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Uvic Thesis Template The Western Perception of Empress Dowager Cixi by Dennis Chen BA, Simon Fraser University, 2011 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of History Dennis Chen, 2013 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee The Western Perception of Empress Dowager Cixi by Dennis Chen BA, Simon Fraser University, 2013 Supervisory Committee Dr. Zhongping Chen, Department of History Supervisor Dr. Gregory Blue, Department of History Departmental Member iii Abstract Supervisory Committee Dr. Zhongping Chen, Department of History Supervisor Dr. Gregory Blue, Department of History Departmental Member Empress Dowager Cixi is one of the most widely recognized leaders of late Qing China, and she has been the major subject of numerous non-fiction and academic publications in Europe and North America. This, however, does not mean that Western knowledge on Cixi is strong. Although certain books, particularly those written by Cixi’s closest associates, do provide valuable information describing who she was, most of these books, along with many others, also contain fabricated claims about her as well. As a result, falsities have become heavily intertwined with factual records of Cixi in Western publications. This thesis attempts to re-examine these Western works in order to reach a correct understanding of Cixi’s life. In particular, this study demonstrates how a few major ideological trends, such as imperialism, Orientalism, sexism, and feminism, have influenced Western publications on Cixi and brought either bias or insights into the literature on her. Key Words: Ideology, imperialism, anti-colonialism, Orientalism, sexism, and feminism. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Dedication ......................................................................................................................... vii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Cixi’s Early Life and Rise to Power ............................................................................... 7 Cixi’s Political Roles in Modern Chinese History ........................................................ 10 A Re-examination of Cixi’s Images in Western Publications and Perspectives ........... 16 Chapter One: Knowledge and Imaginations of Cixi in Early Western Literature ............ 21 Western Authors of Early Literature on Cixi ................................................................ 21 Western Popular Literature on Cixi’s Early Life ......................................................... 26 Controversies over Cixi and Her Son, Emperor Tongzhi ............................................. 35 Western Records of Cixi’s Later Life and Emperor Guangxu ...................................... 47 Chapter Two: The Re-evaluation of Cixi in Recent Western Publications ...................... 60 Recent Literature on Cixi’s Early Life .......................................................................... 62 Recent Literature on Cixi’s Later Life .......................................................................... 73 Chapter Three: Alterations in Western Judgements of Cixi ............................................. 85 Cixi as a Foil for Western Imperialism, Orientalism, and Anti-colonialism ................ 87 Sexism vs. Feminism in Western Literature on Cixi ..................................................... 97 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 108 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 114 v Acknowledgments The process of writing this thesis was both long and challenging, and would still be incomplete today, had it not been for the help and support of many individuals, all of whom I would like to take a moment now to thank. I want to begin by expressing my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Zhongping Chen. It was only because of his constant guidance and careful advice that I was able to finish this project. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Gregory Blue and Dr. Richard King, for expressing their interest in my study and spending their time to review my research. The completion of my thesis would not have been possible without their valuable input. My thesis could not have been completed without the assistance of Dr. John Lutz, who volunteered his own time to put together a support group for history graduate students, which provided me with a lot of much needed and valuable advice. I also want to thank my language instructors, Dr. Jun Tian and Ms. Karen Tang, who helped me develop my literary skills in Chinese, which were a vital component to my research on Empress Dowager Cixi. I also would like to thank everyone in the History Department at the University of Victoria. My project was made possible only because of the support I received from all of them. Specifically, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Perry Biddiscombe for vi welcoming me to the graduate program, as well as Ms. Karen Hickton and Ms. Heather Waterlander for being there for me whenever I had any difficulties with my work. My friends and family, in particular my mother and father, also provided me with a lot of personal support and kept me company as I wrote my thesis, which was, for the most part, a long and lonely process. For this, I must give them my deepest thanks. And last, but not least, I would like to thank Ms. Rochelle Szeto, for being at my side supporting me as I wrote my thesis. I could not have finished it without her company and words of encouragement that kept me motivated even at times when I met my toughest challenges in research. Dennis Chen vii Dedication I want to dedicate this thesis to my mother and father for providing me with the support I needed to finish writing it, and to Rochelle Szeto for staying at my side and keeping me motivated to finish my research. Introduction Empress Dowager Cixi was the de facto ruler of late Qing China from her rise to power in 1861 to her death in 1908. According to feminist writer Charlotte Haldane, Cixi was "the greatest female autocrat the world has ever known."1 Whether she was really "the greatest female autocrat" is certainly debatable, but undoubtedly her reign had a significant impact on both Chinese and global history. Thus, many books and articles have been published about her all over the world. Among such publications, the popular and academic writings from the West, especially Europe and North America, deserve special attention because they include not only valuable information and historical insights but also many fabrications, fantasies, and misconceptions about this woman. For a better understanding of Chinese and world history during her time, it is useful to examine both the narratives and interpretations of Cixi, her personal life, and her political roles as portrayed in the non-fiction popular literature and academic publications of the West from the late nineteenth century to the present. Cixi is probably one of the most misunderstood individuals in modern world history. Many aspects of her life remain unknown, and this is especially clear in Western publications. For instance, as biographer Grant Hayter-Menzies points out, to this day, "where her birth took place is a mystery,"2 but why? How could knowledge about this woman, who ruled China for almost half a century, be so scarce? There are a number of explanations for this, with the first and foremost being the Empress herself. 1 Charlotte Haldane, The Last Great Empress of China (London, UK: Constable & Co., Ltd., 1965), 263. 2 Grant Hayter-Menzies, The Empress and Mrs. Conger: The Uncommon Friendship of Two Women and Two Worlds (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2011), 19. 2 As Harry Hussey argued, “Tz’u Hsi [worked] to destroy many of the early records of her family and enforce a strict taboo on any discussions of her place of birth and early life.” She apparently did so to prevent the public from ever uncovering her humble origins and troubled past, which she thought, if discovered, would have tainted her image. Ironically however, by erasing all information regarding her early life, she actually “open[ed] the gates for a deluge of rumors and falsehoods that were far more damaging to her reputation than the actual facts would have been.” Left without the necessary facts, anyone wanting to write about her had no choice aside from using their own imagination to generate an image of who she was.3 In result, many conflicting and possibly inaccurate descriptions of the Empress when she was young emerged, with some portraying her as a kind hearted individual, and others presenting her as an evil woman. If this explanation is correct, it would account
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