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Tonle Sap Lake and River and Confluence with the Mekong River in Cambodia Kenneth R

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Tonle Sap Lake and River and Confluence with the Mekong River in Cambodia Kenneth R doi:10.2489/jswc.73.3.60A FEATURE Tonle Sap Lake and River and confluence with the Mekong River in Cambodia Kenneth R. Olson and Lois Wright Morton or centuries the floating villages on Figure 1 Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia (figure 1), The floating villages on the upper 65 km of Tonle Sap River and in Tonle Sap Fhave derived their livelihoods from the Lake are home to fisheries: men, women, and children who make their livings fish and water resources of the lake and catching, processing, and marketing fish, reptiles, frogs and other amphibians, its expanding and contracting floodplains. insects, and aquatic vegetation. Historically, the lake enabled the powerful Khmer civilization near Siem Reap (figure 2) to develop an elaborate hydraulic com- plex to irrigate rice (Oryza sativa) fields and support one of the largest premodern urban populations in the world (Goscha 2016). Today the rice-fish diet continues to be the staple of rural and urban daily Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved. meals throughout Southeast Asia. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation The Tonle Sap River flows 147 km (91 mi) southeast from Tonle Sap Lake to meet during the dry season with the Mekong River near Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia. In the monsoon season (May to October), the Mekong River floods and causes the water to back up into the Tonle Sap River, reversing its flow (Carling 2009). This wet season flow reversal brings Mekong River sediments, nutrients, and an abundance of fish into the lake and 73(3):60A-66A enlarges the lake into its floodplain 20 to ers produce more than 80% of Southeast the Mekong River and Cambodia’s Great 40 km (12 to 25 mi). Farmers and fishers Asia’s fish, rice, and vegetables (FAO 2017a) Lake to assure food security while building of Cambodia have developed cultural and and ensure accessible, affordable high-qual- the infrastructure needed to modernize is economic practices based on the Mekong ity food throughout the region. a social-political-environmental challenge www.swcs.org River’s dependable dry and wet season Years of civil war in Cambodia (Gosha that will need public-private partnerships patterns and the aquatic species that have 2016) have destroyed roads, bridges, and that include farmers and fishers. adapted to the river pulse and the unique energy infrastructure hindering the coun- GEOLOGY AND SOILS OF MEKONG RIVER habitats it spawns. try’s capacity to modernize. Only 56% Current and future plans by China, Laos, of the Cambodian population has access AND TONLE SAP LAKE AND RIVER AREA and Cambodia to build dams for hydro- to electricity, with more than 80% of Much of the underlying parent material, electricity and floodwater storage on the the consumption occurring in the urban hydrologic, and physiographic features of Mekong River upstream from Phnom Penh Phnom Penh area (World Bank 2017). Cambodia are the products of tectonic, are viewed by environmentalists and riparian Hydropower is a critical building block erosional, and other geological processes communities as threats to fisheries, lake and for modernization projects in Cambodia, (Carling 2009; Olson and Morton 2018). riverbank farming, and local cultures (Olson Laos, and Vietnam, and is needed to trans- The Mekong River basin lowlands—the and Morton 2018; Campbell et al. 2009; form agricultural-based economies into Cambodian plains and the Mekong Delta, Hortle 2009). Small-scale and family farm- manufacturing, industrial, and service- are composed primarily of Quaternary based economies that provide jobs and and Holocene river alluvium. The Great Kenneth R. Olson is professor emeritus of soil increase family incomes (FAO 2017a). The Lake of Cambodia, Tonle Sap Lake (fig- science in the Department of Natural Resources competing pressures on Cambodia’s water ure 3), and its alluvial and lacustrine and Environmental Sciences, College of Agricul- resources and the transboundary Mekong floodplains occupy a geological depres- tural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, and Lois River present difficult development and sion that during the Upper Mesozoic was Wright Morton is professor emeritus of sociol- management trade-offs. Lake and ripar- a wide inland sea. Extending over 44% ogy in the Department of Sociology, College of ian communities are untapped sources of of Cambodia’s total land area, the Tonle Agriculture and Life Sciences, Iowa State Uni- versity, Ames, Iowa. local river and lake ecology knowledge Sap Basin was formed by subsidence as that can inform water decisions. Managing the sea retreated and connected to the 60A MAY/JUNE 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 3 JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION Figure 2 ments, such as the Tonle Sap bottomlands The Great Lake of Cambodia (the Tonle Sap Lake) and the Mekong River are valu- (Greater Mekong Subregion Atlas of the able water resources for Cambodia in Southeast Asia. Map by Mic Greenberg. Environment 2012). The central plain includes Tonle Sap Lake and River and the upstream reaches of the Mekong River Laos Thailand delta (Campbell et al. 2009). The margins Mekong River of the low lying central plains are transi- tional plains consisting of Old Alluvium that rise 200 m (656 ft) above sea level and are thinly forested. North of these plains Poipet from east to west is a sandstone escarp- ment stretching 320 km (200 mi). Siem Reap Sediments deposited on Tonle Sap Lake plain contain marine animal and veg- Tonle Sap Mekong River etation materials suggesting the ancient South China Sea once came this far inland. Analyses of soil and geologic cores Kratie Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved. collected near Angkor Borei, downstream Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Tonle of the current confluence of the Tonle Sap Kompong Cham Sap and Mekong rivers, reveal sediments River that were deposited in the presence of Cambodia Phnom Vietnam tides, salt marshes, and mangrove swamps Penh (Sanderson et al. 2006). Cambodia’s soils are predominantly sandy and low in nutrients. The red-soil Ho Chi Minh regions (Oxisols and Ultisols) grow com- N Mekong River City mercial crops, such as cotton (Gossypium herbaceum), tobacco (Niotina tobaccum), rice, and wheat (Triticum aestivum), and 73(3):60A-66A perennial tree crops, like rubber (Hevea Bassac River brasiliensis) and coconut (Cocos nucifera). The Mekong River during the annual Gulf of Thailand Vietnam wet season carries rich alluvial sediments www.swcs.org that are deposited on its floodplains (figure South China Sea 2). These floodwaters improve the cen- 200 km 125 mi tral plain soil fertility and provide natural irrigation for rice cultivation. Highlands are forested high plateaus and mountains that rise above the plains. The Kravanh Legend and Damreh mountains form a highland region between Tonle Sap Lake and the Vietnam Thailand Captials Rivers Gulf of Thailand. Cities Country borders Laos Water The Cambodian Mekong floodplain is Cambodia a large low lying area 800 km (500 mi) from north to south and 600 km (375 mi) with an elevation of less than 100 m (328 Mekong River system in the last 17,000 Gulf of Thailand (figure 2). The age and ft) through which the Mekong River flows years (Carling 2009). The Tonle Sap Lake general origins of Cambodian soils can on its way to the South China Sea (fig- itself is only about 5,000 to 10,000 years be categorized into three distinctly dif- ure 2). Sediment deposits at Phnom Penh old (Gupta 2009). A bedrock ridge near ferent groupings: (1) regions that retained are about 30 m (100 ft) thick. Upstream, Kampong Cham prevents the 120 km (75 their original parent material, such as the the Mekong River runs northeast from mi) long and 35 km (22 mi) wide perma- Cardamom and Central Annamite moun- Phnom Penh to Kampong Cham and then nent lake from fully draining. tains; (2) regions that are covered by ancient turns north to Kratie where bedrock falls Cambodia is entirely within the tropics alluvial or colluvial plains; and (3) regions block boat traffic on the river during the and has a 443 km (275 mi) coastline along that presently receive annual alluvial sedi- dry season. JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MAY/JUNE 2018—VOL. 73, NO. 3 61A Figure 3 The Tonle Sap Lake and River reverse their flow in the monsoon season when the Mekong River floods and backs up into the Tonle Sap River and Lake. With the onset of the dry season, the floodwaters recede, and the Tonle Sap flow changes direction and flows into the Mekong River as it travels southward to the South China Sea. Map by Mic Greenberg. Cambodia Siem Reap Battambang Kampong Tonle Sap Thom Lake Copyright © 2018 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Pursat Mekong River Legend Kampong Kampong Tonle Sap Lake (dry season) Chhnang Cham Bottomlands not covered by lake Uplands Tonle Sap River Tonle Sap Lake (monsoon season) Cambodia 73(3):60A-66A Rivers Capital N 26 km Cities 16 mi Phnom River flow direction Penh www.swcs.org TONLE SAP LAKE AND RIVER 3 3 3 3 exceeds 3.3 m (11 ft). However, during the km (2.4 mi ) to 80 km (19 m ) during Tonle Sap Lake and River and the wet season, the inundated lake can reach a the wet season. Mekong River dominate the Cambodian depth of 8 to 10 m (26 to 33 ft). This 200% to 300% increase in Tonle landscape. The Mekong River arises The Mekong River floods during the Sap Lake’s size and 800% increase in water out of the Plateau of Tibet and dissects rainy season (mid-May to early October), volume effectively covers the western sec- Cambodia on its way to the South China and water backs up into the Tonle Sap tion of Tonle Sap River and shortens the Sea (Olson and Morton 2018).
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