Linga-BiDliothek

Linga B/950926

INCA RITUALS AND SACRED MOUNTAINS A Study of the World's Highest Archaeological Sites

JOHAN R.EINHARD and MARIA CONSTANZA CERUTI \ ,

COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES CONTENTS

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

About the Authors xv Part One: Description

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION: HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND 3 THE INCAS 3 HUMAN SACRIFICES AND THE CAPACOCHA COMPLEX 6 HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND 9 Early Discoveries of Human Sacrificial Remains on Mountain Summits 9 Chachani 9 Chani 9 Chuscha 9 Walla Walla 9 El Plomo 10 Esmeralda 10 Inca Human Sacrifices and High-Altitude Archaeology 10 El Tbro 10 Aconcagua 12 Pichu Pichu 12 Ampato 12 Sara Sara 16 Misti 16 Quehuar 16 Summary: Andean Summit Mummies 20 LLULLAILLACO: GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL SUMMARY 20

CHAPTER TWO: ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES LEADING TO LLULLAILLACO'S SUMMIT 33

SITES ALONG THE INCA ROAD SYSTEM 33 The Outlying Ruins 35 Ruins at the Base of the Mountain 36 Cemetery 38 Tambo 44 Site Below the Tambo 49 SITES ON THE ROUTE TO THE SUMMIT 50 Intermediary Ruins at 5,600 Meters 50 Structures on the Higher Slopes 53 Saddle Ruins 54 CONTENTS

CHAPTER THREE: THE CEREMONIAL SITE ON THE SUMMIT 6i

CONSTRUCTIONS AT THE SANCTUARY 61 Two-Roomed Building 61 Windbreak 66 Stone Circles 66 Ceremonial Platform 66 MUMMIES AND ASSOCIATED OFFERINGS 66 Southern Burial 12 Eastern Burial 12 Northern Burial 77 OFFERING ASSEMBLAGES 82 Offering Assemblage S-1 82 Offering Assemblage S-II 82 Offering Assemblage S-III 82 Offering Assemblage S-IV 82 Offering N-I 82 Offering Assemblage N-II 84 Offering N-III 84 Offering Assemblage N-IV 84 CONCLUSIONS 84

Part Two: Analysis

CHAPTER 4: LLULLAILLACO AND INCA STATE PILGRIMAGE 89

THE PROCESSION 89 Inca Trails 91 Tambos and Corpahuasis 93 Cemeteries 94 THE ASCENT 94 Construction and Logistical Support 94 Processions to the Summit 95 Worship of Mountains from Afar 95 THE SUMMIT SHRINE 96 Ceremonial Architecture 96 Lookouts and Signal Stations 91 Colonists Serving Shrines 91 CONCLUSIONS 98

CHAPTER FIVE: RITUAL SPECIALISTS AND VICTIMS 101

RITUAL SPECIALISTS, ACLLAS AND MAMACUNAS 101 Ritual Specialists 101 Acllas and Mamacunas 102 SACRIFICIAL VICTIMS 102 Ethnic Origin and Cultural Background 103 Clothing and Other Distinguishing Features 106 CONCLUSIONS 115 CONTENTS

CHAPTER SIX: THE SACRIFICE: RITUAL AND MEANING 121

CAPACOCHA AND ITS CEREMONIAL CONTEXT 121 PURPOSE AND PERIODICITY 121 THE SACRIFICE 123 Preparations 123 Gestures of Worship 124 Sacrificial Techniques 125 BURIAL 126 Funerary Bundles 121 Offering Assemblages 128 CONCLUSIONS 131

CHAPTER SEVEN: OFFERINGS AND THEIR SYMBOLISM 133

TEXTILES 133 Tunics 133 Slings 135 Footwear 135 FIGURINES 131 Anthropomorphic Statues 131 Camelid Figurines 142 SUMPTUOUS MATERIALS 142 Precious Metals 142 Spondylus Shell 144 Feathers 144 POTTERY ASSEMBLAGES 146 FOOD AND DRINK 148 Wooden Vases 153 Coca Leaves 155 OTHER OFFERINGS 151 Animals 151 Hair 158 CONCLUSIONS 160

CHAPTER EIGHT: SACRED LANDSCAPE U3

THE SACRED GEOGRAPHY OF LLULLAILLACO 770 SACRED LANDSCAPE AND PRE-INCA CULTURES OF THE ANDES 114 Chavin 114 Nazca 776 Tiahuanaco 118 Summary: Andean Mountains and Deities 7 #7 BEYOND THE ANDES 181 Ancient Mesoamerica 181 The Sacred Himalayas 183 Summary: Mesoamerica and the Himalayas 185 CONTENTS

CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSIONS

Appendix A: Descriptions of Llullaillaco Summit Offerings 193

Appendix B: Distribution of Llullaillaco Summit Offerings 207

Appendix C: Conservation of the Mummies and Artifacts 277

Appendix D: Chronology of the Expedition 227

Appendix E: Resources 229

Glossary 257

Bibliography 234

Index 253