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The Feminization of Migration from Tajikistan to Russia Nodira Kholmatova 42 EURASIA ON THE MOVE Interdisciplinary Approaches to a Dynamic Migration Region Marlene Laruelle and Caress Schenk, editors Washington, D.C.: The George Washington University, Central Asia Program, 2018 www.centralasiaprogram.org It is an exciting time to study migration in the Eurasian region. Migration policies and patterns are re- ceiving crucial attention from governments, scholars, and activists alike. Old, new, and changing patterns are making important impacts on home and host societies. The region is marked by some of the freest migration in the world through the free labor zone of the Eurasian Economic Union and the visa-free regime of the Commonwealth of Independent States. At the same time, however, it faces restrictions in the form of Soviet-era registration procedures, active use of re-entry bans in Russia, and heavy-handed efforts to regulate emigration in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. In this context, migration is not only an issue requiring domestic policy attention, but also a critical focus of geopolitical bargaining. Given the political and theoretical salience of migration in the Eurasian region, the NAC-NU Central Asia Studies Program chose as its second theme “external and internal migrations in Central Asia.” The call for papers generated proposals related to the development of Central Asian economies from mi- gration and remittances, the dynamics of migration to Russia (the major destination), rising alternative destinations, and political factors in home and host countries. On the basis of these papers, we convened a conference in Astana in September 2017, which brought together junior and senior scholars with ties to the region and to international academic institutions. This group of scholars is well placed to mediate the empirical work being done in the region and broader theoretical perspectives. Central Asia Program Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies Elliott School of International Affairs The George Washington University For more on the Central Asia Program, please visit: www.centralasiaprogram.org. © 2018 Central Asia Program, The George Washington University. All Rights Reserved. Cover design: Scythia-Print. Typesetting: Elena Kuzmenok, Scythia-Print. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the Central Asia Program. ISBN 978-0-9996214-2-4 Washington, D.C.: The George Washington University, Central Asia Program, 2018 Table of Contents Acronyms v Figures vi Tables viii Introduction. Eurasian Migration Studies: Challenges and Developments Caress Schenk ix PART I. MIGRATION AND STATE POLICIES Chapter 1. Capitalism Fulfills the Final Five-Year Plan: How Soviet-Era Migration Programs Came to Fruition in Post-Soviet Eurasia Malika Bahovadinova, Isaac Scarborough 1 Chapter 2. Between Strong and Weak Securitization: A Comparative Study of Russian and Turkish Approaches to Migration from Central Asia Galib Bashirov 13 PART II. New FRONTIERS OF MOBILITY Chapter 3. Migration, Transnationalism, and Social Change in Central Asia: Everyday Transnational Lives of Uzbek Migrants in Russia Rustamjon Urinboyev 27 Chapter 4. Changing the Face of Labor Migration? The Feminization of Migration from Tajikistan to Russia Nodira Kholmatova 42 Chapter 5. Domestic and International Mobility: Being Present and Living in the Present Moment through Educational Mobility Nazira Sodatsayrova 55 Chapter 6. Spatial Dynamics of External Labor Migration in Contemporary Kazakhstan Bolat L. Tatibekov, Reuel R. Hanks 69 PART III. COPING STRATEGIES Chapter 7. Exploring the Effect of Registration Documents on the Citizenship Rights of Rural Migrants in Kyrgyzstan Ajar Chekirova 89 Chapter 8. The Impact of Russian Re-Entry Bans on Central Asian Labor Migrants’ Coping Strategies Farrukh Irnazarov 98 Chapter 9. States of Exception in a Super-Diverse City: The Compromised Mobility of Moscow’s Labor Migrants John Round, Irina Kuznetsova 107 iii Chapter 10. Socio-Economic Factors Affecting Uzbek Labor Migrants in Turkey Shoirakhon R. Nurdinova 119 PART IV. THE IMPACT OF REMITTANCES ON CENTRAL ASIA SOCIETIES Chapter 11. External and Internal Migration in Central Asia: Are the Countries of Central Asia in the Emigration Trap? Azizbek Abdurakhimov 129 Chapter 12. Remittances and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence From Kyrgyzstan Gulnaz Atabaeva 140 Chapter 13. Remittances as a Source of Finance for Entrepreneurship in Uzbekistan Jakhongir Kakhkharov 150 Chapter 14. Social Remittance Dynamics in Central Asia: Potential and Limitations Zhengizkhan Zhanaltay 160 Bibliography 168 About the Central Asia Program (CAP) 191 iv Acronyms AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AKDN Aga Khan Development Network AKP Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (Justice and Development Party) APU Asia Pacific University BAM Baikal-Amur Motorway BEEPS Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Survey CIS Commonwealth of Independent States CS Copenhagen School EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development EEU Eurasian Economic Union FDI Foreign Direct Investment FMS Federal’naia migratsionnaia sluzhba (Federal Migration Service) FSB Federal’naia sluzhba bezopasnosti (Federal Security Service) GDP Gross Domestic Product GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for International Development) GNI Gross National Income GUVM Glavnoe upravlenie po voprosam migratsii (Main Directorate for Migration Affairs) HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus ICT Information and Communication Technologies IOM International Organization for Migration ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria IUJ International University of Japan JDS Japanese Grant Aid JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency MEXT Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology MIA Ministry of Internal Affairs MSME Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprise MTO Money Transfer Operator NELM New Economics of Labor Migration NGO Non-Governmental Organization ODA Official Development Assistance OMON Otriad mobil’nyi osobogo naznacheniia (riot police) PKK Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) PPP Purchasing Power Parity SFSR Soviet Federative Socialist Republic SME Small and medium enterprise SP Sole proprietorship SPTU/PTU Spetsial’noe professional’no-tekhnicheskoe uchilishche (Specialized Professional-Technical College) SSR Soviet Socialist Republic UNDP United Nations Development Programme USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics VAR Vector Autoregression v Figures Figure 5.1. Number of international students in Japan (persons) Figure 6.1. Share of foreign labor force who worked officially in Kazakhstan, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2017, by country (percent) Figure 6.2. Number of labor migrants working officially in Kazakhstan, January 1, 2001–July 30, 2017 (persons) Figure 6.3. Official labor migration in Kazakhstan, January 1, 2001–June 30, 2009 (persons) Figure 6.4. Dynamics of labor migration to oblasts of Kazakhstan, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 (persons) Figure 6.5. Labor migration from Kyrgyzstan, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 (persons) Figure 6.6. Labor migration from Uzbekistan, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 (persons) Figure 6.7. Labor migration from Turkmenistan, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 (persons) Figure 6.8. Labor migration from Russia, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 (persons) Figure 6.9. Labor migration from China, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 (persons) Figure 6.10. Labor migration to Kazakhstan by country: January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 and July 1, 2009 to June 30, 2017 compared (persons) Figure 6.11. Labor migration from Kyrgyzstan by destination region: January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 and July 1, 2009 to June 30, 2017 compared (persons) Figure 6.12. Labor migration from Kyrgyzstan, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2017 (persons) Figure 6.13. Labor migration from Uzbekistan by destination region: January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 and July 1, 2009 to June 30, 2017 compared (persons) Figure 6.14. Labor migration from Uzbekistan, 2001 to June 30, 2017 (persons) Figure 6.15. Labor migration from Turkmenistan by destination region: January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 and July 1, 2009 to June 30, 2017 compared (persons) Figure 6.16. Labor migration from Turkmenistan, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2017 (persons) Figure 6.17. Labor migration from Russia by destination region: January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2009 and July 1, 2009 to June 30, 2017 compared (persons) Figure 6.18. Labor migration from Russia, January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2017 (persons) Figure 6.19. Number of labor migrants from China and Turkey, 2001 to 2016 (thousand persons) Figure 6.20. Labor migration from China by destination region: January 1, 2001–June 30, 2009 and July 1, 2009–June 30, 2017 compared (persons) Figure 6.21. Chinese labor force activity by region of Kazakhstan (persons) Figure 6.22. Labor migration from Turkey by destination: January 1, 2001–June 30, 2009 and July 1, 2009–June 30, 2017 compared (persons) Figure 6.23. Labor migration from Turkey, 2001 to June 30, 2017 (persons) Figure 8.1. Unemployment rates in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (percent) Figure 8.2. Amount of remittances from Russia to Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (US$mn) Figure 8.3. Registered citizens of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan in Kazakhstan (persons) Figure 8.4. Work permits issued for private individuals or households in Kazakhstan (number) Figure 8.5. The interplay of issues faced
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