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Relationships Among Skin Color and Hair Satisfaction, Psychological

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Relationships Among Skin Color and Hair Satisfaction, Psychological Running head: RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR HAIR RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR AND HAIR SATISFACTION, PSYCHOLOGICAL RESISTANCE, SOCIAL APPEARANCE ANXIETY, AND SOCIAL NETWORKS AMONG BLACK WOMEN: A MIXED METHODS ANALYSIS A dissertation presented by Noreen K. Boadi Submitted to The Department of Applied Educational Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Counseling Psychology Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts November, 2016 Dissertation Committee: Tracy Robinson-Wood, Ed.D., Chair William Sanchez, Ph.D. Janie Ward, Ed.D. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR HAIR ii ABSTRACT Black women in the United States face “multiple jeopardy”, or multiple oppressions of racism, sexism, and classism in conjunction with pressures to meet white American beauty standards. Using a mixed method research design, 259 black women were surveyed to examine the relationships among skin tone and hair satisfaction, social appearance anxiety, social networks, and psychological resistance among black women. This study adds to the literature of colorism and psychological resistance, and is one of the first research efforts to investigate the impact of skin color and hair satisfaction on social appearance anxiety among black women. Noteworthy quantitative and qualitative results suggest the following: a) skin color hue group differences in skin color satisfaction, social appearance anxiety, and optimal and suboptimal psychological resistance; b) the positive association of suboptimal resistance with social appearance anxiety; c) the inverse relationship between skin color satisfaction and social appearance satisfaction; d) the endorsement of hair satisfaction; and e) the influence of social networks on anxiety about skin color and hair appearance. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR HAIR iii DEDICATION To Chelsea and all the other magical black girls. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR HAIR iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would first and foremost like to thank God for giving me the strength and determination to endure this doctoral program. There were so many trials and tribulations, but some way; somehow, you go me through each and every one of them. Special thank you to the 300+ black women that responded to my advertisement! This study would not exist without you all. I am truly honored and humbled by your interest and participation. I would like to thank my family for always believing in me. To my father Eric Boadi, thank you for being so caring, understanding, and supportive. To my sister Ramlah Boadi, thank you for talking to me about all your problems, since I was 5 years old! I am a therapist because of you. To my brother Eric Boadi Jr., thank you for playing all those trivia games with me as a kid. I am a researcher because of you. I thank my squad- Courtney Alexander, Rondel Holder, Dr. Francesca Owoo, Latiesha Dukes, Sheena Adams Strickland, Dr. Christine Sainvil, Robert Benjamin, Rickey Brown, Gregorio Castillo for their support and lots of patience during this process. To Dr. Kristy-Lee Jean-Pierre and Akeem Hubbard, what on earth would I have done this without you two?! Thank you both for being my therapists, my consultants, my comedians, and most importantly amazing friends. To my twin, Nicole Stanton-Castillo, thank you for always being a text, call or trip away when I needed you, and sending me pictures of my beautiful nephews when I needed a pick-me-up. To Dr. Melissa Henry, I didn’t think it was possible to start new wonderful friendships so late in life, thank you for motivating and encouraging me to never give up. Thank you to the Starbucks in Park Slope, Brooklyn for being my second home since I started studying for the GREs in 2007 and supplying me with free coffee when it was clear that I was exhausted, but had to keep going! Thank you, Frank Ocean and Solange Knowles for created classic albums that relaxed and motivated me at the same time. To my amazing, brilliant cohort aka Jackson 5- Courtney Carter, Dr. Esther Frogel, Dr. Monica Torreiro-Casal, and Dr. Seth Perkins, thank you for the laughter and being my Boston family. To Dr. Oyenike Balogun and Dr. Jonathan Entis, thank you for all the support, love, and care. Special thanks to my practicum supervisors- Dr. Joshua Martin and Dr. Victoria Wilkins, I came to you as a broken supervisee, scorned from a previous practicum experience; you both took the time to understand me and increase my self-confidence as a clinician. I can’t thank you enough. To my internship supervisor, Dr. Margaret Meskill, thank you for all your kind words and encouraging me to reach my full potential. I have learned so much from you and am forever thankful. To my dissertation committee members- Dr. William Sanchez and Dr. Janie Ward, I couldn’t have asked for a better committee. Thank you for your patience, flexibility, support, and dedication to multiculturalism and social justice. To my advisor, committee chair, and mentor, RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR HAIR v Dr. Tracy Robinson-Wood- your support, advocacy, mentorship, and guidance has been immeasurable. Thank you for reminding me of how few of “us” make it to this point and believing in me even when I didn’t believe in myself. Lastly, I would like to thank my mother; Tina Davies for being my guardian angel and believing that there was always something special about me. I still remember you advocating for me to attend kindergarten early, defending my weird study habits, and stealing my term papers and transcripts to show your friends. Mommy, I have a Ph.D.!! “Can you believe it?!” RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR HAIR vi Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………….…... 1 Background of the Problem…...…………………………………………………....….. 1 Beauty and Body Dissatisfaction among Black Women…...…………………………...…. 1 Colorism, Black Hair, and Slavery...……………………………………………………….. 4 Hair and Black Women………………..………………………………………………….... 6 Psychological Resistance…………………………………………………..…………... 6 Social Anxiety….…….……………………………………………..………………….. 8 Social Network….…………………………………………………...…………………. 9 Family…………………………………….………………………………………...……… 9 Black female friends……….………………………………………………………...……. 10 Mate Selection………..…………….…………………………….……………....… 11 Statement of the Problem………………….…………………………………………... 11 Theoretical Framework..………..………………………………………………………13 Optimal Psychology………..………………………………………………………..…….. 13 Bronfenbrenner’s Biological Model…...…………………….……………………….. 14 Significance of Present Research Study.…..………………….……………………..…17 Rationale for Study.………………………………..…………….…………….…….... 18 Research Questions.………………………………..…………………..…………….....19 Quantitative…...………………………………………...…………..………….........19 Qualitative..…...………………………………………...…………..…………….... 19 Quantitative focus group interview questions..…………………..………………….... 19 Operational Definitions.…………………………..……………………….……….…..19 Outline for Dissertation..…………………………..………………………………..… 20 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR HAIR vii Chapter 2: Review of the Literature………………..………………………...…..…… 22 Introduction……………………………...………………………………………..…... 22 Black Women and Multiple Oppressions….……………………….…………….……22 Overview of Colorism…………………………………………………………….…...25 Historical Context of Black Women’s Skin Color……………….……...……….…....25 Historical Context of Black Women’s Hair……...……………...………………….....33 Skin Color Satisfaction among Black Women …………………………………….....42 Self Esteem……………………………...………………………………………….43 Racial Identity……….…………………………….……………………………..... 44 Hair Satisfaction among Black women………………………….…….……….…..….45 Colorism in Black Families………………….…………………………..……........… 47 Stereotype Images and Colorism in the Media……………….…………..……….….. 50 Hip-Hop Music Culture……………………...…………………………..………..... 54 Gaps in the Research…………..……….………………………………...……….... 55 Chapter 3: Methodology……………………………………...…………………..…... 59 Theoretical Rationale of Design…………………..……………………………..….... 59 Participants and Recruitment…...…………………………………….……………..... 61 Administration………………………………………………………………..…..... 62 Instrumentation…………………..……………………………………….……....... 62 Skin Color Satisfaction……………………………………………………….……… 62 Psychological Resistance………………….………………………………….……… 63 Social Appearance Anxiety……..…………………………………………………… 64 Skin Color……………………………………………………………………….…… 65 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SKIN COLOR HAIR viii Phase I: Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis…..…………………….….……. 67 Power Analysis for MANOVA…………………………………………..…….…… 67 Multivariate Analysis of Variance………………………………………….……….…… 67 Variables in Quantitative Analysis……………………...…………………..…….… 68 Phase II: Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis……………………...….…….…. 68 Focus Groups, Sample Size, and Participants…………...…………………………… 69 Setting…………………………………………………...………………………… 69 Procedures………………..…………...............................………………………… 69 Data Analysis…………..…………..............................………………………….… 71 Validation Strategies………….........................................………………………….… 71 Ethical Considerations……………………………………………………….…….…. 72 Informed Consent…………………………………………………………….…….…. 73 Role of the Researcher……………………………………………………….…….….. 74 Chapter 4: Results…………………………………………………………..…….….... 76 Introduction…...………………………………………………….…………….…….... 76 Phase I: Quantitative Results…...…………………………………………………….……... 76 Section One: Characteristics of Study Sample...…………………………….……….…..... 77 Section Two: SCSS, SAAS, and RMI Descriptive Results ……………………..……........ 85 Section Three: Research Questions and Hypotheses………………………..………...... 89 Post Hoc Analyses from Demographic Variables ………....……………..………..
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