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When & How Did Seahorses Evolve?

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Z(G%I(%?/<A(3?/?%D<1/-%L/3T)'V/%/77?%Q%I/)'H/3%/77?%1(%1A/%D<)/f?%F3((I%5(20AN%% KAM%<3/%?/<A(3?/?%D(3/%)'P/)M%1(%F/%D(6(7<D(2?%1A<6%5'5/B?AN%%% $*! Z(G%'?%1A/%F3((I%5(20A%(L%?/<A(3?/?%26'n2/N%%Z(G%I(/?%1A<1%F3((I%5(20A%0A<67/% ^2H/6')/%45'6M% GA/6%'602F<T67%/77?N%%:(/?%'1%<))(G%6213'/61%/c0A<67/%F/1G//6%D<)/%Q%/DF3M(?N% 4/<A(3?/% ,*! Z(G%I(%0A<67'67%L/D<)/%F(IM%?'V/%Q%5(20A%?'V/%<i/01%1A/%62DF/3%(L%(i?53'67% 3/<3/I%FM%D(6(7<D(2?%?/<A(3?/?%(H/3%3/5/<1/I%F3//I'67%/H/61?N% a% !"#"#$% !","=3"6(+"A"&"2="'( 1.! Goncalves IB, Ahnesjo I, & Kvarnemo C. 2011. The relationship between female body size and egg size in pipefishes. J Fish Biol. 78:1847–1854. 2.! Goncalves IB, Ahnesio I, & Kvarnemo C. 2016. Evolutionary ecology of pipefish brooding structures: embryo survival and growth do not improve with a pouch. Early View doi: 10.1002/ece3.2139 3.! Jones AG, Avise JC. 2001 Mating systems and sexual selection in male-pregnant pipefishes and seahorses insights from microsatellite-based studies of maternity. Amer Genetic Assoc. 92:150–158. 4.! Jones AG, Walker D, & Avise JC. 2001. Genetic evidence for extreme polyandry and extraordinary sex-role reversal in a pipefish. Proc R Soc Lond B 268:2531-2535. 5.! Kvarnemo C, Mobley KB, Partridge C, et al. 2011. Evidence of paternal nutrient provisioning to embryos in broad-nosed pipefish Syngnathus typhle. J Fish Biol. 78:1725–1737. 6.! Lin Q, Li G, Qin G, et al. 2012. The dynamics of reproductive rate, offspring survivorship and growth in the lined seahorse, Hippocampus erectus Perry, 1810. Biology Open 1:391– 396. 7.! McCoy EE, Jones AG, & Avise JC. 2001. The genetic mating system and tests for cuckoldry in a pipefish species in which males fertilize eggs and brood offspring externally. Mol Ecol. 10:1793 –1800. 8.! Mobley KB, Kvarnemo C, Ahnesjö I, et al. 2011. The effect of maternal body size on embryo survivorship in the broods of pregnant male pipefish. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 65:1169– 1177. 9.! Paczolt KA, & Jones AG. 2010. Post-copulatory sexual selection and sexual conflict in the evolution of male pregnancy. Nature 464:401-404. 10.! Paczolt KA, & Jones AG. 2015. The effects of food limitation on life history tradeoffs in pregnant male Gulf Pipefish. PLoS ONE 10(5):e0124147. 11.! Paczolt KA, W. Martin WE, Ratterman NL, & Jones AG. 2016. A low rate of multiple maternity for pregnant male northern pipefish Syngnathus fuscus. Journal of Fish Biology 88:1614–1619. 12.! Ripley JL & Foran CM. 2006. Differential parental nutrient allocation in two congeneric pipefish species (Syngnathidae: Syngnathus spp.). J Exp Biol 209:1112-1121. 13.! Ripley JL & Foran CM. 2009. Direct evidence for embryonic uptake of paternally-derived nutrients in two pipefishes (Syngnathidae: Syngnathus spp.). J Comp Physiol B 179:325– 333. 14.! Rosenqvist G, & Berglund A. 2011. Sexual signals and mating patterns in Syngnathidae. J Fish Biol. 78:1647–1661. 15.! Sagebakken G, Ahnesjo I, Mobley KB, et al. 2010. Brooding fathers, not siblings, take up nutrients from embryos. Proc R Soc B 277:971–977. 16.! Sanchez-Camara J, Booth DJ, & Turon X. 2005. Reproductive cycle and growth of Phyllopteryx taeniolatus. J Fish Biol. 67(1):133-148. 17.! Scobell SK, & MacKenzie DS. 2011. Reproductive endocrinology of Syngnathidae. J Fish Biol. 78:1662–1680. 18.! Sogabe A, & Ahnesjo I. 2011. The ovarian structure and mode of egg production in two polygamous pipefishes: a link to mating pattern. J Fish Biol. 78:1833–1846. 19.! Sogabe A, Matsumoto K, Ohashi M. et al. 2008. A monogamous pipefish has the same type of ovary as observed in monogamous seahorses Biol Lett. 4:362–365. 20.! Sommer S, Whittington CM, & Wilson AB. 2012. 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