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1. Birmingham, Bomb Damage Map 1. Birmingham, Bomb damage map 2 architectura Band 46 / 2016 Peter J. Larkham Replanning post-war Birmingham Process, product and longevity Introduction while retaining the essential character of this thriving west midland city.«3 The city of Birmingham represents an important ex- It is appropriate to reassess Birmingham’s recon- ample of major UK post-war replanning – the recon- struction particularly since much research has been struction of large sections of the bombed city centre, carried out on aspects of post-war reconstruction in the an inner ring road permitted by a private Act of Parlia- UK and other countries in recent years; and because ment, and the continuation of large-scale slum clear- the product of this reconstruction has been subject to ance and rebuilding conceived before the war – but all critical reappraisal, demolition and replacement. The carried out by the staff of the (admittedly large) local selected examples of process and product demonstrate authority without resorting to external consultants the complexity and contradiction in restructuring a and apparently minimising the input of even local pro- major city centre, and the quality of the resulting built fessionals and concerned bodies. This was an internal environment. While Birmingham itself is not typical expert-driven, paternalist, approach to planning. Yet of the UK, the post-war reconstruction is everywhere no overall plan was ever produced for the city, or even being re-evaluated as it ages. Sustainability, and the for the city centre. Birmingham was not alone in this, longevity of the reconstruction landscape, are now although it was an unusual approach in British post- dominant issues. war reconstruction. The key themes from this, which are widely applicable in UK and other reconstruction examples,1 include the top-down planning approach; a The wartime damage technocentrism which prioritised vehicle movement;2 and a willingness to ignore any value in what had been Damage in Birmingham was extensive, but widely damaged or destroyed: the modernist mind-set was scattered across the city rather than consisting of large dominant. areas of completely-demolished property (Fig. 1). This is shown by enthusiastic promotional pieces Even so, 76 sites of over half an acre were »devas- in the press and professional journals. One rather tated«.4 The two major inner-city areas were the Bull exaggerated example suffices to demonstrate this Ring/Market Hall, and the New Street/High Street civic boosterism and way of thinking: »Birmingham corner known as the Big Top site (used for circus […] is undergoing what is probably the biggest and performances) (Fig. 2). The death toll was high for boldest scheme of comprehensive redevelopment ever this early stage of the war: 2,227 were killed and 3,000 undertaken in this country. Radical urban renewal is seriously injured by mid-1941.5 taking place from the centre to the periphery […]. A new commercial centre worthy of the second city in 1 See examples in Hein/Diefendorf/Yorifusa 2003; Düwel/ the land is being created. A pattern of wide new streets Gutschow 2013. is being imposed on the existing archaic road system 2 See Hendriks 1994 comparing car-dominated techno- […]. Along the new frontages of the inner ring road, centrism and culture in Munich and Birmingham. already under construction, developers are erecting 3 Architect & Building News 1959, 470. buildings which will give to the principal shopping 4 Public Works Committee (PWC) report, 25/7/44, 480. area something of the atmosphere of Regent Street 5 Sunday Mercury 11/11/1990. architectura Band 46 / 2016 3 2. Birmingham, Market Hall In early 1941 the Cabinet Committee on the Re- scheme; it preferred to attract them to Birmingham construction of Town and Country decided to re- by the implied offer of freedom to build what they view four sample heavily-bombed areas, and selected liked, and then to persuade them to introduce modi- Birmingham, along with Coventry, Bristol and South- fications into their schemes«.8 Its City Surveyor and ampton.6 Nevertheless the damage was insufficiently Engineer Herbert Manzoni, a powerful and influential serious to qualify for special government approval for personality, was behind both decisions. Here, it is the replacement retail and commercial development. In influence of Manzoni and other professional officers, December 1946 the Public Works Committee (PWC) the elected members acting as Committee chairs, and reported that 1,450 bombed properties had been the developers and their architects that was signifi- demolished and 600 »dangerous properties« made cant: an important example of agents and agency in safe; by March 1948 the number of demolitions had reconstruction.9 Like many, Birmingham appointed reached 6,985.7 a Reconstruction Committee, although in practice its influence on physical urban reconstruction was minimal. It also appointed advisory groups including Process representatives from interested organisations outside the council itself. The administration of replanning Many towns undertook a reconstruction and replan- ning process at this time, whether bomb-damaged or not, often using external consultants to produce a 6 The National Archives (TNA) HLG 71/1570. plan. Birmingham did not, nor did it produce such a 7 PWC Minutes 9/3/1948. city-wide plan. »The Corporation wanted to avoid dis- 8 Sutcliffe/Smith 1974, 443. couraging developers by laying down a rigid planning 9 This discussion is extended in Larkham 2014. 4 architectura Band 46 / 2016 Manzoni and the myth and contradictions is interesting that, in a later paper on reconstruction of reconstruction to the Town Planning Institute, he should quote the At the same time that the PWC was explicitly con- American planner Daniel Burnham: »Make no little sidering ›reconstruction‹, Manzoni gave a forthright plans. They have no magic to stir men’s blood, and interview to the Birmingham Mail. He stated clearly probably themselves will not be realized. Make big that »we have not got to start replanning Birmingham. plans, aim high in hope and work […]«.16 All we want is the opportunity to carry out the plans we have already«. He was asked whether the bomb Other personalities damage had altered those plans, and the succinct reply Some of the replanning and the subsequent recon- was »no«. Damage was far from a »clean sweep« and struction – its nature, timing and extent – was heavily so »any dream that a completely new city can emerge, dependent upon personalities. Manzoni’s personal Phoenix-like […] is quite erroneous«.10 In taking this influence was clearly pivotal; but he recognised that view Manzoni was clearly at odds with a number of »the influence of officialdom in town-planning in other professionals in the UK, for whom the bomb Birmingham has been very considerable, but from damage was »the new opportunity« for large-scale re- time to time there have been individuals who have planning.11 In some cases there seemed to be a tabula played a very big part in initiating important ideas«.17 rasa mentality, although Manzoni and a few others The Town Clerk, Sir Frank Wiltshire, promoted were far more realistic. the idea of seeking Parliamentary approval for the To Manzoni, therefore, the relatively limited and various proposals, to avoid the need for »detailed scattered nature of the damage, and the existence of a step-by-step approvals from the various Ministries range of plans and ambitions dating to zoning in 1913 when the work came to be carried out«.18 In retro- and road plans of 1919 meant that Birmingham had spect this was a wise suggestion, despite the workload no need for a ›reconstruction plan‹. He had already imposed. identified five slum clearance areas, which became the Jack Cotton was a powerful influence. Birming- main focus for rebuilding, together with the inner ring ham born and educated, he operated a small estate road: ideas which predated the bombing.12 He also agency from 1924 but was involved in major projects commented that, when the 1944 Town and Country locally, nationally and internationally in the 1950s. Planning Act was passed, »we in Birmingham were In Birmingham his property company, City Centre ready, because our plans had already been drawn up Properties, became involved in a surprising number in detail, and we took advantage of these powers« to and size of projects. Many of these developments acquire the five redevelopment areas. »Other cities were designed by his own in-house architects, Cot- had not been so well prepared as we were, and this ton, Ballard & Blow. Although he had developed a is why we were the only ones to acquire such large large office block in Waterloo Street in the late 1930s areas at this time«.13 To a great extent the city was that is sometimes described as his ›headquarters‹, his ready because of Manzoni’s contacts and influence operation has also been described as being managed at the national level, not solely because of the pre- with »a disarming naivety«: in the post-war period war planning. He said that Birmingham was ready »because we’d shaped the legislation for it, or at least 10 we had been there while it was being shaped«.14 By Birmingham Mail 27/2/1941. 11 »we« Manzoni meant himself. Few cities were as well For example Tubbs 1942, 21; although even Manzoni used prepared. the term (Manzoni 1941). 12 For example Manzoni 1955, 90. But Manzoni was not in favour of an all-encom- 13 Manzoni 1968, 2. passing reconstruction plan, as many other cities were 14 Interviewed by A. Sutcliffe 1967 –1969, transcript in Bir- preparing at that time. Until he left office in 1963 he mingham Library. 15 felt that they were »often obsolete by the time they Sutcliffe/Smith 1974, 448. 16 were put into effect«, an opinion strengthened by Manzoni 1955, 92.
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