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Therapeutic Advocacy: Treating and Empowering the Politically Persecuted in Authoritarian Chile 1973-1990

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Therapeutic Advocacy: Treating and Empowering the Politically Persecuted in Authoritarian Chile 1973-1990 Therapeutic Advocacy: Treating and Empowering the Politically Persecuted in Authoritarian Chile 1973-1990 By Belinda Zhou Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts In the Department of History at Brown University Thesis Advisor: Jennifer Lambe 7 April 2017 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................3 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................4 Chapter 1: The Political Identity and Goals of FASIC’s Medical-Psychiatric Team ........28 Chapter 2: Trauma: Individual and Collective, Direct and Indirect ..................................55 Chapter 3: Testimonio as Therapy and Archive .................................................................85 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................111 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................122 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am incredibly appreciative of Professor Jennifer Lambe’s guidance and time. Without her knowledge and encouragement, I would not have been able to complete this thesis. I also credit her with introducing me to the study of the history of psychiatry; had I not taken a course with her, I certainly would not have conceptualized such a thesis. I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Ethan Pollock for his constant positivity and support and to Professor Daniel Rodriguez for introducing me to Steve J. Stern’s trilogy on Chilean memory studies, which became my entry point to exploring testimonio. My writing benefited greatly from the feedback of John Giambrone, Ryan Lee, Christopher Shum, and Daniel Ziring. Additionally, I’d like to thank my friends and family for their support throughout this process. In Chile, I could not have accessed FASIC’s archives without the help of Angela Schaaf. I am incredibly grateful to FASIC’s archive manager, María Graciela Acuña, for her assistance in locating Medical-Psychiatric Program’s documents. I also appreciated the opportunity to speak with Silvana Vetö and Nancy Nicholls, two knowledgeable scholars of Chilean psychoanalysis and human rights, respectively. Furthermore, I must thank Vetö for putting me in touch with Dr. Elena Castro, who graciously answered my questions about her time at FASIC. Lastly, I am thankful to the Storm family for making Santiago a second home to me. Here I must also acknowledge the bravery of both FASIC’s therapists and patients. Despite the violent conditions in which they lived, they demonstrated an incredible openness to sharing their narratives of trauma and a remarkable dedication to human rights. Through the research process, I came to deeply admire the subjects of my thesis for their courage, intellect, and humanity. I sincerely hope I have avoided miscommunicating their sentiments and beliefs in my efforts to expose their remarkable work to English language audiences. 4 INTRODUCTION On November 9, 1983, a group of six mental health professionals stood before the Chilean Association of Psychologists to accept the National Psychology Award. A week before the event, Alfonso Luco Rodriguez, the president of the association, wrote to the six therapists explaining that they were being honored for their “significant and valiant contribution” to the “enhancement of our profession.”1 It is typical for a professional association to award those who have advanced their field of expertise in a “significant” way. However, what exactly made this group’s contribution “valiant”? Why did a psychological association’s members value their peers for their bravery? Luco’s reference to their “valiant” efforts hinted at the nation’s tumultuous political situation. The ceremony took place in Santiago, Chile, more than ten years after Augusto Pinochet’s coup d’état, which ended both the democratically elected government and life of socialist president Salvador Allende (1970-1973). By 1983 the military junta had begun institutionalizing its efforts under the guise of democratic norms in the hopes of raising its standing and legitimacy within the international community.2 The Chilean Association of Psychologists recognized the work of Rosario Dominguez, Elizabeth Lira, Elisa Neumann, Adrianna Maggi, Eugenia Weinstein, and David Becker, who were all members of the Medical- Psychiatric Program at the Fundación de Ayuda Social de las Iglesias Cristianas (FASIC), or the Social Aid Foundation of the Christian Churches.3 The organization provided support services 1 Letter, Alfonso Luco Rodriguez to Elizabeth Lira, “National Psychology Award 1983 to the Medical-Psychiatric Program of FASIC: Letters, Acceptance Speech,” November 1983. 2 Pablo Policzer, The Rise and Fall of Repression in Chile (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009), 116-117. 3 Rosario Dominguez Vial, Elizabeth Lira Kornfeld, Elisa Neumann Garcia, Adriana Maggi Valenzuela, Eugenia Weinstein Levy, and David Becker Mathis, “Acceptance Speech for the Award ‘Association of Psychologists,’” FASIC (9 November 1983): 5. 5 for the victims of political persecution, including mental health treatment caused by the military junta’s repressive tactics, such as torture, execution, and disappearance. Chief among the association’s reasoning for honoring these therapists was their innovative therapeutic methods and their willingness to oppose the military junta by treating the politically persecuted. In their acceptance speech, the FASIC team discussed their conviction in providing mental health services for those suffering from political repression, despite the sacrifices that they had to make in becoming affiliated with FASIC. “We were not prepared,” they said, and proceeded to list the situations of various patients they had encountered, such as “María who is already sixty-seven years old and does not have anyone…one day in November 1974, her husband was disappeared, later her son [was disappeared] and soon after her daughter left the country.”4 They shared patient profiles ranging from those experiencing economic hardship to children coping with living in exile, because, as they posited, societal “repair begins by naming things for what they are.”5 However, they also believed that the award had “put us in the difficult position of speaking about our work. Never before had we publicly [done so]...because we know, for example, that torture and disappearances are incidents that uncover wounds that divide us.”6 They concluded by expressing hope that their work would go beyond improving individual psychology by “bringing us closer...to the peace that we all yearn for.”7 The speech revealed the intimate knowledge that these therapists had of their patients and how deeply intertwined patients’ political, social, and psychological experiences were. Additionally, the psychologists made it clear that their work went beyond the therapeutic realm. The group aspired to effect change in the political sphere by criticizing the military regime in 4 Dominguez, et al., “Acceptance Speech for the Award ‘Association of Psychologists,’” 1. 5 Ibid., 5. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 6 hopes that these efforts would help bring an end to authoritarianism. Yet they also recognized and hoped to prevent the divisive potential of state violence in a post-Pinochet Chile. FASIC’s Medical-Psychiatric Team resisted the Pinochet regime in both practice and rhetoric. In the process, they brought progressive politics into the therapeutic space during an era in which individuals associated with the left were being aggressively persecuted by the military junta. This contrasted with the “neutral” stance adopted by many healthcare professionals, who wished to keep their work “objective” and completely apolitical. While FASIC’s therapists did not take a politically partisan stance, they combined their mental health expertise with the language of human rights to speak out against the Pinochet regime. This group of therapists focused on addressing the psychological trauma caused by political repression, which was broadly defined to include torture, exile, and economic hardship. These mental health professionals produced multiple pamphlets analyzing the impact of the political situation on mental health. They also developed new therapeutic tools, most prominently through incorporating testimonio into the treatment process, which both recorded denunciations of the military junta’s brutality and helped patients cope with their trauma. FASIC’s Medical- Psychiatric Program presented an example of the politicization of mental health forged out of resistance rather than dominance. Furthermore, the team’s involvement in constructing national memory in the post-Pinochet era demonstrated the political influence that the mental health field could wield in the aftermath of collectively experienced trauma. Despite the rhetoric of national healing, present-day Chile continues to be deeply divided along political lines, raising questions about societal memory. 7 From Democracy to Military Junta: Setting the Stage for the September 11 Coup Before exploring FASIC’s therapeutic and political work, it is important to understand the historical conditions that brought Chile to a state of authoritarianism. The 1973 coup was partly the result of rising political tension in Chile between conservative portions of society and
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