (Princeton UP, 1951), vol. 1: 253-54. 1 p. Letters from George Washington to Esther Reed, 14 July, 20 July, 10 August 1780, in John C. Fitzpatrick (ed.), The writings of George Washington from the original manuscript sources, 1745-1799, vol. 19: 167, 216, 350. 3 pp.

Further reading (indicative)

Julia Banister, ‘(De)romanticizing military heroism: Clarke, Southey, Austen’, in Masculinity, Militarism and Eighteenth-Century Culture, 1689-1815 (Cambridge UP, 2020), ch. 7: 185-217 Catriona Kennedy, ‘Bayonets across the hedges: British civilian diaries and the war at home, 1793-1815’, 2012, War memories: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars in modern 14

European culture. Forrest, A., Francois, E. & Hagemann, K. (eds.). Palgrave Macmillan, p. 77- 94 Penny Mahon, ‘Domesticating Discourses: Woman as Writer in the Early Nineteenth- century Peace Society’, in Richard Bonney and David J.B. Trim (eds.), The Development of Pluralism in Modern Britain and France (2007): 189-206 Penny Mahon, ‘Awakening the horror : Anna Letitia Barbauld and the anti-war movement in late eighteenth-century England’ in: Cross, crown & community : religion, government, and culture in early modern England, 1400-1800, ed. by David J. B. Trim and Peter J. Balderstone (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2004): 311-39. Jane Rendall, ‘Women Writing War and Empire : Gender, Poetry and Politics in Britain during the Napoleonic Wars’, in: Gender, War and Politics: Transatlantic Perspectives 1775-1830, ed. Karen Hagemann, Gisela Mettele and Jane Rendall (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010): 265-283.

Class: Fieldtrip discussion and presentations (1 hour).

13. Women’s work (Europe and the Caribbean) [seminar: 2 hours]

What were the economic costs and opportunities that war gave to women? Did the context of war redefine the very concept of work? This session will focus in particular on the ‘replacement’ of absent male workforce by women during wartime, and assess whether these changes were long-lasting or not.

Primary sources (indicative) Bayley, Frederick William Naylor. Four Years Residence in the West Indies. London: William Kidd, 1833, 36. Bolingbroke, Henry. A Voyage to Demerary Containing a Statistical Account of the Settlements There and Those of the Essequibo, the Berbice and the Other Contiguous Rivers of Guyana. London: Richard Phillips, 1807: 40-60 Handler, Jerome S., ed. “Memoirs of an Old Army Officer: Richard A. Wyvill’s Visits to Barbados in 1796 and 1806–7.” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 35, no. 1 (March 1975): 21-30. Waller, John Augustine. A Voyage in the West Indies Containing Various Observations Made During a Residence in Barbados and Several of the Leeward Islands. London: Richard Phillips and Co., 1820. 3-4. Pinckard, George. Notes on the West Indies During an Expedition Under the Command of Sir Ralph Abercromby. 3 vols. London: Longman Hurst Rees and Orme, 1806, vol. 1, 295-8; vol. 3, 266-67.

Further reading (indicative) Dominique Godineau, The Women of Paris and their Revolution, ch. 3 Susan Hanket Brandt, ‘Marketing Medicine’, in Barbara B. Oberg (ed.), Women in the American Revolution: Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World (2019) *Kit Candlin & Cassandra Pybus, Enterprising Women: Gender, Race, and Power in the Revolutionary Atlantic (University of Georgia Press, 2015), ch. 4. Ebook 15

*Jennine Hurl-Eamon, ‘The fiction of female dependence and the makeshift economy of soldiers, sailors, and their wives in eighteenth-century London’, Labor History, 49, 4 (2008). *M. R. Hunt, ‘Women and the Fiscal-Imperial State in the Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries’ in K. Wilson (ed.), A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernity in Britain and the Empire, 1660-1840 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 29–47 M. Lennersand et al., ‘Gender, Work, and the Fiscal-Military State’ in M. Ågren (ed.), Making a Living, Making a Difference: Gender and Work in Early Modern European Society (Oxford UP, 2017), pp. 178–202 Ami Pflugrad-Jackish in Barbara B. Oberg (ed.), Women in the American Revolution : Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World

14. Widows and single women (India and North America) [seminar: 2 hours]

How did women and their children survive in the absence of their husbands? How did they try to obtain compensations for the loss of their properties, be exempted from paying taxes, or collect their husbands’ pensions? Charitable schemes were put in place in various places, and it is both the mechanics of these systems and the rhetorical strategies used by these women when they appealed to these state resources that this session is concerned with.

Primary sources (indicative) Petitions from: Elizabeth Black (9 October 1776), in Cynthia A. Kierner, Southern Women in Revolution, 1776-1800: Personal and Political Narratives (University of South Carolina Press, 1998): 20-21; Martha Jones Gilchrist (14 August 1778): 23-25; Kathrine Smith (29 January 1780): 26; Ann Glover (April-May 1780): 26-29; Martha McFarlane McGee (28 Jan. 1781): 29-30; Ann Christenbury (1 February 1781): 30; Elizabeth Forbes (May 1782): 31; Anne Gadson (22 January 1783): 32-33; Sarah Glen (23 January 1783): 33-34; Sarah Jones (25 Jan. 1783): 34-35; Sarah Galloway (30 Apr. 1784): 35-36; Anne Armstrong (23 Feb. 1784): 36-37; Sarah Rounsevall (11 December 1786): 37-38; Mary Sansum (9 October 1788): 39-41; Jeane Tols (6 Feb. 1789): 41-42; Mary Taggart (5 December 1793): 42-43; Joanna Boylstone (12 December 1793): 43-46; Elizabeth Deveaux (10 December 1794): 46-47; Women’s petitions for pensions and allowances to the EIC, 1800-1809 (British Library). 30 pp.

Further reading (indicative) M. E. Ailes, ‘Wars, Widows, and State Formation in 17th‐century Sweden’, Scandinavian Journal of History, 31 (2006), 17–34 *Durba Ghosh, ‘Servicing military families: family labor, pensions, and orphans’, in Sex and the Family in Colonial India, ch. 6 M. R. Hunt, ‘The Sailor’s Wife, War Finance, and Coverture in Seventeenth-Century London’ in T. Stretton and K. J. Kesselring (eds.), Married Women and the Law: Coverture in England and the Common Law World (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2014), 139–62 16

Lin, Patricia (2000), ‘Citizenship, Military Families, and the Creation of a new Definition of ‘Deserving Poor’. In Britain, 1793-1815, Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State Society 7 (1):5-46. Lyons, Mary Ann (2008). ‘‘Digne de Compassion’: Female Dependents of Irish Jacobite Soldiers in France, C. 1692-C. 1730’. Eighteenth-Century Ireland/Iris an Da Chultur vol. 23:55–75. Steve Murdoch and Kathrin Zickermann, ‘Bereft of all Human Help?’: Scottish Widows during the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)’, Northern Studies, 50 (2019), 114-34

15. Maintaining family ties at a distance: The sailors’ sisters, wives and mothers [seminar: 2 hours]

It is often difficult to reconstitute the familial environment of the prisoners of war, for lack of sources. Correspondances are one way of filling this void. The ‘Prize Papers’ are opened letters that were sent to the prisoners by their wives, and sometimes also by other members of their families, which never reached their addressees because they were thrown at sea or confiscated when the ships carrying them were captured. These writings helped preserve a relationship put in danger by distance and uncertainty of returning, and thus do they offer clues to the historian interested in reconstituting the adaptation of family networks to war. These letters served a social function: they demanded instructions as to estates, and gave news of friends and neighbours. Indeed, their very ordinary qualities served as evidence of the experience of war at the micro level.

Primary sources L.M. Cullen, John Shovlin and Thomas M. Truxes (eds.), The Bordeaux-Dublin Letters, 1757: Correspondence of an Irish Community Abroad (Oxford UP, 2013), pp. 81-2, 87, 95, 104, 112-116, 132-46, 157-8, 162, 166, 170, 179-82, 195-6, 198-201, 203, 206-18, 220, 221- 8, 242-3. 60 pp. [only counting the translated documents]

Further reading (indicative) ‘Introduction’, in L.M. Cullen, John Shovlin and Thomas M. Truxes (eds.), The Bordeaux-Dublin Letters, 1757: Correspondence of an Irish Community Abroad (Oxford UP, 2013): 1-78 Rachel Dekel, Hadass Goldblatt, Zahava Solomon, ‘Trapped in Captivity: Marital Perceptions of Wives of Former Prisoners of War’, Women & Health, 42 (2006) Elodie Duché, ‘The missing spouse: the wives of British prisoners of war in Napoleonic France, their lives and writings’, in Rebecca Probert ed., Catherine Exley’s Diary: The Life and Times of an Army Wife in the Peninsular War (Brandram, 2014), 106-23. Margarette Lincoln, ‘The Impact of Warfare on Naval Wives and Women’, in The social history of English seamen, 1650-1815, ed. by Cheryl A. Fury (Martlesham: The Boydell Press, 2017): 71-88. Susan Whyman, The Pen and the People: English Letter Writers 1660-1800 (Oxford UP, 2009)

16. Interactions with foreign prisoners [seminar: 2 hours]

Soldiers without weapons and without women constitute an important observatory to see how masculinity was put to the test. In the context of captivity, diverse types of affective ties were woven between soldiers and women, and between the soldiers themselves: from solidarity to friendship and from camaraderie to love. Disputes between foreign soldiers and local women raise the question of the eventual transgression of traditional roles attributed to both men and women. Sexual, national and social dimensions merged and allow for an interrogation into the received idea that women were always the passive victims of male aggression. In the context of captivity, the entire gamut of social relations between the sexes were possible, from violent quarrels to amorous interactions. How were these altercations resolved through justice? Was there a relative indulgence, due to the fact that women were considered as eternal minors, or a severity due to their questioning of the superiority of men, whether stranger or enemy?

Primary sources Certificate of marriage between Jean-Baptiste Dusourd, a french POW on parole in Tiverton and an english woman, Maria C. Tucke. Devon Record Office (DEX/7/b/1808/70). 2 pp. TNA, ADM 97/170, fo. 121 (on the validity of marriages contracted in Britain by French prisoners of war). 1 p. ADM 98/226 (women working within Dartmoor prison and their illicit interactions with prisoners) Incidents at Tenterden in 1779 (ADM 97/123/6) translated from the French Major-General Lord Blayney, Narrative of a forced journey through Spain and France, as a prisoner of war in the years 1810 to 1814, 2 vols. (London: E. Kerby, 1814), vol. 1: 267-69; vol. 2: 15-18, 34-37, 95-97, 118-124, 286-89, 389-403. 39 pp. Register of Births, Marriages and Funerals of English Prisoners at Verdun, Givet and Elsewhere (1803-1812), in R. Wolfe, English Prisoners in France, containing Observations of their Manners and Habits (Hatchard, 1830) John Tregerthen Short and Thomas Williams, Prisoners of War in France from 1804 to 1814 (Duckworth & co., 1914): 40-41, 51-52, 86-94. 13 pp.

Indicative reading Linda Colley, Captives: The story of Britain's pursuit of empire and how its soldiers and civilians were held captive by the dream of global supremacy (Pantheon Books, 2002) Renaud Morieux, The Society of Prisoners: Anglo-French Wars and Incarceration in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford UP, 2019), ch. 6.

Easter Term Revision sessions. Gobbets (1 hour) Gobbets (1 hour) Long essay (1 hour)