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Home , Diet of Speyer (1526), Diet of Worms, History of Christianity, Peace of Passau

Historical Background of the 500

The year 1517 has been regarded as a pivotal moment in history. In April of that year Martin penned 95 theses to protest the sale of in . Within months, contrary to Luther’s intentions, these theses had been printed and widely distributed, provoking a storm of controversy that started in and spread throughout . The Reformation had begun.

“Few periods in the long have had such a momentous impact upon the western world as the four decades lying between the years 1517 and 1559. It began when a very personal matter, Luther’s struggle for a right relationship to , became a popular cause. Its end was marked by an auspicious public event, for Europe entered one of its rare interludes of peace.”1 The Reformation, then, was a significant event in the history of , in the history of Europe, and the history of Western Civilization.

In its simplest terms, the Reformation was an attempt to correct beliefs and practices that the reformers argued had been added by the works of men over the course of centuries, leading people away from the Scriptures and salvation bought by the blood of . According to the reformers, traditions, pronouncements of , and good works had supplanted God’s saving mercy through Christ; reason dominated faith and caused men to trust in their own efforts to earn salvation and to explain the workings of God; and works of theology and philosophy were more highly regarded than the saving message of . These practices, and criticisms of them, had been evident long before the 16th century. Attempts at reform had occurred repeatedly but had never succeeded in gaining any traction. Reforming an institution as large and as established as the was a very difficult task indeed.

A combination of factors at the beginning of the 16th century paved the way for a reform movement. Social, political and economic changes, as well as cultural and intellectual trends, led to the development of a more literate who had increasing expectations of the , expectations that neither individual nor the institution of the Church were equipped to meet. The had brought a rebirth of classical culture that had promoted a renewed emphasis upon sources, a new kind of education, an emphasis upon the individual and the development of moral character, and a shift in worldview. All of this laid the foundation for the Reformation.

The word “Reformation” is somewhat of a misnomer. initially set out to reform the Church and to bring it back to its Scriptural roots, but the end result of his movement for reform was the fracturing of the Church. The Reformation Era, the period between 1517 and 1648, witnessed multiple , the foremost among which were the ones led by Luther, , and the that was spearheaded by the newly formed

1 Lewis W. Spitz, The Protestant Reformation, 1517-1559 (Harper & Row, 1985), p. 1. Society of . Currents of Protestant reform were felt all over Europe, but principally in the Holy , Switzerland, England, France, Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. Catholic reform centered on Italy, Spain, France and parts of the .

Despite the multiplicity of religious movements during this era, Martin Luther nevertheless remains the face of the Reformation. It is for this reason that we mark the start of the Reformation with the posting of Luther’s 95 Theses in 1517. One could argue, though, that the decisive moment came at the in 1521. Asked to recant the things he had written that both the Church hierarchy and the universal authority of the deemed errors (one step away from ), Martin Luther responded thus:

“Since your most serene majesty and your high mightinesses require of me a simple, clear and direct answer, I will give one, and it is this: I can not submit my faith either to the or to the council, because it is as clear as noonday that they have fallen into error and even into glaring inconsistency with themselves. If, then, I am not convinced by proof from Holy Scripture, or by cogent reasons, if I am not satisfied by the very text I have cited, and if my judgment is not in this way brought into subjection to God’s word, I neither can nor will retract anything; for it can not be right for a Christian to speak against his []. I stand here and can say no more. God help me. .”2

These words were important enough to be included in Bartleby’s book of most famous orations of the world, and rightly so. This moment arguably “augured one of the most momentous changes in the history of Europe, and one of the most significant in the history of the church.”3 It was more than simply a “new theological system” or a “new way of thinking theologically.” Luther’s theology was shaped by the “doctrine of salvation by God’s grace alone, received as a gift through faith and without dependence upon human merit.”4 This became the standard against which the theology, practices and structures of the Catholic Church would be measured. Against this standard, the Church, the reformers argued, had erred and had deviated from the faith of the early Church.

2 William Jennings Bryan, ed. The World’s Famous Orations. (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906; New York: Bartleby.com, 2003). www.bartleby.com/268/ at http://www.bartleby.com/268/7/8.html. Accessed 29 January 2016. Spitz gives Luther’s answer in a slight different translation: “Since then your serene majesty and your lordships seek a simple answer, I will give it in this manner, neither horned nor toothed: Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either rin the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not retract anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. I cannot do otherwise, here I stand, may God help me, amen.” (Spitz, Protestant Reformation, p. 75). 3 Mark A. Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the , 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2012), p. 146. 4 Lewis W. Spitz, The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, rev. ed., Vol. II: The Reformation (St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1987), pp. 332, 333. This was the decisive point. At Worms Luther had declared that his conscience was captive to the Word of God, which was the “living, active voice of Scripture.” Luther felt that Scripture taught clearly “truths about human nature, the way of salvation, and the Christian life,” truths that had been forgotten, neglected, or rejected by the Church.5 In stressing the authority of Scripture over and above all earthly authorities (popes, councils, rulers), Luther was not only stressing an individual’s faith but the individuality of each person, a key tenet of the modern world view.

In another sense, however, Luther was echoing the words of Augustine nearly a thousand years before: “Since we were too weak to find the truth by pure reason, and for that cause we needed the authority of Holy Writ, I now began to believe that in no wise would you have given such surpassing authority throughout the whole world to that Scripture, unless you wished that both through it you be believed in and through it you be sought.” The authority of and in Scripture to Augustine seemed “all the more venerable and worthy of inviolable faith, because they were easy for everyone to read and yet safeguarded the dignity of their hidden truth within a deeper meaning.”6 Truth was found in Scripture, and the Truth that was to be found there was God’s grace and mercy expressed through the love of Jesus Christ and the continual working of the .

Aside from the political, social, economic, intellectual, and cultural importance of the Reformation, the real significance of the Reformation was to turn the focus from human actions and intentions to Jesus Christ, who won salvation for humanity through God’s grace and mercy. The essential meaning of the Reformation—the saving message of —did not end with Luther. The Reformation started nearly 500 years ago, but the work of the Reformation carries on to the present day. It can be found in churches, schools, and communities. It is expressed in a variety of ways by individuals here and around the world.

Our commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the Reformation is intended not only as an opportunity to remember the work of Luther, but also to marvel that the legacy of the Reformation still endures.

5 Noll, Turning Points, p. 146. 6 Augustine, The Confessions, trans. John K. Ryan (New York: Doubleday, 1960), pp. 139, 140. The Reformation & Political Events to 1555

1517 Jubilee : Leo X & Johann Tetzel Luther’s 95 Theses 1518 1519 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor & King of Spain : Luther & Carlstadt vs. Eck 1520 () 1521 Diet of Worms; of Worms Luther takes refuge at the 1521-1525 1st Hapbsburg-Valois War; Peace of Pavia 1522/23 Knights’ War. Luther’s return to 1523 Break with 1523-34 Pope Clement VII (Medici) 1524-25 German Peasants’ Revolt 1525 Luther m. Katarina von Bora 1526 Diet of 1526-1529 2nd Hapsburg-Valois War; Peace of Cambrai 1527 Sack of 1529 Turks besiege Vienna 1530 Charles crowned Holy Roman Emperor by pope Diet of ; ; Melanchthon’s Apology for the Augsburg Confession 1531 formed 1535-1538 3rd Hapsburg-Valois War 1538 formed 1542-1544 4th Hapsburg-Valois War 1544 Charles V makes peace with Francis I (again) Diet of Speyer 1545 Schmalkaldic Articles Charles V makes peace with the Turks (again) opens 1546 Death of Luther 1546-48 Schmalkaldic Wars 1547 Diet of Augsburg 1548 1552 Peace of Passau 1555 Peace of Augsburg 1556 Abdication of Charles V 1558 Death of Charles V 1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis

The 16th-century Catholic Church

1480 Spanish established as national institution 1512-1517 5th Lateran Council 1513-1521 Leo X 1516 Oratory of Divine Love (Italy) 1522-1523 Adrian VI 1523-1534 Clement VII (Medici) 1524 1528 Capuchins 1532 Somatians 1533 Barnabites 1534-1549 Paul III (Farnese) Appointed papal reform commission in 1537 (9 cardinals) that presented him with Counsel . . . Concerning the Reform of the Church 1540 (Jesuits) recognized by the pope 1542 Inquisition expanded to all of 1545-1563 Council of Trent 1550-1555 Julius III 1555 Marcellus II 1555-1559 Paul IV (Caraffa) Embodied spirit of the Counter-Reformation Began repressive part of Counter-Reformation 1556 Death of Ignatius Loyola 1559-1565 Pius IV 1564 Professio fidei tridentinae 1566-1572 Pius V 1572-1585 Gregory XIII 1582 Death of St. Theresa of Avila (Spanish mystic) 1585-1590 Sixtus V 1591 Death of St. John of the (Spanish mystic) 1592-1605 Clement VIII

REFORMATION EVENTS: FRANCE, ENGLAND AND SPAIN 1558 Elizabeth inherited Ireland 1559 published “First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women” Death of Henri II of France 1560s Revolts in the against Spain Religious Wars in France 1562 Catherine de’Medici issued in France 1563 Parliament reaffirmed Act of Uniformity; Vestiarian controversy in England; John Foxe published his Acts and Monuments 1567 Duke of Alba began reign of terror in Netherlands 1568 Mary Queen of Scots fled to England 1570 excommunicated Queen Elizabeth of England Catherine de’Medici isued Edict of St.-Germain 1571 Battle of Lepanto (first European victory against Ottomans fleet) 1572 Treaty of Blois Francis Drake unleashed on the seas pressed for in England; Ridolfi Plot discovered in England St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France 1573 Francois Hotman published Francogallia 1579 Vindiciae contra tyrannos published 1580 Philip II claims Portugal 1583 Six Articles passed in England 1584 William of Orange assassinated 1584-1585 War of the Three Henris in France 1585 Parliament passes law banishing Jesuits from England 1586 Spanish ambassador expelled from England 1587 Mary Queen of Scots executed in England Sir Francis Drake attacks Lisbon and Cadiz 1588 Philip sends Spanish Armada against England 1589 Henri III of France assassinated 1589-1598 Wars of the Catholic League in France 1593 publishes Laws of the Ecclesiastical Polity 1594 Irish revolts against England begin 1595 Lambeth Articles promulgated in England 1596 Spanish seize Calais 1598 Henri IV of France issues the 1603 Death of ; Accession of James I 1609 Truce between Spain and Dutch 1610 Henri IV of France assassinated 1611 King James published