Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

ISSN (Online) : 2456-6632

An International Journal Volume 4 | Issue 2

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (Abbreviation: Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci.)

ISSN: 2456-6632 (Online)

An International Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Volume 4 Number 2

2019

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (An International Research Journal) (Abbreviation: Arch. Agri. Environ. Sci.)

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III

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (An International Research Journal)

Volume 4 Issue 2 June, 2019

Content List A. No. Title Page No.

Research/Review/Case studies/Short Communication Articles

1. A review on water and nitrogen use efficiency of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) in relation to 119-132 its yield and yield components Egata Shunka Tolessa

2. Influence of weeding regime on the performance of aromatic Boro rice (Oryza sativa L.) 133-140 Swapan Kumar Paul*, Layla Sabequn Nahar, Newton Chandra Paul and Mahfuza Begum

3. Adoption of disaster risk reduction strategy in agriculture sector at Southkhali Union of 141-150 Sharankhola Upazila, Bangladesh Prome Debnath*, Md. Mainul Hasan, A.K.M. Abdul Ahad Biswas and Avijit Biswas

4. Assessment of heavy metals concentration in water and Tengra fish (Mystus vittatus) of Surma 151-156 River in Sylhet region of Bangladesh Ariful Islam, Md. Motaher Hossain, Md. Matiur Rahim, Md. Mehedy Hasan*, Mohammad Tariqul Hassan, Maksuda Begum and Zobaer Ahmed

5. Disabled user’s preference investigation of Konya Karatay City Park according to the 157-162 universal design criteria (UDC) Esma ARI and Sertaç GÜNGÖR*

6. Species Selection Index (SSI): A novel tool designed for bio-resource selection under Access 163-170 and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanism Salman Khan*, Sohom Seal, Swanti Sharma and Upasana Joshi

7. Nitrogen uptake and economics of black rice (Oryza sativa L. indica) under different crop 171-176 geometries and nitrogen management practices Suraj Singh Karkee*, Shrawan Kumar Sah, Santosh Marhatta, Suman Dhakal, Manoj Kandel and Jiban Shrestha

8. The impacts of rainfall and temperature variation on maize (Zea mays L.) yields: A case study 177-184 of Mbeya Region, Tanzania Peter Batho*, Nyimvua Shaban and Agnes Mwakaje

9. Effect of genotype on proximate composition and biological yield of maize (Zea mays L.) 185-189 Sayed Hasanul Kabir, Ashim Kumar Das*, Md. Sadiqur Rahman, Samiron Kumar Singh, Monjur Morshed and Aung Sing Hla Marma

10. Performance of Agribusiness Microfinance Institutions (MFIA) by using approachof 190-197 Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) in district of Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Riris Nadia Syafrilia Gurning*, Jangkung Handoyo Mulyo and Masyhuri

11. Agronomic manipulation for adaptation of black rice cultivars in plain land environment to 198-205 eliminate hidden hunger Md. Rashedur Rahman*, Md. Parvez Anwar and Iffat Ara Mahzabin

12. Role of women in pond fish farming and fish consumption situation in a selected area of 206-212 Bangladesh Mohammad Ataur Rahman*, Jannatul Ferdous and Zarin Tasnim

13. Effectiveness of fulvic acid to the growth of Swietenia macrophylla King. with addition 213-218 phosphate at post mining land in Indonesia Basuki Wasis* and Dimas Okta Arifani

14. First report on Apanteles ruidus, Wilkinson reared on Hyblaea puera (Lepidoptera: 219-223 Hyblaeidae) teak defoliator from India Mohd. Yousuf and Mohsin Ikram

15. Assessment of soil and water quality as affected by herbicide application in the rice field of 224-229 Bangladesh Md. Rashedur Rahman*, Iffat Ara Mahzabin and Md. Tofazzal Hossain

16. Morphometric relationships between length-weight and length-length and condition factor of 230-234 four small indigenous fishes from the Payra River, southern Bangladesh Newton Saha*, Md. Rahamat Ullah, Md. Samiul Islam and Md. Belal Hossain

17. Performance of locally discovered rice cultivar (Haridhan) in Bangladesh under urea sprays 235-241 technology Ekramul Haque, Md. Rashedur Rahman* and Abdul Kader

18. Effect of different phosphorus levels on four cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp L.) varieties for 242-248 grain and fodder yield in Upper East Region of Ghana Boakye Boateng Augustine* and Wilson Godfre

19. Long-term fertilization effect on yield and land productivity of rice-wheat cropping system of 249-255 Bangladesh Fahamida Akter, Md. Mizanur Rahman and Md. Ashraful Alam*

20. Comparative analysis of potency of Azole derivatives to target ASL and GPI proteins 256-260 responsible for pathogenesis of Candida albicans using in silico approach Preeti Raperia, Narender Chaudhry and Rashmi Mittal*

V Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 119-132 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040201

This content is available online at AESA

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Journal homepage: www.aesacademy.org e-ISSN: 2456-6632

REVIEW ARTICLE

A review on water and nitrogen use efficiency of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) in relation to its yield and yield components Egata Shunka Tolessa Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Holetta Agricultural Research Center, Horticultural Research Division, Potato Research Program, PO Box. 2003, Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 07 March 2019 Best potato growing condition available in Ethiopia compared to African countries. Poor Revised received: 06 May 2019 resource and crop management was found one of the major production and productivity Accepted: 21 May 2019 limiting factors. This review was conducted to show the gap available in optimum nitrogen rate utilization, limitation of irrigation water utilization, nitrogen and water use efficiency Keywords consideration in agronomic work of the country. In Ethiopia the production of potato was Irrigation regime showing increasing due to land used for production increased but the productivity showed Nitrogen rate slight increase. Optimizing resource use efficiency by better management of water and Nitrogen use efficiency Water use efficiency nutrients through temporal and spatial irrigation and fertilization strategies in crop production is now getting concern in the world to enhance the profit of farm and minimize the cost of production. It is useful to consider some efficiency indices, in order to optimize the scheduling of water and nitrogen application. Determining nitrogen rates and irrigation water amount that improve the use of both water and nitrogen, and increasing knowledge of efficient use of resource could minimize the possible N losses thereby minimizing cost and increasing production profit. In the process of optimization, crop type to be grown and variety have alsoa remarkable contribution. On the last the nitrogen rate, irrigation regime and use efficiency of nitrogen and water were interrelated to each other and should be considered to gather with the yield and yield component of the potato for sustainable production with sufficient benefit.

Citation of this article: Tolessa, E.S. (2019). A review on water and nitrogen use efficiency of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) in relation to its yield and yield components. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 119-132, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040201

INTRODUCTION (CSA, 2015/16) with production volume of 572,000 ton to 3.66 million ton, respectively. Potato is temperate crop (Onder et al., Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) comes after wheat, rice and corn 2005) and it also grows and yields well in cool and humid in production volume (Fabeiro et al., 2001). Potato production climates. It is a major food crop for many countries which satis- was about 327 million tons and 18.6 million hectares worldwide factorily grows from the tropics to the sub-polar. Among African (FAO, 2006). It introduced to Ethiopia in 1858 (Pankhrust, countries, Ethiopia has the most potential of potato production 1964; Horton, 1987). Since then, high land farmers began potato because of the highlands comprises 70% of the country and production and potato product consumption when other crops home to higher percent of the population. Exploiting these failed. Estimated potato cultivated land was 160,000 hectares in production potentials will make the potato crop to play a key 2001 (CSA, 2001) while it was reached 296,557.5 ha in 2015 role in ensuring national food security (FAO, 2008).

Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019) 120

The ideal growth necessities for potato are high and nearly Water use efficiency is the ratio of the tuber yield obtained to a constant soil matric potential, high soil oxygen diffusion rate, unit of water consumed (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977). adequate incoming radiation and optimal soil nutrients (Yuan et According to Hassan et al. (2002), a range of 69 to 233 kg ha-1 al., 2003). Among other environmental conditions, temperature mm-1 WUE of potato was indicated. Kiziloglu et al. (2006) report- and photoperiod are known factors that affect a range of ed WUE between 63.4 to 44.1 kg ha-1 mm-1. WUE variability physiological processes of the potato plant (Tsegaw, 2006). with different growing season was reported for potato crop Optimum temperatures for foliage growth and net photosyn- (Nagaz et al., 2007). Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) has two com- thesis are 15-25°C, and 20°C for tuberization. At temperature ponents (Moll et al., 1982) absorption efficiency or uptake [total above 29oC tuberization is inhibited, foliage growth is pro- N in the plant at maturity (tuber + haulm) divided by nitrogen moted and net photosynthesis and assimilate partitioning to supply or rate of fertilizer N] and utilization efficiency [tuber the tubers are reduced (Levy, 1992). In natural environment weight divided by total N in the plant at maturity (tuber + plants are subjected to numerous stresses that have a great haulm)]. Potatoes respond to farmyard manure and inorganic influence on growth, development and yield of crops. These fertilizers application. Tuber yield advantage of 32% was re- factors can be biotic and abiotic. Among these factors, drought ported by Bereke (1988), from application of 150 kg N and 66 kg and nutrients suboptimal use are major abiotic factors that limit P2O5/ha under rain-fed conditions compared to control. Ha- crop production (Reddy et al., 2004). ramaya clay soil optimum potato production require application

Water is one of the most important restrictive factors of potato of 87 kg N and 46 kg P2O5/ha (Getu, 1998). Recommended rate production and it is possible to increase production levels by of 110 kg/haN and 90 kg P2O5/ha is applied for potato produc- well-scheduled irrigation programs throughout the growing tion on the black soil of Holetta (IAR, 2000). Hence, fertilizer season (Chowdhury et al., 2001; Panigrahi et al., 2001). requirement varies across locations and varieties under Researchers report indicated that water impact on potato yield cultivation. Efficient use of available resources is one of the most due to its influence on aerial parts (Deblonde et al., 1999; Lahlou important objectives in the sustainable management of cropping et al., 2003). In relation to improving water and nitrogen use systems. In Ethiopia, irrigation for potato production is not well efficiency, some Authors reported. importance of drip irrigation known (Peter et al., 2009). Where small irrigated systems start- mainly for vegetables and fruits (Shirie-e-Janagrad et al., 2006). ed to be practiced, there was excessive and shortage problem Under limited rain fall supplementing irrigation water to satisfy (Geremew, 2008). On the other hand, less water irrigation facili- the crop needs at each growth stages improve water supply to tate low quality tuber yield due to reduced leaf area and/or re- attain the required yields. duced photosynthesis per unit leaf area (Van Loon, 1981). Opti- Potato production is sensitive to deficiencies and excesses of N mizing the water and nitrogen deliver is vital issue as it varies (Biemond and Vos, 1992). According to Kleinkopf et al. (1981), with a lot of outside and crop factors. There is inadequate infor- excessive application of N at early stages delayed the linear mation about crop water and nitrogen use effectiveness in Ethi- tuber growth period from 7 to 10 days for indeterminate opia. The nitrogen rates of improved potato varieties are similar cultivars. In tuber bulking phase, potatoes needs a higher and while application of 138 kg N and 20 kg P/ha are recommended continue supply of N. Mid-season N shortage causes reduces for optimum productivity of Gorebiella variety on the vertisols canopy growth and premature senescence (Stark et al., 2004; of Debere Berhan under rain fed conditions (Zelalem et al., Westermann, 2005). Excess mid-season N supply decrease 2009). On the other hand, other varieties are cultivated by ap- tuber bulking in favor of vegetative growth (Maynard et al., plying blanket recommendation. Achieving most advantageous 1979; Waddell et al., 1999). Deficiencies or fluctuations of nitrogen rate applications should be quantified as it varying with soluble nutrients (especially N) increase pathogen and insect soil, crop and water available to the crop. In addition to this, the susceptibility, decrease tuber yields, and reduce tuber quality information about impact of N-fertilizer application and irriga- (Ojala et al., 1990). Potatoes’ high amounts of fertilizer require- tion regimes on water and nitrogen use efficiency is also inade- ment are because of high nutrient demand and a superficial quate. Therefore, the present review was conducted to show the rooting system (Munoz et al., 2005; Pack et al., 2006). In addition gap available in optimum nitrogen rate utilization, limitation of to shallow rooting, potato cultivars have relatively inefficient irrigation water utilization, nitrogen and water use efficiency nutrient and water use efficiency (Sattelmacher et al., 1990; consideration in agronomic work of the country. Love et al., 2003). The outcome of low efficiency and high water/ fertilizer rates in potato is the potential cause for significant N WATER AND NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY OF POTATO contamination to surface (Honisch et al., 2002) and groundwater Irrigation regimes are important in determining plant uptake (Madramootoo et al., 1992). Although not studied as extensively ability of nitrogen available in the soil since well watered crop is as N in potatoes, high soil P is a potential environmental prob- more capable to take benefit of applied fertilizers (Luisa et al., lem as well (Davenport et al., 2005). Determining nitrogen rates 1997). This aspect helps especially, to estimate nitrogen use and irrigation water amount that improve the use of both water efficiency at different irrigation water regimes and consequently and nitrogen, and increasing knowledge of efficient use of the environmental impact of nitrogen fertilizer. Optimizing resource could minimize the possible N losses thereby minimiz- resource use efficiency by better management of water and ing cost and increasing production profit. nutrients through temporal and spatial irrigation and fertiliza-

121 Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019) tion strategies in crop production is now getting concern in the of tuber yield, biomass dry or fresh weight to water consumed in world. Nitrogen is one of the macro nutrients greatly affecting potato production (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977). Improving yield and yield components of potato. According to Zelalem et WUE in crop production requires an increase in water produc- al. (2009) there was significant increase in aboveground and tivity which in turn increases marketable crop yield while reduc- underground biomass of potato due to N and P application. ing water losses from the plant rooting zone. Water use efficien- These authors added that increment of aboveground biomass cies (WUE) vary with irrigation regimes and planting time (Steyn by 224.5% and 32% tuber yield due to application of 207 kg N/ et al., 2007). Van Loon (1981) reported a water use efficiency of ha and 60 kg P/ha compared to the control. Canopy dry matter 127 kg ha-1 mm-1 in unstressed treatment of autumn planting. yield increase response to N fertilization is reported by Millard Walker et al. (1991) pointed out that efficient water use is and Marshall (1986). They also indicated that the increment of optimizing water usage and ensuring efficiency in its use. One marketable yield by 176% and total tuber yield by 119% as a mechanism of proper resource utilization is supplementing rain- result of increment of application of nitrogen rates from 0 to fall by irrigation water to satisfy the crop needs, in growth 207 kg N/ha. Nutrient and water supply affected transpiration stages is necessary to attain the maximum yields, when there is water use efficiency (Brück et al., 2008). According to Brück et shortage of rainfall in the growing season as it is a basic opera- al..(2008) potato varieties decreased shoot dry matter (DM), leaf tion to avoid water shortage and over-irrigation which can area and specific leaf nitrogen under conditions of low water reduce yields declining through reducing soil aeration that in supply and high WUE was indicated. In another experiment the turn reduce uptake (water and nutrient) and increasing nitrogen authors grew plants with three different levels of nitrogen leaching (Shirie-e-Janagrad et al., 2006). The other basic issue is supply, shoot DM increased significantly from 16 to 37 g, along identifying management practices that promote the efficient with leaf area and SLN (Specific Leaf Nitrogen) as the rate of use of both water and nitrogen, and developing wisdom of effi- nitrogen application increased. At a lowest level of nitrogen cient use of resource which minimize the potential losses and supply (N0), WUE was significantly lower. will create safe environment, thereby reducing production cost Rational use of natural resources, especially water and nutri- and increasing farm profit. ents, is one of the most important objectives in the sustainable management of cropping systems. To achieve these objectives it Accounting for water use and productivity is useful to consider some efficiency indices in order to optimize Water accounting is a process of quantifying the depletion and the scheduling of water and nitrogen application. Battilani et al. productivity of water in a water basin context (Gebreegziabher, (2004) the effects of three treatments (Rain-fed, ETC= 120%, 2005). It is a supporting methodology used in assessing impact ETC=100% followed by ETC= 70%, with a change of irrigation of field level intervention and performance of irrigation agricul- regime at an average tuber diameter of 35 mm) on four varieties ture. The water accounting methodology works depending on (one determinate and three indeterminate), the WUE of the water balance approach which considers inflows and outflows irrigated plots was 38% lower than under rain fed conditions, from different streams and levels such as irrigation systems or depending on rain distribution during the growth cycle and fields (Molden, 1997). Water accountings in greenhouse include whether the WUE is calculated on fresh matter or on dry matter the water balance components of irrigation water and water (DM) base. According to Darwish et al. (2006) there was ob- depletion which encompass evaporation, deep percolation, served 69 to 233 kg ha-1 mm-1 , the lowest WUE from 60% of transpiration and incorporation to product. It also holds precipi- full irrigation regimes while 80, 100 and 120% irrigation provid- tation in actual field. ed maximum water use efficiency. Kirda (2002) successful deficit irrigation of potato provided 1.06 relative water use efficien- Water use performance indicators cy compared to full water supply in drip irrigation. Onder et al. The water use performance indicators of irrigation benefits (2005) reported decreased WUE due to increase in water sup- evaluation include quantification of irrigated amount, drainage ply. Related reports were mentioned by many Authors (Kashyap volumes, crop yields, water costs and enterprise returns and Panda (2003) and Yuan et al. (2003). The highest WUE was (Skewes and Meissner, 1998). Some examples of water use obtained from application of irrigation when 30% of the availa- efficiency indicators are provided in Table 1. ble water was consumed (Erdem et al., 2006). Water use efficiency is not varying much among water stresses (Kashyap and Crop evapotranspiration and irrigation requirements Panda, 2003). Kang et al. (2004) and Onder et al. (2005) also Crop consumptive water use is the sum of water transpired by registered similar WUE values for potato. Biomass production the plants, the water evaporated from the soil and the fraction was significantly reduced in drought-treated plants (Bergaten et of water held by the plant tissues. It may include amount of al., 2003). water evaporated from plant parts when overhead irrigation is used. Plants use 1% of water taken up for their metabolic activi- Water use efficiency ty. Consequently, in applied approach crop water consumption Water use efficiency (WUE) is a broad concept which has many corresponds to crop Evapotranspiration (ETC). Potato ETC can definitions. In production, WUE is estimated considering har- be estimated using weather data and is the amount of water to vested crop yield and water supplied. It is calculated as a ratio be applied during the growing season in order to assure poten-

Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019) 122 tial tuber yields at a given site. Potato ETC is important to cients (Kc) and the water balance method provided a valuable consider in irrigation as a well-developed strategy to improve tool in scheduling overhead irrigation of Russet Burbank pota- the effectiveness of production. Local atmospheric conditions, toes in the Columbia Basin of Oregon (Hane and Pumphrey, surface soil wetness, crop type, stage of growth, and the amount 1984). According to Simonne et al. (2002), Kc values ranged of crop cover are the factors that govern the daily fluctuations from 0.3 at emergence to 0.8 during maximum leaf area, and of potato Evapotranspiration (Wright and Stark, 1990). Accord- declined as the crop matured. ETC is usually calculated by the ing to Wright and Stark (1990) the ETC increased as the leaf product of Kc and ETO (reference evapotranspiration), or as a area and transpiration increased and reached near-maximum function of a number of climatic elements to provide the atmos- levels just before effective full cover. The leaf area index (LAI) pheric potential demand. ETC is an essential agro meteorologi- reached 3.5 by effective full cover coincident with the highest cal index, which can be used to determine both the amount of daily ETC of 8.5 mm. Potato ETC varies greatly from region to water to be applied and the irrigation frequency for a particular region and season to season. Seasonal potato ETC in the humid crop and site. Wisconsin area for June through August ranged from 293 to Total ETC in mm also vary with climate, crop, soil and other 405 mm during 3 years of study (Tanner, 1981). The maximum factors. Onder et al. (2005) reported the highest evapotranspira- daily potato ETC measured by a weighing lysimeter in a tion of 473 - 391 mm at full irrigation of 2000 and 2002 years, sub-humid region in India is found to be 4.24 mm d-1 (Kashyap respectively. Erdem et al. (2005) reported that in the non-stressed and Panda, 2001). Under a hot and dry climate in northeastern treatments, the amount of total irrigation water applied and Portugal, peak ETC rates reached 12-13 mm d-1 on the days seasonal ETC was 417 and 524 mm, respectively for drip immediately following irrigation, but crop water use declined irrigation. Early research reported that seasonal potato ETC logarithmically with time to about 3 mm d-1 within 5 days ranged from 350 to 800 mm for different climatic and (Ferreira and Carr, 2002). Growth-stage specific crop coeffi- environmental conditions (Fabeiro et al., 2001; Onder et al., 2005).

Terms Key Definitions

Source: Raine,1999; as cited in Gebreegziabher, 2005.

123 Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019)

Table 2. Soil water contents for agricultural soils.

Soil water content on volumetric basis (%)

Permanent Water holding Texture class Field capacity Available water wilting point capacity (mm / m)

Average Range Average Range Average Range Average Range Sand 12 7-17 4 2-7 8 5-11 0.96 0.60-1.32 Loamy sand 14 11-19 6 3-10 8 6-12 0.96 0.72-1.44 Sandy loam 23 18-28 10 6-16 13 11-15 1.56 1.32-1.80 Loam 26 20-30 12 7-16 15 11-18 1.80 1.32-2.16 Silt loam 30 22-36 15 9-21 15 11-19 1.80 1.32-2.28 Silt 32 29-35 15 12-18 17 12-20 2.04 1.44-2.40 Silty clay loam 34 30-37 19 17-24 15 12-18 1.80 1.44-2.16 Silty clay 36 29-42 21 14-29 15 11-19 1.80 1.32-2.28 Clay 36 32-39 21 19-24 15 10-20 1.80 1.20-2.40 Source: Jensen et al. (1990)

Irrigation of crops as: Ideally, a soil should hold enough water to facilitate plant growth, and have good drainage system for excess water. Soils RAW=p*TAW (2) ability to store water varies depending on their texture (Table 2). Most soil profiles are a mixture of the various textural Where TAW = the total available soil water in the root zone classes, and the total water storage capacity depends on the (mm); RAW = the readily available soil moisture in the root zone cumulative storage capacities of the various layers within the (mm) and p= average fraction of TAW that can be depleted from profile. So water irrigators should consider the water holding the root zone before moisture stress occurs. The factor p differs capacity of the soil. from one crop to another. It varies from 0.3 for shallow rooted Soil moisture status is expressed in percent total available soil plants to 0.7 for deep-rooted plants. Generally a value of 0.5 for water (TAW) content or soil water tension (SWT). Total availa- p is commonly used for many crops (Gebreegziabher, 2005). It ble soil water content is the amount of water that plants can can also be 0.5-0.3 (Doorenbos and Kassam, 1979) to optimize extract from a given volume of soil in the crop effective rooting yield and 0.35 (Curwen, 1993) as well as 0.45 (Kashyap and zone. Total available soil water is usually expressed as a percent Panda, 2002) on sandy loam soil in a sub-humid sub-tropical between “field capacity” (100%) and “permanent wilting point. region in order to attain maximum water use efficiency. It can Soil water tension is the force roots exert to extract water from also be 0.4 (Jim Bauder and Linzy, 2010). 0.25- 0.50% P was the soil. At “field capacity” (100% TAW), the SWT is often used to calculate readily available soil water from total available between 10 and 25 kPa depending on soil type and the method soil water (FAO AGL, 2002). The allowable depletion fraction (p) of determination. Soil water is not available at the “permanent varies with soil type, crop stage and climate. wilting point”, generally assumed to be at a SWT of 1,500 kPa. Irrigation water amount also depends on effective rooting Soil water tension can be measured directly using tensiometers depth. According to Gebreegziabher (2005) 100 cm was used as or granular matrix sensors (Shock, 2003). effective root depth for potato and other vegetables in Tigiray, northern Ethiopia. As potato is shallow rooted crop (Tanner et Total available water (TAW) al., 1982) about 90% of the root length of potato is found in the TAW is the amount of water that a crop can extract from its root top 25.4 cm, while most other crops root deeper. According to zone and its magnitude depends on the type of soil and rooting Wang (2006) higher potato root length (0-60 cm) was reported. depth (FAO, 1998). It is stated as: But it can grow for maximum length of 40-60 cm according to Ayers and Westcott (1985) and higher root density occur be- TAW = 1000(θfc- θwp) X Ze (1) tween15 and30 cm (Bishop and Grimes, 1971-74). FAO AGL (2002) use 30 cm irrigation depth from 1-100 days after plant- Where TAW = the total available soil water in the root zone ing and 60 cm after 101days after planting for potato growing. (mm); θfc = moisture content at field capacity (m3m-3); θWP = moisture content at wilting point (m3 m-3); and Ze = rooting Irrigation scheduling depth (m). Nitrogen rates and irrigation regimes are among the basic factors considerably affecting the water and nitrogen use Readily available soil water (RAW) efficiencies of varieties. According to Brück et al. (2001) report Initial soil moisture depletion or readily available water (RAW) decreased shoot dry matter (DM), leaf area, nitrogen up take is the fraction of TAW that a crop can extract from the root zone efficiency and increased WUE was recorded under low water without suffering water shortage (FAO, 1998). It can be stated supply. On the other hand, they reported significantly lower

Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019) 124

WUE under lowest level of nitrogen supply. In experiment of (Shock, 2003). The moisture level at which irrigation starts can comparing control or zero nitrogen application with treatment be controlled by installing tensiometer in most irrigations and applied nitrogen to the requirement of the crop, increase of the best lower limit water potentials based on potato yield and WUE from dry matter and yield was indicated with increasing grade responses to irrigation ideally as irrigation criteria nitrogen supply (Caviglia and Sadras, 2001). Similar results was includes 50 kPa using furrow irrigation on loam soil in California reported by Kelm et al. (1999-2000) in which the lowest WUE (Timm and Flockner, 1966), 50 to 60 kPa using sprinklers on silt was indicated under none fertilized while highest was obtained loam in Oregon (Eldredge et al., 1992, 1996), 25 kPa using sprin- from highest rates. They also narrated reason for lowest WUE klers on silt loam in Maine (Epstein and Grant, 1973), 60 kPa under lowest application of nitrogen and it was due to very low and 30 kPa using furrow and drip irrigation, respectively, for silt total dry matter production and higher stomata opening under loam in Oregon (Shock et al., 2002), and 20 kPa using sprinklers N stress, which was reflected in the observed higher transpira- on sandy loam in Western Australia (Hegney and Hoffman, tion rate. Plants mostly suffer from nutrient deficiencies 1997). (especially N and P), which could be regulated by climate and environment changes, fundamentally increased water stress Gravimetric soil moisture measurement (Wu et al., 2009) due to the close relationships between water It is the standard way soil water measuring methods which and nutrient availabilities. Nitrogen (N) fertilizer plays a crucial involves taking soil sample, weighing it before any water is lost, role in enhancing canola yield. Water management has a severe and drying it in an oven to weighing it again (Hignett and Eventt, effect on N movement. But well watered crop is more capable to 2008). The mass of water lost on drying is a direct measure of take benefit of applied fertilizers (Luisa et al., 1997). Even the soil water content (Equation 3). though leaching of nitrate due to heavy rainfall cannot be completely prevented, following the N management strategies can (3) minimize the losses of nitrogen. Some of the nitrogen losses minimization management strategies considerations for irrigated potatoes are determination of nitrogen rate, timing of N Where, θm= Gravimetric soil water content, W1 and W2 are application, and use of diagnostic procedures to determine N weight of wet and dry soil, respectively. needs during the growing season, effective water management, sources of N, and establishment of a cover crop after harvest The above soil moisture value is on mass basis water content of (BMPNU, 2008). However, over-irrigation even with optimum N a field soil which can be used for comparative purposes and is rate and proper application time can cause substantial leaching useful when soil volume changes, as with tillage. However, for losses. Therefore, effective water scheduling techniques based most irrigation, crop water use, and irrigation and water use on soil moisture content and demand by the crop should be efficiency work, what is required is the volume of water in a followed to prevent such losses (BMPNU, 2008). certain volume of soil or the equivalent depth of water in a Irrigation of crops sensitive to water stress requires systematic certain depth of soil (Hignett and Eventt, 2008). Both of these scheduling of irrigation decisions. There are three methods for require knowledge of the volumetric water content. matching irrigation with crop water requirements (Pereira and The equation for determining soil water content in volume is Shock, 2006). These are measuring how much water the soil contains, monitoring some attribute of the plant that is related to θV =W2/ρw)/Vs (4) water deficits, calculating how much water the atmosphere can extract from a well-watered crop. These types of scheduling are Where, ρw is water density=1 g/cm3, W2= weight of soil water also described by other authors as atmospherical based, plant- and vs. is Soil sample Volume. based, or soil-based data matching or scheduling (Shae et al., 1999). Plant data may include canopy temperature, xylem water Potato requires well drained soil and good aerated root envi- potential, and visible wilting. Soil-based data include soil water ronment for healthy development of large size tubers. Optimum content and soil water tension (SWT). In practice, plant, soil, and soil moisture depletion for potato production was 25% atmospheric data are often used concurrently, especially when (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977). The same source also implies changes in irrigation schedules are required to adjust for changes irrigation at frequency of 7-10 days and schedule based on this in crop water use. Soil-based irrigation scheduling methods range does not allow the crop to suffer from any water stress; when it from the simple "feel" method to such technologically advanced corresponds to irrigation at available soil moisture depletion methods as the neutron probe and time-domain reflectometry (ASMD) of 20-30 per cent or irrigation at soil moisture tension (Shock et al., 1998). Tensiometers and gypsum blocks provide of 0.3 bars, measured at 15-20 cm depth. technology and cost benefit between these extremes, but they It is also possible to schedule irrigation applications using root have limitations for practical use by growers. zone water balance approaches (Evans et al., 1996), which apply the Checkbook or budgeting approach to account for all inputs Tensiometer and withdrawals of water from the soil (Jones, 2004). Under Measures soil moisture (the soil moisture tension) directly favorable conditions, irrigators tend to over irrigate, believing

125 Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019) that applying more water will result in increased crop yields. percolation and capillary rise from a water table are difficult to But, over irrigation can reduce yields because the excess soil assess in actual field and short time periods cannot be consid- moisture often results in plant disease, nutrient leaching, and ered. The soil water balance method can usually give ET reduced pesticide effectiveness. In addition, water and energy estimates over long time periods of the order of week-long or are wasted. The amount of water irrigated can often be reduced ten-day periods. without reducing yield. Studies have shown that irrigation scheduling using water balance methods can save 15 to 35% of Nitrogen use efficiency the water irrigated without reducing yield (Evans et al., 1996). Maximum yield does not equate to maximum profit usually. The Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is a multifaceted fact that optimum economic yield is less than the maximum potential depends on many internal and external factors. It depends on yield. Irrigation scheduling methods aimed at achieving maxi- soil nitrogen availability, its uptake and assimilation, photosyn- mum yield that maximizes profit and optimizes water and other thetic carbon and reluctant supply, carbon–nitrogen flux, resource use should be considered for good economic return nitrate signaling and regulation by light and hormones (Ravi et from production. al., 2008). Nitrogen use efficiency can be computed as taken up nitrogen and/or utilized portion of nitrogen. According to Moll Soil water balance et al. (1982) NUE is also defined as the amount of N taken up by Evapotranspiration can also be determined by measuring the the crop per unit of N available to the crop, while N utilization various components of the soil water balance. The method efficiency is the tuber yield per unit of N uptake by the crop. consists of assessing the incoming and outgoing water flux into NUE can also be expressed based on apparent nitrogen recov- the crop root zone over some time period (Samuel et al., 2009). ery using physiological and agronomic parameters (Ravi et al., Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water to the root zone. Part of I 2008). Agronomic efficiency is an integrative index of total and P might be lost by surface runoff (RO) and by deep percola- economic outputs relative to the available soil N (native and tion (DP) that will eventually recharge the water table. Water applied) and apparent nitrogen recovery is related to the might also be transported upward by capillary rise (CR) from a efficiency of N uptake while Physiological NUE deals with N shallow water table towards the root zone or even transferred utilization to produce tubers or total plant dry matter and it is horizontally by subsurface flow in (SFin) or out (SFout) of the root directly related to nitrogen utilization efficiency. The most zone in actual field but in greenhouse especially when the suitable way to estimate NUE depends on the crop, its harvest tubers are planted in pots, there is no vertical or horizontal product and the processes involved in it. According to Battilani water fraction movement from water table or soil moisture et al. (2008) field experiments conducted to assess the nitrogen reservoir except leakages which can be managed well to use efficiency (NUE) of two fertigation treatments (Static and become zero through decreasing irrigation interval and amount Dynamic) in comparison with a Non-Irrigated/Non-Fertilized of water applied ones. There is no rain also as the experiment is (NINF) and an Irrigated/Non-Fertilized (INF) control, expressed conducted in greenhouse. According to Samuel et al. (2009) in as marketable DM yield per kg available N, is 229.0, 188.2, -1 many situations, except under conditions with large slopes, SFin 166.2 and 173.5 kg kg N for NINF, INF, Static and Dynamic and SFout are minor and can be ignored. Soil evaporation and treatments, respectively. crop transpiration are the main water depletion from the root zone. If all fluxes are known and only evapo-transpiration (ET) Utilization efficiency can be assessed, it can be deduced from the change in soil water All absorbed nitrogen is not involved in producing tuber yield. content (∆S) over the time period (Equation 5): Some part portioned into formation of above ground biomass the other part below ground biomass. It is measured by the ETC= I + P - RO - DP + CR ± ∆SF ± ∆S for Actual field (5) ratio of tuber weight to total plant nitrogen (Moll et al., 1982). According to Battilani et al. (2008) the nitrogen utilization Where, ETC is Evapotranspiration, I is irrigation water, P is rain efficiency of Dynamic, Static, NINF and INF in fertigation treat- fall, RO= surface runoff, DP= Deep percolation, CR=water ments are 80.6, 77.2, 89.5 and 80.6 kg of total DM per kg of raised upward by capillary movement, ∆SF= Difference of water nitrogen uptake, respectively at potato senescence stage. There moved by surface flow in and out of the root zone and ∆S = is variation between different cultivars of the same species, and Change in soil water content. Generally, the soil water balance even more, between crops of different species in nitrogen utili- equation used in greenhouse container grown crops is: zation efficiency. It is this type of response which determines the productivity of crops. There are varietal differences of tradi- ETC= I-DP±∆S (6) tional and improved rice varieties in nitrogen response and NE which are mainly due to the differences in their nitrogen uptake Precipitation and other parameters are negligible or zero, but and leaf morphology (Taraka et al., 1964). There are higher NE ∆S (Change in soil water) is obtained either from soil sample or of potato and sugar beet compared to other crops, as result of calibrated tensiometer soil moisture value. The limitation of this their longer period of sink activity (Tanaka et al., 1984). Thus, method is some parameters such as subsurface flow, deep the factors affecting NE are mostly genetic, although environ-

Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019) 126 ment and the interaction between the genetic character of the variety and the environment, are also important. The growth of (8) the crop is closely affected by these factors, resulting in different patterns of growth. As the pattern of nitrogen uptake during growth is the main factor which can be manipulated to affect the (9) growth pattern, the timing of nitrogen applications improves the absorption efficiency by controlling uptake stage. The ability of absorbed nitrogen to produce grain or straw varies according to (10) the growth stage at which the nitrogen is absorbed (Ishizuka, 1980). The nitrogen absorbed at different stage of growth affects the harvest index of nitrogen and the nitrogen concen- NUE is calculated for identification of which variety is most tration of the harvest organ (Tanaka et al., 1984). But there is efficient to estimate ability to give reasonable yield under little information about time of application that resulted into marginal nitrogen content of soil. It helps also for declining cost optimum utilization of nitrogen. of production to improve farm profit and to reduce environmental pollution (Powell et al., 2010). Nitrogen uptake efficiency Nitrogen up take is a yield determining parameter that indicates FACTORS AFFECTING TUBER YIELD AND BIOMASS the amount of nitrogen absorbed by the plant root. It is a secondary data obtained from total plant analysis for nitrogen Effect of nitrogen on yield and yield components of potato content in laboratory. This nitrogen up take is used for calculat- Nitrogen is one of the major plant nutrients affecting yield and ing nitrogen uptake efficiency which computed by dividing total yield components of potato. According to Zelalem et al. (2009) N plant nitrogen to the total nitrogen supplied or rate of nitrogen and P application significantly increased aboveground and applied (Moll et al., 1982). According to Battilani et al. (2008) underground biomass yields of potato. They indicated that there were different values of nitrogen use efficiencies of application of 207 kg N/ha increased aboveground biomass potato at different fertigation treatments. The absorption/ yield by 224.5% while application of 60 kg P/ha increased 32% uptake efficiency is varying with crop type, soil conditions, the yield compared to the control. A significant increase in canopy method and time of application (Lian, 1991). In relation with dry matter yield in response to N fertilization is reported by dependence of absorption efficiency to time of application Millard and Marshall (1986). They also mentioned marketable (Dong et al., 2010) results indicated that highest rate of 15N yield increase by 176% and total tuber yield by 119% as a result absorption occurred during the first 2 days after application, of application of 0 to 207 kg N/ha. N fertilization increased then decreased to 0.03 g m–2 day–1 by Day 4 .On the other hand, potato plant height with differential response between varieties they also suggested that at twenty days after foliar urea applica- (Yibekal, 1998). N plays a significant role in production of stem tion, 63.6% of absorbed 15N had been exported from leaves. and axillary branches (Moorby and Morris, 1967). Continuous Different crops or different varieties of crops absorption of supply of N to potato crop promote shoot and root growth while nitrogen are different due to variation in rooting ability and reducing tuberization (Gunasena and Harris, 1969). physiological activity requirement of nitrogen. In many cases, Nitrogen and P fertilization can improve both the marketable ample amounts of fertilizer N, which are more than the crop and total tuber yield of potato due to increased radiation inter- requirement, are applied in the field which increases the cost of ception during the first part of the season and lower rates of production. Different varieties of crops may also be cropped decline in photosynthetic efficiency of the canopy during the receiving the same amount of nitrogen fertilizer which is true in later part (Millard and Marshall, 1986). Kotsyuk (1995) also potato production in Ethiopia. In such cases, due to lack of revealed leaf area and duration of tuber bulking increase knowledge of how efficient the variety can use, there may be because of fertization. N fertilizer affects yield by its effect on shortage or excessiveness of the applied fertilizer that affect the average tuber number, the average tuber weight and the estab- yield. Understanding the up take efficiency, it is also possible to lishment (Wilcox and Hoff, 1970). Timm and Flocker (1966) select most profitable variety as more efficient variety can be indicated optimum tuber yield at application of 204 kg/ha N produced with lesser cost of production related to nitrogen fertilizer and yield reduction is noted when applied above this fertilizer (Powell et al., 2010). So it is better to calculate varietal rate. Tuber number increase in response to N fertilization can nitrogen efficiency for more profitable production choosing be attributed to an increase in stolon number through nitrogen more efficient variety in absorption as well as utilization. Key effect on Gibberellins biosynthesis in the potato plant indicators of nitrogen use efficiency include the following: (Zelalemet al., 2009). The involvement of gibberellins in regulating stolon number through stolon initiation is described by Kumar and Wareing (1972). N effect on tuber formation in (7) potato is by influencing the activity and phytohormone balance in the plant, especially, on the levels of gibberellic and abscissic acids as well as cytokinins (Amzallag et al., 1992).

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Climate of the area indicating the potential for selecting heat tolerant potato Air temperature, solar radiation and photoperiod:-Among the clones. In both heat tolerant and heat sensitive clones, the size climatic condition temperature, solar radiation and photoperiod of the root system was reduced by a 30°C root-zone tempera- are the most important potato growth and development deter- ture explained by a reduction in the cell division followed by minants. The review by Haverkort (1990) points out that potato cessation of root elongation. Tuberization stimulus favors both is best adapted to cool climates such as tropical highlands with tuber initiation and tuber enlargement. Through artificially mean daily temperatures between 15 and 18°C as encountered prolonged exposure to short days and cool temperatures, it is in its center of origin. Higher temperatures favor foliar develop- possible to attain such a high level of stimulus that induction is ment and retard tuberization. In addition, heat stress leads to a irreversible, even if potato plants are subsequently exposed to higher number of smaller tubers per plant; lower tuber specific long days for weeks or months. The optimum soil temperature gravity with reduced dry matter content, and usually to a paler for initiating tubers ranges from 16 to 19°C (Western Potato skin color of the tubers. Temmerman et al. (2002) examined the Council, 2003). effect of latitude, seasonal mean air temperature (ranging from 13.8 to 19.9°C), global solar radiation (ranging from 12.0 to 21.3 Atmospheric humidity and wind -2 -1 MJ m d ), air humidity, soil moisture, and atmospheric CO2 There are very few recent studies dealing with the direct effects concentrations on tuber yield in European experiments. Ignor- of relative humidity (RH) on potato growth, tuber yield and ing CO2 enrichment, the yield of potato (cv. ‘Bintje’) increased grade. Most of the contributions related to the influence of RH from south to north Europe. Marketable tuber yields increased on potato refer to potato storage where RH is an important at higher latitudes. Climatic conditions, not only affected by the factor in tuber weight loss and the occurrence and severity of latitude but also by altitude, influence potato plant growth and diseases and pests. The same scarcity of research exists with development. Moreno (1985) found that plants grown at low regard to the wind regimes at a particular location as an agro (coastal) altitudes have low yield of tubers per plant as com- meteorological factor affecting potato production systems. pared with those grown in the Andean highlands. Gawronska Wheeler et al. (1989) studied the effect of two RH levels, 50% and Dwelle (1989) studied the effect of high light levels (maxima and 85%, on the physiological responses of three cultivars of between 500 and 1200 E m-2s-1) and shaded low light levels potato (Russet Burbank, Norland, and Denali) in controlled- (approximately one-quarter of the high light) on potato plant environment rooms under continuous light intensity at 20°C. growth, biomass accumulation and its distribution. They No significant differences in total plant dry weight were meas- observed that plants under low light do not produce auxiliary ured between the atmospheric humidity treatments, but plants shoots. Tubers of plants under low light were very small and grown under 85% RH produced the higher tuber yields. Leaf irregular in shape. The most evident plant response to low light areas were greater under 50% RH and leaves tended to be was greater stem elongation as well as a reduction in total larger and darker green under drier than at more humid atmos- biomass accumulation and in tuber weights. The reduction in pheric conditions. The elevated humidity appeared to shift the total biomass under low light was 34 to 45%. Reduction in tuber allocation pattern of photosynthesis to favor allocation to the dry weights under low light ranged from 39 to 57%, depending tubers over leaves and stems. Gordon et al. (1999) estimated on the growth stage and harvest time. In addition, at all growth sap flow from solar radiation and vapor pressure deficit data for stages, the percentage of biomass partitioned to the tubers was three field-grown potato cultivars (‘Atlantic’, ‘Monona’ and higher under high light than under low light conditions. ‘Norchip’) at Nova Scotia, Canada, under non-limiting soil water conditions. Sap flow rates for all cultivars were closely linked Soil temperature with solar radiation under conditions where soil water was not Soil temperature also affects the various activities of growing limiting. The vapor pressure deficit (VPD), a function of relative potato. The rate of development of sprouts from planted seed humidity and air temperature, had less effect on sap flow, pieces depends on soil temperature. Very little sprout elonga- although the magnitude of the VPD during the growing season tion occurs at 6°C. Elongation is slow at 9°C and is maximized at was generally 2 kPa. about 18°C. The time between planting and emergence depends All cultivars maintained actual daily transpiration near the on soil temperature. Phytotron and field experiments carried potential energy limiting rate under well-watered conditions. out by Sale (1979) showed that emergence was linearly related When the soil was drier (percent available soil water 30%), to mean soil temperature and relatively independent of diurnal Monona potato plants had a much more rapid decline in transpi- fluctuations up to an optimum of 22-24°C. Up to this optimum ration than the other two cultivars. Another physiological emergence can be considered as a degree-day requirement parameter closely related to yield is water use efficiency. calculated either from soil temperature at tuber depth or air According to Bowen (2003) the cool humid conditions favored temperature. At temperatures above the optimum, emergence growth and promoted a more efficient use of irrigation water in was inhibited. Sattelmacher et al. (1990) studied the effect of coastal Peru condition when grown during winter time. During 20°C and 30°C root-zone temperatures on root growth and root winter, less soil water evaporation caused by smaller VPD morphology of six potato clones. Significant genotypic differ- enhanced water use efficiency when compared with that ences in the responses of potato roots to 30°C were observed, observed during the summer. Sinclair et al. (1984) also showed

Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019) 128 that generally more humid environments provide greater water Similar result was reported by Shahnazari et al. (2007). At In use efficiency because of a lower VPD. Stomatal resistance sandy loam soil grown potato at temperature of 26°C irrigation governs photosynthesis and transpiration. Two major feedback regimes of 100, 80 and 60% produced a WUE of 0.0098, loops are reported by Raschke (1979) as the direct controllers 0.00754 and 0.00536 g wet tuber yield per one mm irrigation in of stomatal resistance. The first involves photosynthesis where one meter square, respectively (Steyn et al., 2007). a reduction in intercellular carbon dioxide (Co2) occurs as the photosynthetically active radiation increases, the stomata open Effect of irrigation and nitrogen interaction on potato yield and stomatal resistance decreases. The second involves an in- Land and water is major constraints to the production of food crease in stomatal resistance whenever leaf water potential required to meet the quantitative and qualitative world’s reaches a critical threshold as a result of transpiration intensity demand with greatly increasing population. Therefore, it is criti- (Raschke, 1979). Wind also affects transpiration rates and, cal to optimize agricultural water use. This agricultural water therefore, photosynthetic activity and crop yield. At sites where use optimization requires both maximizing productivity per unit winds are frequently strong throughout the year, increased sto- of land and maximizing productivity per unit of water consumed matal resistance can cause reduction in potato yield (Sun and (Stefania et al., 2011). To maximize WUE, it is necessary to Dickinson, 1997; Pavlista, 2002). conserve water and promote maximal crop productivity which intern requires combined works involving minimization of water Effect of irrigation regimes and methods on tuber yield and losses through seepage, runoff, evaporation, and evapotranspi- yield components ration by weeds; and planting well adapted high-yielding crops/ Irrigation water amount and quality is a factor to be considered cultivars with optimum managements. Improving cropping envi- for better yields. According to the finding of Faberio et al. (2001) ronment by proper management like harvesting time, tillage, 597 mm irrigation water required to reach maximum tuber yield fertilization, and pest control also contribute to enhancement of of 45.18 t /ha. Onder et al. (2005) suggested that surface and crop growth and productivity. The water use efficiency not only subsurface drip irrigation methods did not significantly affect depends on the crop yield but also depends on water application tuber yield. Increased tuber yield with irrigation applications level (Kumar et al., 2007). When the water application level was noted in Shock et al. (1998) and Yuan et al. (2003) reported. increased beyond the requirement of the crop, the water use Tuber dry matter yield increased with increasing water supply efficiency decreases. Studies found a poor correlation (R2 = from 60- 100% full irrigation but it decline at 120% of full irriga- 0.24) between the WUE and water application level (Kireger tion (Darwish et al., 2006). Onder et al. (2005) mentioned that and Blake, 1994; Speer et al., 2008). Irrigation regime and meth- irrigation levels significantly affected all yield parameters in two od significantly influenced water and nitrogen use efficiency consecutive years and yield for 66 and 100% irrigation regimes (Lehrsch et al., 2000). were significantly superior to 33% and non-irrigated treat- Nitrogen rates cause change on water use efficiency by poten- ments. Also, Nagaz et al. (2007) indicated similar findings. Tuber tially affecting biomass, evaporations, transpirations and HI fresh and dry weight from first- three harvests for full irrigation through primarily influencing photosynthesis. There is close tend to be higher than partial root zone drying but at fourth relationships between water and nutrient availabilities (Wu et harvest partial root zone drying have got highest amounts al., 2009). Response of all major crop species to nitrogen supply (Shahnazari et al., 2007). in biomass per unit transpiration was indicated in Bruick (2008). Erdem et al. (2006) narrated that effect of irrigation regimes in Cooper et al. (1987) demonstrated the increment of WUE with two consecutive years did not significantly affect tuber weight nitrogen and phosphorous fertilization in low-fertile soils of but tuber yield only in 2005 was significantly affected by irriga- west Asia and North Africa. On the other hand, significantly tion regimes. On the other hand, Darwish et al. (2006) stated lower WUE under lowest level of nitrogen supply was indicated lowering of deficit irrigation the tuber dry matter production in Brücket al. (2001). According to Kelm et al. (1999-2000) ferti- and the average weight of the commercial tuber. In addition, lized condition increased WUE compared to not fertilized condi- Onder et al. (2005) reported the highest tuber means weight tion. Hence, adequate nitrogen supply is therefore, critical for from irrigation treatment of 66 and 100% of full irrigation. high yield per unit evapotranspiration or better improvement of Nagaz et al. (2007) explained reduction in tuber number and water use efficiency. weight as a consequence of water supply shortage during tubers In same manner with these, nitrogen application rates affect initiation and development. Significantly the highest plant yield nitrogen use efficiency. Increasing nitrogen application from 80 for 66 and 100% full irrigation over 33% and non-irrigated kg/ha - 200kg/ha reduced nitrogen use efficiency (Shahzad et al., treatments was indicated (Onder et al., 2005). Yuan et al. (2003) 2010). This indicates that the increment of nitrogen fertilizer reported that significantly lower biomass for use of 0.25 and increase NUE up to the maximum yield potential (Hartemink et 0.50 Evapotranspiration compared to 0.75, 1.00 and 1.25 times al., 2000). In relation with this, Darwish et al. (2006) found that of evapo-transpiration. Increased water stress decreased total decreasing N application to 125 kg /ha, from 250, 375 or 500 kg dry matter yield (Kashyap and Panda, 2003). Darwish et al. N /ha, resulted in significantly higher N recovery or nitrogen up (2006) found out that increased water supply increased the take efficiency. Similarly, according to Shahzad et al. (2010) harvest index with the highest amount at 100% of irrigation. highest nitrogen levels produced lowest physiological nitrogen

129 Egata Shunka Tolessa /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 119-132 (2019) use efficiency. Increasing water use efficiency indicated with Bereke, T.T. (1988). Potato research and future improvement prospects in Ethiopia: Proceedings of the 19th National Crop Improvement. Conference increasing nitrogen supply to the optimum level (Caviglia and held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 301-310. Sadras, 2001). So, it is considerable to find the common effect of Bergaten, R.V., Daisog, H.S., Bolatete Jr., D.M., Belmonte Jr., D.V., Esquibel, C.B., irrigation and nitrogen rates on potato yield, water and nitrogen Pardales, A.D., Mariscal, A.M., Sebidos, R.F., Banoc, D.M. and Subere, J.Q. use efficiencies for better farm return. Nitrogen and irrigation (2003). Genotypic variation in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) in response to water deficit during plant establishment stage. 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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 133-140 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040202

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Influence of weeding regime on the performance of aromatic Boro rice (Oryza sativa L.) Swapan Kumar Paul* , Layla Sabequn Nahar, Newton Chandra Paul and Mahfuza Begum Department of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 18 March 2019 An experiment was conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural Revised received: 05 May 2019 University, Mymensingh, from December 2013 to May 2014 to investigate the influence of Accepted: 18 May 2019 weeding regime on the performance of aromatic Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan50). The experiment

comprised nine treatments viz., un-weeded, one hand weeding at 20 DAT + pre-emergence

herbicide after hand weeding, two hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAT, pre-emergence herbicide Keywords followed by one hand weeding at 20 DAT, pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand BRRI dhan50 weeding at 40 DAT, post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, pre-emergence Crop characters herbicide + post-emergence herbicide, pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide

Crop yield + one hand weeding at 40 DAT and weed free throughout the growth period. Panida Herbicides (pendimethalin) @ 2.5 L ha-1 as pre-emergence herbicide and granite (penoxsulam) @ 93.70 ml Weeding regime ha-1 as post-emergence were used for weed control. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Thirteen weed species belonging to seven families were observed in the experimental field. The highest weed density and dry weight were observed in no weeding condition compared to other treatments. The tallest plant, the highest number of total tillers hill-1, number of effective tillers hill-1, total spikelets panicle-1, grains panicle-1, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, straw yield, biological yield and harvest index were obtained from weed free treatment. The highest grain yield (5.92 t ha-1) was obtained from weed free throughout the growth period. Grain yield was reduced by 56.42% due to weed infestation in unweeded condition. The highest benefit-cost ratio (2.28) was obtained from application of pre-emergence herbicide followed by post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT. Therefore, weeding treatment pre-emergence herbicide followed by post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT may consider for cultivation of aromatic Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan50).

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Paul, S.K., Nahar, L.S., Paul, N.C. and Begum, M. (2019). Influence of weeding regime on the performance of aromatic Boro rice (Oryza sativa L.). Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 133-140, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040202 INTRODUCTION Islam et al. (1996) noticed that the yield of aromatic rice was lower (1.5-2.0 t ha-1) but its higher price and low cost of cultiva- Rice (Oryza sativa L) is the staple food for the people of tion generated higher profit margins compared to other Bangladesh. Aromatic rice is special group that covers 2% of the varieties grown in the area. Bangladesh Rice Research Institute national rice acreage of Bangladesh and 12.5% of the total (BRRI) developed a modern aromatic rice BRRI dhan50 transplant Aman rice cultivation (Roy et al., 2018). Most of the (Banglamoti) with high yield ability which is suitable for Boro aromatic rice varieties are traditional photo-period sensitive season. type and grown during Aman season in Bangladesh (Kabir et al., Severe weed infestation reduces the grain yield in Aus, Aman 2004). The average yield of rice in Bangladesh is 3.04 t ha–1 and and Boro season in 70.80%, 30–40% and 22–36% in which is very much lower than world average (Sinha et al., 2018). Bangladesh (Sarkar et al., 2017). In case of aromatic rice grain

Swapan Kumar Paul et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 133-140 (2019) 134 yield reduced by 59.82% for BRRI dhan50 in Boro season (Sinha Description of herbicides et al., 2018) and 28.16% for Binadhan-9 in Aman season (Zannat A short description of herbicides that were used in the experi- et al., 2014). The traditional method of weed control is hand ment is given in the Table 1. weeding which is very much laborious and time consuming. Healthy seeds were selected by specific gravity method. Seeds Mechanical weeding and herbicides are the alternative to hand were then immersed in water in bucket for 24 hours. Then seeds weeding. Herbicides are effective in controlling weeds alone or were taken out of water and kept thickly in gunny bags. The in combination with hand weeding (Ahmed et al., 2005). seeds started sprouting after 48 hours and were sown after 72 Herbicides in combination with hand weeding would help to hours on 1 December, 2013 with proper care. The land was first obtain higher crop yield with less efforts and cost opened with a tractor drawn disc plough on 29 December, 2013. (Sathyamoorthy et al., 2004). Weed competition at early growth The land was then puddled thoroughly by repeated ploughing stage can be eliminated through pre-emergence herbicides and cross ploughing with a country plough and subsequently like Panida, Ronstar 25 EC and Rifit 50 EC and post emergence leveled by laddering. The field layout was made on 8 January, herbicides Granaite and 2, 4-D amine. This type of herbicides 2014 according to experimental specification immediately after can be used in Bangladesh against mono and dicotyledonous final land preparation. Weeds and stubbles were cleared off weeds in rice fields. Replacement of traditional weeding in Boro from individual plots and finally plots were leveled properly by rice by pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides or wooden plank so that no water pocket could remain in the field. herbicides in combination with hand weeding would help obtain The land was fertilized with urea, triple super phosphate, higher rice yield. Therefore, the present study was undertaken muriate of potash, gypsum, zinc sulphate @ 250 kg, 120 kg, 120 to determine the effective weed control option for maximizing kg, 100 kg, 10 kg ha-1, respectively. The whole amount of triple yield of BRRI dhan50. super phosphate, muriate of potash, gypsum, zinc sulphate were applied at the time of final land preparation. Urea was applied in MATERIALS AND METHODS 3 equal split at 10, 30 and 45 DAT. Seedlings were transplanted on 9 January, 2014 using two seedlings hill-1 with 25 cm × 15 cm Experimental design spacing between the rows and hills, respectively. The gaps were The experiment was conducted at the Agronomy Field filled up with the seedlings from the same source. Weeding was Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, done as per experimental specification. Flood irrigation was during the period from December 2013 to May 2014. The given to maintain a level of standing water up to 2-4 cm till maxi- experimental site is located at 24.75° N latitude and 90.50°E mum tillering stage and after that, a water level of 7-10 cm was longitude at an elevation of 18 m above the sea level. The site maintained up to grain filling stage and then drained out after belongs to the non-calcareous dark grey floodplain soil under milk stage to enhance maturity. The crop was attacked by yellow the Agro-ecological Zone of the Old Brahmaputra Floodplain rice stem borer (Scirpopaga incertulas) at the panicle initiation (AEZ-9) (UNDP and FAO, 1988). The soil of the experimental stage which was successfully controlled with Sumithion @ 1.5 L field belongs to the Sonatala soil series which is slightly acidic in ha-1. Four hills were randomly selected from each plot (excluding reaction with 1.29 % organic matter content. The experimental boarder rows and central 1 m2) and uprooted to record data on field was a medium high having pH 6.5. The experiment consist- crop characters and yield components. After sampling, the ed of nine treatments viz. Unweeded (T1), One hand weeding at whole plot was harvested on 7 May, 2014 when 90% of the 20 days after transplanting (DAT) + pre-emergence herbicide seeds became golden yellow in colour. At maturity, one square after hand weeding (T2), Two hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAT meter area from each plot was selected from the central portion

(T3), Pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at and was cut manually from the ground level to take grain and

20 DAT (T4), Pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand straw yields. The harvested crop of each plot was separately weeding at 40 DAT (T5), Post-emergence herbicide + one hand bundled, properly tagged and then brought to the threshing weeding at 40 DAT (T6), Pre-emergence herbicide + post- floor. The harvested crops were threshed manually. The grain emergence herbicide (T7), Pre-emergence herbicide + post- was cleaned and dried to a moisture content of 14 %. Straws -1 emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT (T8 ) and were sun dried properly. Final grain and straw yields plot were -1 Weed free throughout the growth period (T9). The experiment recorded and converted to t ha . Harvest index was calculated was laid out in a one factor randomized complete block design using the following formula. with four replications. The size of a unit plot was 4.0 m × 2.5 m (10 m2). The spacing between the unit plots was 50 cm and that between the blocks was 1.0 m.

Table 1. Short description of herbicides that were used in the experiment. Trade name Common name Mode of action Selectivity Time of application Panida 33 EC Pendimethalin Systematic Selective for potato and rice Pre-emergence (3 DAT) Granite 240 SC Penoxulam Systematic Selective for rice Post-emergence (12 DAT)

135 Swapan Kumar Paul et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 133-140 (2019)

Weed parameter Gramineae, 3 Cyperaceae, 2 Pontederiaceae and 1 from Oxali- The 1st data on weed infestation was taken from the plots where daceae, Araceae. The most important weed in the experimental

T2, T3 and T4 treatments were applied at 20 DAT of rice plant. plots were Scirpus juncoides, Echinochloa crusgalli and Monochoria The 2nd data on weed infestation was taken from the plots hastata. Weeds grown in the experimental plot were grass, where T3, T5, T6 and T8 treatments were applied at 40 DAT of broad-leaved, sedge type. The particulars of weeds common rice plant. The 3rd data on weed infestation was taken from each name, english name, scientific name, family name and life cycle of the unit plot as per treatments at dough stage of rice plant. have been presented in Table 2. The data were taken by 0.25 m2 quadrate from two places of each plot at random. Effect of weed control treatments on weed density The weeds infested in each plot were identified species-wise Weed density was influenced by different weed control treat- and their density per square meter was counted. The density of ments as recorded at 20 DAT, 40 DAT and at harvest of the rice weed was determined using a quadrate of 0.25 m2 in two places plot (Table 3 and 4). The highest weed density was observed in at random in each plot. The average number of two samples was the unweeded treatment and the lowest weed density was converted to no. m-2. The weeds inside each quadrate for observed at weed free treatment. This result is agreement with density count were uprooted, cleaned and separated. The the findings of Rekha et al. (2002). The weed population at collected weeds were dried in an electrical oven for 72 hours harvest was higher than that of the population at 20 DAT and maintaining a constant temperature of 80°C. After drying, 40 DAT. Scirpus juncoides, Echinochloa crusgalli and Monochoria weight of dried weeds were taken and converted to g m-2. The hastate were the most important weeds in experimental plot. plants at dough stage inside quadrate (0.25 m2) were uprooted. Among these Echinochloa crusgalli, Monochoria hastate were The roots of each plant were removed. Then the plants were significantly controlled by pre-emergence herbicide + post- washed with tap water and the plant samples were packed in emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT. But the labeled brown paper bags and dried in the oven at 85±5°C for infestation of Scirpus juncoides was so high that no control 72 hours until constant weight was reached. The dried samples measures were effective to control this weed species. were weighed carefully and converted to t ha-1. Effect of weed control treatment on weed dry weight Statistical analysis Weed dry weight was influenced by weed control treatment The recorded data were compiled and subjected to statistical (Table 5). The highest weed dry weight (183.14 g m-2) was ob- analysis. Analysis of variance was done following randomized served in the unweeded treatment and the zero dry weight of complete block design with the of computer package MSTAT. weed was observed at weed free treatment. This result is agree- The mean differences among the weed control treatments were ment with the findings of Jena et al. (2002). It was also found- adjudged by Duncan's New Multiple Range Test (Gomez and that the pre-emergence herbicide and post-emergence herbi- Gomez, 1984). cides when supplemented with one hand weeding at 40 DAT gave lower dry weight (34.76 g m-2) of weed and pre-emergence RESULTS AND DISCUSSION herbicide when supplemented with one hand weeding at 40 DAT gave lower dry weight (35.71 g m-2) of weed were more Infested weed species in the experimental field effective than other weed control treatments. The weed popula- Thirteen weed species infested the experimental field which tion at harvest was higher than that of the population at 20 DAT belongs to seven families. Among these species 5 belonged to and 40 DAT.

Table 2. List of weed species in the experimental field. Common Name English name Scientific name Family name Life cycle Panikachu Pickerel weed Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl. Pontederiaceae Perennial Holde mutha Yellow nutsedge Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperraceae Perennial Angta Torpedo grass Panicum repens L. Gramineae Perennial Bara Shama Barnyard grass Echinochloa crusgalli L. Beauv. Gramineae Annual Arail Swamp rice grass Leersia hexandra Sw. Gramineae Perennial Joina Globe fringerush Fimbristylis milliaceae L. Vahl Cyperaceae Annual Chesra Bulrush Scirpus juncoides Roxb. Cyperacea Annual Amrul Yellow wood sorrel Oxalis europaea Jord. Oxalidaceae Annual Chela ghash Curved sickle grass Parapholis incurva (L.) C.E. Hubb Gramineae Annual Topapana Water lettuce Pistia stratiotes Var. Araceae Perennial Anguli ghash Crab grass Digitaria sanguinalis L. Scop. Gramineae Annual Motka Bushy matgrass Lippia germinata H.B.K. Verbenaceae Annual Kachuripana Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae Perennial

Swapan Kumar Paul et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 133-140 (2019) 136

Table 3. Weed density (no. m-2) at 20 DAT and 40 DAT. At 20 DAT At 40 DAT Weed Species T2 T3 T4 T3 T5 T6 T8 Echinochloa crusgalli L. Beauv 65.00 38.00 3.00 44.00 - 17.00 143.50 Scirpus juncoides Roxb. 36.50 23.00 34.50 82.75 8.25 5.00 - Monochoria hastate L. - - 0.50 4.00 - - - Panicum repens L. 3.00 5.00 4.50 - 10.50 4.50 2.50 Leersia hexandra Sw. - - - - 0.50 - - Oxalis europaea Jord. 1.50 - - - - 0.50 - Pistia stratiotes Var. 1.50 2.50 1.50 - - - - Digitaria sanguinalis L. 0.50 0.50 0.50 - - - -

Treatments: T1: Unweeded, T2: One hand weeding at 20 DAT + pre-emergence herbicide after hand weeding, T3: Two hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAT, T4: Pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 20 DAT, T5: Pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T6: Post- emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T8: Pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT.

Table 4. Weed density (no. m-2) at dough stage of plant. Treatment Weed Species T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 Echinochloa crusgalli L. Beauv 41.50 11.00 10.00 7.50 5.50 13.00 5.50 2.50 Scirpus juncoides Roxb. 47.50 42.62 46.00 90.50 44.00 32.50 61.50 49.00 Monochoria hastate L. 41.00 39.00 48.50 16.50 12.00 26.50 12.00 11.00 Cyperus esculentus L. 0.50 1.00 - - 0.50 0.50 - - Panicum repens L. 0.50 1.00 - - 3.00 1.00 4.00 0.50 Leersia hexandra Sw. 1.50 - - - 3.00 1.50 2.50 - Oxalis europaea Jord. 1.00 - 1.50 - - 3.00 0.50 0.50 Parapholis incurva (L.) C. E. Hubb 1.00 ------Pistia stratiotes Var. 3.50 - - 6.00 3.00 - 1.50 6.00 Digitaria sanguinalis L. 3.50 - - - - 0.50 1.00 1.50 Lippia germinata H.B.K. - - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50 1.00

Table 5. Weed dry weight (g m-2) at different stages. Treatment 20 DAT 40 DAT At dough stage

T1 - - 183.14 T2 2.35 - 123.48 T3 1.86 10.86 75.14 T4 2.27 - 91.19 T5 - 8.37 35.71 T6 - 9.54 49.56 T7 - - 66.84 T8 - 5.53 34.76 T9 - - -

Treatments:T1: Unweeded, T2: One hand weeding at 20 DAT + pre-emergence herbicide after hand weeding, T3: Two hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAT, T4: Pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 20 DAT, T5: Pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T6: Post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T7: Pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide, T8: Pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T9: Weed free throughout the growth period.

Figure 1. Effect of weeding regime on dry matter weight (t ha-1) of plant at dough stage of aromatic Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan50).

Treatments: T1: Unweeded, T2: One hand weeding at 20 DAT + pre-emergence herbicide after hand weeding, T3: Two hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAT,T4: Pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 20 DAT, T5: Pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 40 DAT , T6: Post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T7: Pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide, T8: Pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T9: Weed free throughout the growth period.

137 Swapan Kumar Paul et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 133-140 (2019)

: :

2.00 1.88

1:40 1:58 1:65 1:43 2:25 2:28 1:93

Cost Cost

Ratio Ratio

(BCR)

Benefit Benefit

45.33a

40.00e

43.25bc

Harvest 44.66ab 44.94ab

41.02de

index (%)index 41.86cde 41.19cde

42.93bcd

3.16

emergence emergence herbicide, T

)

yield yield

7.63f 7.89f

6.45g 9.03e

(t ha(t

11.26c

13.06a

10.04d 12.15b

11.85bc

Biological Biological 4.54

)

yield yield

5.25c 5.73c

7.13a

3.87e

4.50d 4.64d 6.53b 6.38b

Straw Straw

(t ha(t

6.68ab

6.64

emergence herbicide emergence followed herbicide by one hand weeding at

emergence emergence herbicide + post

(%)

: : Pre

loss

7.77 0.00

: : Pre

Yield Yield

56.42 47.13 36.42 45.10 10.31 17.74 27.20

)

yield yield

3.13f 3.25f

4.87c

5.92a

2.58g 3.78e

Grain Grain 5.31b 4.31d 5.46b

(t ha(t

5.47

grain grain

1000

17.97c 17.99c

19.51a

ter(s) ter(s) differ significantlyas per DMRT. Significant = ** 1% at levelprobability, of * =

18.77b 18.72b 18.79b

19.03ab 18.99ab 19.07ab

weight (g) weight

1.83

let

6.67c

8.92a 8.86a 9.42a 9.47a

7.85b 7.96b

No. of No.of

sterile sterile

7.23bc 7.36bc

panicle

: : Two hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAT, T

spikelets spikelets

7.21

rice (cv. BRRIdhan50). (cv. rice

Boro

No. of No.of

grains

80.48c 81.91c

90.36a 90.41a

84.55bc 84.52bc 85.00bc

88.62ab 87.48ab

panicle

3.41

emergence emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T

: Weed free throughout the growth period. growth the freethroughout Weed :

: : Post

total total

No. of No.of

97.54a 99.77a 99.88a

87.15d

89.14cd 92.40bc 91.88bc 92.96bc

96.34ab

panicle

spikelets spikelets

3.14

(cm)

19.75 20.33 20.40 20.34 20.97 20.78 20.55 20.99 21.12

length

Panicle Panicle

3.67

emergence emergence herbicide after hand weeding, T

non

1.50c

2.19a 2.13a

0.94e

1.75b 1.81b 1.25d 1.75b 1.19d

No. of No.of

effective effective

tillers hill tillers

6.67

8.12c

9.19a

5.88e

6.94d 7.44d 7.06d

No. of No.of

8.37bc

8.81ab

8.814ab

effective effective

tillers hill tillers

4.19

emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T 40 at DAT, weeding hand one + herbicide emergence

: : One hand weeding at 20 DAT + pre

8.07d

9.07bc 8.87cd

9.87ab 9.88ab

10.06a 10.13a

9.19abc

10.00ab

tillers hill tillers

No. of total total No.of

6.36

emergence emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 40 DAT, T

: : Unweeded, T

: : Pre

Effect of weeding regime on crop characters, yield components and yield ofofcomponentscharacters, aromaticweeding yieldregime Effect crop onyield and

emergence herbicide + post + herbicide emergence

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Treatment T T T T T T T T T of Level significance (%) CV

Table 6. Table

Figures Figures in a column, having the same letter(s) or significant. = Not NS of without probability, 5%level at Significant letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar Treatments: T 20 DAT, T Pre

Swapan Kumar Paul et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 133-140 (2019) 138

Dry matter weight of plant at dough stage (90.41) obtained from the plots weed free throughout the The weed control treatment exerted significant effect on the dry growth period, which was statistically identical with matter weight of plant at dough stage (Figure 1). The highest dry pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 40 matter weight (7.08 t ha-1) was produced by weed free throughout DAT, post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, the growth period which was statistically identical with pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 40 hand weeding at 40 DAT. The lowest number of grains panicle-1 DAT, Post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT (80.48) was obtained in the unweeded treatment, which was and pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one statistically identical with one hand weeding at 20 DAT + hand weeding at 40 DAT. The lowest dry matter weight (2.65 t pre-emergence herbicide after hand weeding, two hand weed- ha-1) was obtained from unweeded treatment, which was signifi- ing at 20 DAT + 40 DAT, pre-emergence herbicide followed by cantly lower than the rest of the treatments. Similar results were one hand weeding at 20 DAT (Table 6). Similar results were obtained by Islam et al. (2014). reported elsewhere (Khan, 2013; Zannat et al., 2014 and Islam et al., 2015). The highest number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 Crop characters, yield components and yield (9.47) was found from weed free throughout the growth period, Crop characters, yield components and yield of BRRI dhan50 which was statistically identical with pre-emergence herbicide were significantly influenced by different weed control treat- followed by one hand weeding at 40 DAT, post-emergence ments have been presented in Table 6. herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT and pre-emergence The highest number of tillers (10.13) was obtained in weed free herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 throughout the growth period, which was statistically identical DAT. The lowest number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 (6.67) was with two hand weeding at 20 DAT + 40 DAT, pre-emergence obtained from unweeded condition period, which was statisti- herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 40 DAT, post- cally identical with one hand weeding at 20 DAT + pre- emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, pre- emergence herbicide after hand weeding and pre-emergence emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide, pre- herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 20 DAT (Table 6). emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand The highest 1000-grain weight (19.51 g) was found from weed weeding at 40 DAT. The lowest number of tillers (8.07) was free throughout the growth period, which was statistically iden- obtained in unweeded treatment (Table 6). This result is agree- tical with pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weed- ment with the findings of Ahmed et al. (1998). The highest num- ing at 40 DAT, post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at ber of effective tillers hill-1 (9.19) was obtained from the plots 40 DAT and pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence weed free throughout the growth period, which was statistically herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT. The lowest 1000-grain identical with pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weight (17.97 g) was obtained from unweeded treatment, which weeding at 40 DAT and pre-emergence herbicide + post- was statistically identical with one hand weeding at 20 DAT + emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT. The lowest pre-emergence herbicide after hand weeding (Table 6). This one (5.88) was obtained in unweeded plots (Table 6). Similar result is agreement with the findings of Ganeshwor and results were reported elsewhere (Khan, 2013; Zannat et al., Gadadhar (2000). Among the weed control treatments, the 2014; Islam et al., 2015 and Sinha et al., 2018). The highest num- highest grain yield (5.92 t ha-1) was produced by weed free ber of non-effective tillers hill-1 (2.19) was observed in unweed- throughout the growth period followed by pre-emergence herb- ed treatment, which was statistically identical with one hand icide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 weeding at 20 DAT + pre-emergence herbicide after hand weed- DAT (5.46 t ha-1). The lowest grain yield (2.58 t ha-1) was ing. The lowest number of non-effective tillers hill-1 (0.94) was obtained from unweeded treatment, which was significantly observed in weed free treatment throughout the growth period lower than the rest of the treatments. Grain yield reduced by (Table 6). Numerically the longest panicle was observed in weed 56.42% in control (unweeded) plots over weed free throughout free throughout the growth period (21.12 cm) and the shortest the growth period (Table 6). This result is agreement with the panicle was observed under unweeded treatment (19.75 cm) findings of Sinha et al. (2018), who reported that weed infesta- (Table 6). This result is agreement with the findings of Sinha et al. tion reduced drastically reduced grain yield by 59.82% in BRRI (2018). The total number of spikelets panicle-1 was the highest dhan50. The highest straw yield (7.13 t ha-1) was found from (99.88) in the treatment weed free throughout the growth peri- weed free throughout the growth period followed by pre- od, which was statistically identical with pre-emergence herbi- emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand cide followed by one hand weeding at 40 DAT, post-emergence weeding at 40 DAT (6.68 t ha-1) and this two treatments were herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT, pre-emergence herbi- statistically identical. The lowest straw yield (3.87 t ha-1) was cide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT. obtained from no weeding condition (Table 6). This result is The lowest number of spikelets panicle-1 (87.15) was produced agreement with the findings of Sinha et al. (2018). The highest in unweeded treatment, which was statistically identical with biological yield (13.06 t ha-1) was found from weed free through- one hand weeding at 20 DAT + pre-emergence herbicide after out the growth period followed by pre-emergence herbicide + hand weeding (Table 6). This result is agreement with the find- post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT ings of Singh et al. (2005). The highest number of grains panicle-1 (12.15 t ha-1). The lowest biological yield (6.45 t ha-1) was

139 Swapan Kumar Paul et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 133-140 (2019) obtained from no weeding condition (Table 6). The highest Relationship between dry matter weight of weeds and grain harvest index (45.33%) was found in weed free throughout the yield growth period, which was statistically identical with pre- Relationship between dry matter weight of weeds and grain emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding at 40 DAT yield was shown in the graph (Figure 3). A reciprocal relation- and pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one ship was observed between dry matter weight of weeds at hand weeding at 40 DAT. The lowest harvest index (40.00%) was dough stage and grain yield of Boro rice. Dry matter weight of found from no weeding treatment (Table 6). Similar results were weeds was recorded at 20 DAT, 40 DAT and dough stage of the obtained by Zannat et al. (2014) and Islam et al. (2015). The high- plant. Grain yield decreased due to increase in dry matter est benefit cost ratio (2.28) was obtained from pre-emergence weight of weeds. The response of weed dry matter production herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 to the grain yield of rice followed a linear negative relationship DAT. which could be adequately described by regression equation Y = -2.0746x + 5.7906 (R² = 0.8918). The functional relationship Relationship between dry matter weight of plants and grain indicates that 89% of the variation in grain yield could be yield explained from the variation in weed dry matter production at Relationship between dry matter weight of plants and grain dough stage. This finding is in agreement with that of Sinha et yield was shown in the graph (Figure 2). Dry matter weight of al. (2018) who reported that 89 % of Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan50) plants was recorded in dough stage of the plant. A significant yield could be explained by the functional relationship of relationship was observed in grain yield and dry matter weight weed dry matter production at 65 DAT while Islam et al. (2015) of plants. Grain yield increases progressively with the increase reported that 80% of the variation in grain yield could be in dry matter weight of plant could be adequately described by explained from the variation in weed dry matter production regression equation Y = 0.6907x + 0.5624 (R2 = 0.974). The at 60 DAT in BRRI dhan49 functional relationship indicates that 97% of the variation in grain yield could be explained from the variation in matter Conclusion production of plant at dough stage. Similar result was reported by Ray et al. (2015) Weeding regime has significant influence on yield and yield

6.5 contributing characters of aromatic rice. The tallest plant, the y =y 0.6907x= 0.6907x + 0.5624+ 0.5624 2 -1 r =R 0.974** = 0.974** highest number of total tillers hill , number of effective tillers 6.0 hill-1, grains panicle-1, 1000-grain weight, grain yield and straw 5.5 yields were obtained from weed free treatment. From the

5.0 )

-1 present study it can be concluded that weed free throughout 4.5 the growth period had pronounced influence on yield of

4.0 aromatic Boro rice followed by pre-emergence herbicide +

Grain yield Grain (t ha 3.5 post-emergence herbicide + one hand weeding at 40 DAT. However, the highest benefit cost ratio was obtained from 3.0 pre-emergence herbicide + post-emergence herbicide + one 2.5 hand weeding at 40 DAT. Therefore, application of 2.0 -1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 pre-emergence herbicide (Panida @ 2.5 L ha ) followed by -1 Dry matter weight of plant (t ha-1) post-emergence herbicide (Granite @ 93.70 ml ha ) + one hand Figure 2. Relationship between dry matter weight of plants at dough stage weeding at 40 DAT appears as the promising technique for and grain yield of aromatic Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan50). controlling weeds in aromatic Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan50) cultivation in Bangladesh.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The financial assistance of the Ministry of Science and Technol- ogy, Govt. of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh to carry out the research work is thankfully acknowledged.

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are credited.

Figure 3. Relationship between dry matter weight of weeds at dough stage and grain yield of aromatic Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan50).

Swapan Kumar Paul et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 133-140 (2019) 140

REFERENCES Khan, K.Z. (2013). Influence of plant spacing and weeding regime on the performance of transplant Aman rice cv. BINA Dhan 7. M.S. Thesis, Department of

Ahmed, G.J.U., Bhuiyan, M.K.A., Riches, C.R., Mortimer, M. and Jhonson, D. (2005). Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. Bangladesh. Farmer’s participatory studies of integrated weed management system Ray, S., Sarkar, M.A.R., Paul, S.K., Islam, A.K.M.M. and Yeasmin, S. (2015). for intensified low land. Proceeding of the 8th Biennial Agronomy Variation of growth, yield and protein content of transplant Amanrice by Convention, Bangladesh Agronomy Journal, 23: 31–32. three agronomic practices. Agricultural and Biological Sciences Journal, 1(4): Ahmed, Z., Khan, D.R., Alim, S.D., Tahir, M. and Marwat, K.B. (1998). Effect of 167-176. economics of time and weeds removal on the yield and yield components of Rekha, K.B., Razu, M.S. and Reddy, M.D. (2002). Effect of herbicides in transplant- rice. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 14(4): 335-338. ed rice. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 34(1-2): 123-125. Ganeshwor, T. and Godadhar, M. (2000). Effectiveness of herbicides on controlling Roy, A., Sarkar, M.A.R. and Paul, S.K. (2018). Effect of age of seedlings at staggered weed sin transplanted rice. Nio-Botanica, 8(1/2): 1-6. transplanting and nutrient management on yield performance of aromatic Gomez, M.A. and Gomez, A.A. (1984): Statistical procedures for Agricultural fine rice (cv. BRRI dhan38). SAARC Journal of Agriculture, 16(1):49-59. Research. John wiley and sons. New York, Chichesten, Brisbane, Torobto. pp. Sarkar, M.A.R., Paul, S.K. and Paul, U. (2017). Effect of water and weed manage- 97-129, 207-215. ment in Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan28) in Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture Islam, M., Rafiqul, B.A.A., Mustafi, S. and Hossain, M. (1996). Socio-economic and Environmental Science, 2(4): 325-329, aspects of fine quality rice cultivation in Simulation of Yield Losses Caused https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2017.020414 by Rice Diseases, Insects, and Weeds in Tropical Asia. IRRI Discussion Paper Sathyamoorthy, N.K., Mahhendran, S., Babu, R. and Ragavan, T. (2004). Effect of Series No. 34. pp. 18-20. integrated weed management practices on total weed dry weight, nutrient Islam, S.M.M., Paul, S.K. and Sarkar, M.A.R. (2015). Effect of weeding regime and removal of weeds in rice-rice wet seedbed system. Journal of Agronomy, 3(4): integrated nutrient management on yield contributing characters and yield 263-267. of BRRI dhan49. Journal of Crop and Weed, 11: 193-197. Singh, G., Singh, R.G., Singh, O.P., Kumar, T., Metha, R.K. and Singh, P.P. (2005). Islam, S.M.M., Paul, S.K., Sarkar, M.A.R. and Miah, M.A.M. (2014). Effect of weeding Effect of weed management practices on transplanted rice. Indian Journal of regime and integrated nutrient management on growth and yield of trans- Agronomy, 50(1): 25-37. plant Aman rice (cv. BRRI Dhan49). Bangladesh Journal of Progressive Science Sinha, T., Paul, S.K. and Sarkar, M.A.R. (2018). Effect of age of seedlings at and Technology, 12(1): 049-054. staggered transplanting and weed management on the growth and yield of Jena, S.N., Tripathy, S., Sarangi, S.K. and Biswal, S. (2002). Integrated weed aromatic Boro rice (cv. BRRI dhan50). Journal of the Bangladesh Agricultural University, 16(1): 5-11. management in direct seeded rainfed lowland rice. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 34(1-2): 32-35. Zannat, S.T., Paul, S.K. and Salam, M.A. (2014). Effect of weeding regime and Kabir, M.E., Kabir, M.R., Jahan, M.S. and Das, G.G. (2004). Yield performance of nitrogen management on the performance of transplant aromatic Aman rice three aromatic fine rices in a coastal medium high land. Asian Journal of Plant (cv. Binadhan-9). Bangladesh Journal of Seed Science & Technology, 18 (1 & 2): Sciences, 3: 561-563. 29-34.

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 141-150 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040203

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Adoption of disaster risk reduction strategy in agriculture sector at Southkhali Union of Sharankhola Upazila, Bangladesh Prome Debnath1* , Md. Mainul Hasan2, A.K.M. Abdul Ahad Biswas1 and Avijit Biswas3 1Department of Disaster Risk Management, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Patuakhali, BANGLADESH 2Department of Agricultural Botany, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Patuakhali, BANGLADESH 3Department of Agriculture, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University, Gopalganj, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author‖s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 26 March 2019 Climate change is contemporary global threat especially for coastal area of Bangladesh which Revised received: 12 May 2019 drastically affects in agricultural sector. The purpose of the study was to determine the extent Accepted: 23 May 2019 of adopting disaster risk reduction strategies by farmer towards agriculture sector in

Southkhali union of Sharankhola upazila. Data were collected following a structured pretested

interview schedule, FGD and KII and then verified with secondary sources of information. Keywords Coefficients of Correlation and regression analysis were used to find out the contribution of Adaptation strategy factors to the variation of adopting disaster risk reduction strategy by farmers in agriculture Agriculture sector. The study found that the salinity was the major climate change effect in agriculture

Climate change sector of this area that resulted soil salinity in agriculture and the most common adopted Disaster risk reduction strategies are rain water harvesting (90%), tree plantation (89.16%) and homestead gardening (80.83%) in agriculture. Correlation analysis indicated that age (0.383**), farming experience (0.441**), communication exposure (0.271*) and organizational support (0.226*) had positive significant relationship and climate change effect (-0.266**) had negative significant relationship with adoption of disaster risk reduction strategy of farmers in agriculture. Regression analysis revealed that farming experience (β=0.546) has the strongest contribution and climate change effect (β=-0.139) had negative contribution to the adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies in agriculture. Based on this observation it can be concluded that the awareness and skill of farmer should be more developed through arranging different training program and providing necessary support to promote environmentally safe cultivation and to enhance climate change adaptation in agriculture sector.

Citation of this article: Debnath, P., Hasan, M.M., Biswas, A.K.M.A.A. and Biswas, A. (2019). Adoption of disaster risk reduction strategy in agriculture sector at Southkhali Union of Sharankhola Upazila, Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 141-150, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040203

INTRODUCTION physical location, poor socioeconomic development, weak institutional arrangement and limited local capacity (ADPC, Bangladesh is an agriculture based country and this sector 2008), may expected to result in declines in rice production provide a huge support to enhance its economic growth. But day 7.4% every year over the period 2005-2050 (Yusuf et al., 2010) to day climate change has become devastating and fall impact on and accumulative total of 80 million tons over 2005–50 (GoB, the life and livelihoods of the people especially who lives in 2008). Climate change has probability to decrease agricultural coastal, arid and semi-arid regions of Bangladesh (MoP, 2011). GDP by 3.1 percent per year-accumulative $36 billion in lost Agriculture contributed 14.10 percent to the Gross Domestic value-added during 2005–50 (WB, 2013). Bangladesh in a Product (GDP) in 2017-18; approximately 9.28 percent of the regular basis experiencing different types of natural disasters GDP was derived from crops (BBS, 2011; 2018). But its geo- due to climate change impacts, these are: floods / flash floods

Prome Debnath et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 141-150 (2019) 142

(almost 80% of the total area of the country is prone to flood- ingly identified as a more-necessary pathway for sustainable ing), cyclones and storm surges (especially south and south- agricultural cultivation (Uddin et al., 2014). eastern Parts of the country), salinity intrusion (especially the The objectives of this study are to determine and describe the whole coastal belt) and extreme temperature and drought socio-economic characteristics of farmer, to study the factors (especially north and north-western regions of the country) contributing to the adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies (Sikder and Xiaoying, 2014). Flooding, heavy rainfall, water in agriculture and to identify the constraints of farmer access to logging and salinity intrusion etc. are the major climate change disaster risk reduction strategies in agriculture. impacts which has potentiality to decline crop yields in southern coastal part of Bangladesh (Yusuf et al., 2010). It has already MATERIALS AND METHODS affected crop production and the area of arable land has decreased to a great extent. In Bangladesh among all crops, rice About the study area plays the leading role by providing 95% of total food production This study was conducted in selected three villages- Bogi, (GoB, 2008). Coastal area of Bangladesh has already been Khuriakhali, and Chaltabunia under Southkhali union of experiencing erosion; besides more the salinity intrusion and Sarankhola upazila in Bagerhat district. The upazila is situated in water logging are creating serious implications for the coastal the Southwest part of Bangladesh and is located between 22° land that was traditionally used for rice production (Tasnim, 13′ and 22°24′ North latitudes and between 89 °46′ and 89 °54′ 2012). Last 100 years the sea level rise of 0.5 m had eroded East longitudes on the western part of the lower Meghna River approximately 162 km2 of Kutubdia, 147 km2 of Bhola and 117 with an altitude of 3.0-3.5m from Mean Sea Level (MSL). The km2 of Sandwip (CCC, 2007) and if this trend is continuing then reasons behind the selection of this area were: the upazila has a sea water may intrude much longer distance in low-laying areas high level of agricultural activities and most are vulnerable of Bangladesh (Karim and Mimura, 2008). The dominant land villages due to their geographical location (Figure 1). use in coastal Bangladesh is also agriculture and 144,085 and 83,416 hector gross and net-cropped areas are exist in the Population and sampling coastal zone of Bangladesh (Islam, 2004), but net-cropped area All farmers in the selected three villages constitute the popula- of coastal zone has been showing a decreasing trend over the tion of the study. At first a list of all the farmers in the selected years due to a combined impact of climate change. It has villages was prepared. In total 356 farmers were found whose changed the agricultural cultivation patterns and people have to are directly associated with agricultural practices. Thirty per- invest more to get optimum production. Consequently, they get cent of the populations were randomly selected as the sample of less benefit despite of investing more capital, time and efforts. the study; here the sample size of the study was 120 (Rashid and Along with the rural poverty incident is exacerbating due to Islam, 2016). adverse impacts on the agricultural sector (Kamruzzaman, 2015). Despite of these serious climate-related difficulties, Data collecting instrument Bangladesh may be able to adopt some adaptive responses that A structured interview schedule was used as the data-gathering could mitigate these effects. Adopting of adaptation measures instrument. The interview schedule was carefully prepared means to synthesize with natural or human systems to response considering the objectives of the study. Qualitative method such in an actual or expected climatic conditions or risks as Key informant interviews and focus group discussion was (Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2008). Exploratory standard implied to get a clear picture of this situation. recognizes that adaptation to climate change can potentially reduce its adverse effects, protect the livelihoods of poor farmers and reinforce any potential advantages it may bring (Gandure et al., 2013; Wheeler et al., 2013). So, the importance of disaster risk reduction (DRR) and integration of DRR with climate change has been crucial to reduce the disaster risks and effective adaptation to climate change to cope with the additional risks of different climatic disasters (Alauddin and Rahman, 2013). Adaptive responses can be two types, like- autonomous or planned (Shaw et al., 2013 and Park et al., 2012). According to farm level analysis it has recommended that when adaptation measures are implemented successfully then there has a large reduction of adverse impact from climate change on agricultural sector (Mendelsohn and Dinar, 1999). But there is a growing consensus that neither sound technological protocols, nor local techniques are enough to enhance farmers' capacity to overcome climate related risks and challenges. The integration of sound technological solutions with local practices is increas- Figure 1. Map of Sharankhola Upazila showing study area.

143 Prome Debnath et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 141-150 (2019)

Statistical tests Through this study tried to find out the rate of adopting disaster Firstly the data were inputted in a master sheet which obtained risk reduction strategy in agriculture as a result of change in from the respondents then compiled, tabulated and analyzed in climate, identifying the socio-economic factors which associat- accordance with the objectives of the study. Range, mean, ed with adoption of coping strategies. Majority (83.2%) of the percentage distribution and standard deviation those statistical respondents was found middle to young aged, who is more methods were used in describing the dependent and independ- aware about climate change impact and different adaptation ent variables. Tables were used to presenting the data. method to cope with situation rather than old one. Acquah Pearson‖s Product Moment Coefficients of correlation (r) (2011) found that the adaptation to climate change effect in analysis was used for exploring the relationship between the agriculture sector is more adopted by middle to young aged selected characteristics of the farmers with their access to farmers then old aged. Uddin et al. (2014) found that age is Disaster risk reduction strategies. Regression analysis helps to negatively related with adaptive strategies to climate change understand how the typical value of the dependent variable (or effects. On the other hand most (76.7%) of the respondents are 'criterion variable') changes when any one of the independent primary to secondary level educated that play a very important variables is varied, while the other independent variables are role in adoption of risk reduction strategy in agriculture. held fixed. Most commonly, regression analysis estimates the Quayum and Ali (2012) found that if the farmers are become conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the educated then their adoption level for climate resilient coping independent variables that is, the average value of the depend- strategies in agriculture sector will be increased accordingly and ent variable when the independent variables are fixed. also explored that the educational level of farmers were positively related with the awareness on farming environment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Alongside the huge (98.3%) respondents of this area had medium to low annual income, which fall pressure on farmer to adopt Socio-economic characteristics of the Farmers such coping strategy in agriculture. Deressa et al. (2009a, b) In the study, nine characteristics of farmers were selected for found that the farmers who have higher-income are more inter- investigation. These characteristics were age, educational ested to adopt agricultural innovations against any disaster. Kim qualification, family member, farming experience, annual et al. (2012) found that household income positively influences income, training exposure, farm size, source of information and the adoption of adaptive measures to climate change on their organizational support (Table 1) (Jhahan et al., 2017). farm land, while Gbetibouo (2009) explained that wealthier

Table 1. Information about socio-economic characteristics of farmers. Characteristics Category Percentage Mean Std. Dev. Age Category-1 (23-39 years) 25.8 45.80 9.79 Category-2 (40-55years) 57.4 Category-3 (>55 years) 16.8 Family size Small family (up to 6 persons) 71.7 5.61 1.68 Medium family (7-9 persons) 26.6 Large family (>9 persons) 1.7 Education Illiterate 4.2 5.44 3.46 Only sign 16.7 Primary (1- 5 class) 34.2 Secondary (6-10 class) 42.5 Higher secondary(11-12 class) 2.5 Annual income Low income (up to 67) 78.3 58.11 18.4 Medium income (68-109) 20 High income (above>109) 1.6 Farming experience Short term (up to 19 years) 53.3 18.88 9.32 Medium term (20-35 years) 45 Long term(above 35 years) 1.6 Training experience Low training (0-20days) 32.50 25.82 17.3 Medium training (21-40days) 49.20 High training (above 40days) 18.30 Farm size Small size (up to 2) 65.8 2.06 1.36 Medium size (3-5) 25.0 Large size (above>5) 9.2 Communication exposure Low CE (up to 12) 30.0 14.56 4.18 Medium CE (13-20) 62.5 High CE (above 20) 7.5 Organizational support Less support (up to 9) 15.8 12.68 2.86 Moderate support (10-14) 61.7 High support (above>14) 22.5

Prome Debnath et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 141-150 (2019) 144 farmers are more interested to adapt by changing planting prac- training program compared to farmers not participating in such tices, using irrigation, and altering the amount of land farmed. program and activity. Most (92.5%) of the responds had medium Further, Nhemachena and Hassan (2007), indicate that farmers‖ to low communication exposure towards adoption of disaster decisions to take adaptation measures are highly dependent on risk reduction strategy in agriculture sector. And the most their per capita income. But as the family size of maximum frequent use of communication media is mobile phone in this (98.3%) respondents has small to medium and most (65.8%) of area, which helps farmer to remain alert about the climatic the farmer had small farm size that help them to invest more in condition and getting valuable information about agricultural adopting such coping strategy in their cultivated land, rather production and climate change adaptation. Farhad (2003) than other sector. According to Mignouna et al. (2011), adapta- showed that the source of information of the farmers had a tion strategies to climate change effects will be adopted significant positive relationship with their adoption of climate frequently if the farmers are belonging from a small family. That resilient agricultural practices. Maximum (84.2%) respondents means the family size has a great influence on probability of of this area got medium to high organizational support from adopting the adaptive strategy in agricultural sector. The farmer different GO and NGO. Uddin et al. (2014), showed that differ- hold a perception that small sized family has positive role, where ent kind of Government Organizations (GOs) and Non- they can invest more in education and training for their own skill Government Organizations (NGOs) projects were designed to development which can helps in rising awareness about climate innovate some alternative livelihoods opportunities for farmer and adopting more disaster risk reduction strategies in agricul- so that they can diversify and supplement their income and ture sector. Acquah (2011) explored that the adoption of keep their agricultural operations on running position in the climate resilient agricultural practice will be increased with the face of climatic uncertainty. Hamid (1997) observed that the decrease of farm size, because larger farms require inputs such less progressive farmers are taking more external support to as seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, irrigation facilities, and more at get rid of worst situation then a progressive one. As the study rates which are stressors on farm budgets. On the other hand, area is rural based area and external supporting level is moder- Sutradhar (2002) found that if the farmer had large farm for ate to high so that it is a positive sign for this area―s farmer to cultivation then they were more aware about environmental improving in agricultural sector for climate change adaptation degradation. Majority (98.3%) of the respondents has short to and disaster risk reduction. medium term farming experience. Because most of the farmer of this area is middle to young aged and it is hoped that with the Effect of climate change increase of age and farming experience, the level of adopting Bangladesh has a large agrarian base with 76 per cent of the disaster risk reduction strategy will be enhanced frequently. total population living in the rural areas and 90 per cent of the Accordingly Rokonuzzaman et al. (2006), the farmers‖ who have rural population directly related with agriculture (Mohajan, long term farming experience, they are more practicing differ- 2014). The agricultural sector, comprising 48.10 per cent of the ent sustainable agriculture strategy in their cultivable land. country‖s labour force (Golder et al., 2013) is already under Maximum (81.7%) respondents of this area had medium to low pressure because of increase in the demand of foods and prob- training experience because recently the farmer starting to take lems associated with the depletion of agricultural land and training on climate change adaptation in agriculture for water resources. The issues of climate change make the pres- frequent climate change attack in this area. Uddin et al. (2014), sure more acute. In this research was specified some climate revealed that the probability of adopting adaptive strategy is change effect criteria to know the last few years change in higher for those farmers who have connections with different Sarankhola upazila due to climatic effect (Table 2).

Table 2. Rate of climate change effect. Category Statement WM* Rank Very severe Severe Moderate Low Very low Temperature change 37 35 40 8 0 3.85 4 Sea level rise 44 54 13 9 0 4.11 2 Rainfall change 28 48 41 13 0 3.84 5 Flood 36 20 54 10 0 3.68 6 Cyclone 31 68 419 2 0 4.07 3 Water logging 15 13 75 12 5 3.18 7 Drought 0 1 47 41 31 2.16 10 Land use change 17 26 48 17 12 3.16 8 Hailstorm 0 8 9 29 74 1.6 11 Salinity 47 43 30 0 0 4.14 1 River bank erosion 10 12 67 20 11 2.92 9 Note: *WM (Weighted Mean) = (Very severe x5 + severe x4 + moderate x3 + low x2 + very low x1) ÷120 (Source: Field study) (Rashid and Islam, 2016).

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The above mentioned Table 2 represent that the salinity and sea impact score and then divided by 3 for creating three section of level rise are the major effect of climate change in Sharonkhola. group who have low, medium and high impact. The following Agricultural lowlands and deltas in Bangladesh could be flooded categories were formulated in the Table 3. if the sea level rise become reached in 88 cm height (Miller, Results furnished in Table 3 shows that highest proportion (39.2%) 2004). NAPA (National Adaptation Programme of Action of of the respondents were in medium impact category compared to Bangladesh) has warned that the impact of saline water ingres- 37.5 percent in low and only 23.3 percent in high impact. Because sion is likely to be accelerated by sea level rise, land subsidence most of the farmers are middle aged, secondary level educated and low flow river condition in estuary and underground water and the existing farmers are more aware about climate change (NAPA, 2005). Sea level rise affects agriculture in three ways, then old aged farmer. On the other hand the farmers are also get- i.e., by salinity intrusion, by flooding and by increasing cyclone ting training on agriculture and other related support from differ- frequency and its depth of damage (Hossain and Noor, 2016). ent GOs and NGOs, so it is an advantage for the farmer to adopt The accumulative effects of those factors reduce quantity and new practices in agricultural field to cope with the risk of disaster. quality of agricultural production in the coastal zone. In hot and According to Kamruzzaman (2015), found that most of the dry season the salinity problem is more acute than wet season farmers (69.3%) felt that between last 5 to15 years the climate (Baten et al., 2015). Due to salinity and sea level rise the agricul- change impact become more dangerous than past era and half of ture productive farmers are face great challenge, it also fall the farmers (48.0%) believed that climate is frequently changing effect on human health and food security that really a major due to environmental factor rather than supernatural factor. problematic situation for this area. These all effects are inter linked to each other like- if there was increasing temperature it Agricultural impact may occur liquefying of glacier that in consequence raising the During SIDR and AILA cyclone the devastation was havoc in level of sea and exacerbated salinity intrusion. On the other agricultural sector, especially in Sharankhola area (Mohosin, hand temperature change also induces change in rainfall 2012). Due to salinity problem farmers have been facing a lot of like- heavy rainfall that may occur cyclone, flood, river bank constraint to bring all of their arable land under crops cultiva- erosion etc. and erratic rainfall that may occur drought. So it can tion, especially, during winter Boro crops season almost 53% of be said that if there was changed in any one climatic factor it will their land remain untilled (Haque, 2006), and the other reasons be changed the overall climate of environment. According to are: non-availability of quality seeds, agricultural equipment‖s, field survey analysis it was found that impact scores on climate timely low interest or interest free loan. The major damage in change of the respondents ranged from 33 to 52 with an agricultural sector due to climate change are-less productivity, average being 41.63 and the standard deviation 4.87. On the flooded land, soil erosion, soil salinity, pest attack, cultivable basis of difference among observed maximum and minimum land damage, fertility decrease (Table 4). Table 3. Distribution of the respondents according to their level of impact. Respondents Categories Mean SD Number Percent Low impact (up to 39) 45 37.5 Medium impact (40-46) 47 39.2 High impact (above 46) 28 23.3 41.63 4.87 Total 120 100 (SD: Standard Deviation, Source: Field survey). Table 4. Rate of agricultural impact. Category Statement WM* Rank Very severe Severe Moderate Low Very low Decline productivity 21 34 63 2 0 3.62 3 Damage of cultivable land 32 38 12 38 0 3.53 4 Soil salinity 57 50 4 9 0 4.29 1 Pest attack 45 45 20 10 0 4.04 2 Soil fertility decrease 11 43 59 7 0 3.48 6 Soil erosion 10 21 60 24 5 3.06 7 Flooded land 15 48 47 10 0 3.49 5 Note: *WM (Weighted Mean) = (Very severe x5 + severe x4 + moderate x3 + low x2 + very low x1) ÷120 (Source: Field study) (Rashid and Islam, 2016). Table 5. Distribution of the respondents according to their impact level. Respondents Mean Categories SD Number Percent Low impact (up to 24) 23 22.5 Medium impact (25-31) 63 47.5 High impact (above 31) 34 30 26.78 4.00 Total 120 100 (SD: Standard Deviation, Source: Field survey).

Prome Debnath et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 141-150 (2019) 146 This Table 4 showed that the major effect of climate change in Adoption of disaster risk reduction strategy in agriculture agriculture is increase soil salinity and pest attack which The adopting of adaptation measures refers to an adjustment in indirectly decrease food production level and create food crisis natural or human systems in response to actual or expected in affected area. About 830,000 million hectares of land at climatic conditions (Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2008). coastal Bangladesh were affected by soil salinity at different Community-based adoption can greatly benefit from knowledge degrees (Baten et al., 2015). Due to 0.3m sea level rise in of local coping strategies. Baumwoll (2008), showed that, in coastal area of Bangladesh there have a net reduction of 0.5 recent years, shift in the approach to DRR can be found with and million MT of rice production each year (Islam, 2004). The rate introduction of the vulnerability approach, a focus on pre- of salinity intrusion in coastal Bangladesh is faster than it was disaster activities and an inclusion of the affected community. predicted a decade ago (Agrawala et al., 2003). Even though Through this study tried to develop a local coping strategies salinity intrusion is a slow process, but the impact is devastating database to facilitate the transfer of long-standing coping strat- which will eventually contribute to loss of agricultural produc- egies and knowledge from communities which was adapted to tion and thus threat food security (Sarwar, 2005). In specific hazards or climatic conditions by the community. Empir- Bangladesh, coastal area constitutes 20% of the country of ical evidence suggests that the most common farm-level adapta- which about 53% are affected by different degrees of salinity tion strategies to climate change are changing crop varieties, (Haque, 2006). irrigation, planting trees, crop and livestock diversification, soil Agricultural impact alert farmer about their damage and loss conservation, early and late planting, increasing plant spacing, and what techniques should be taken for faster recovery and using clay soil, and adjusting the level and timing of fertilizer longer sustainability towards disaster risk. Agricultural impacts application (Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2008; Molua, scores due to disaster risk ranged from 18 to 35 with an average 2009; Nhemachena and Hassan, 2007). Practicing soil and being 26.78 and the standard deviation 4.00. On the basis of water conservation techniques (Asfaw and Lipper, 2011), ferti- deviation between observed maximum and minimum agricultur- lizer use, irrigation (Mortimore and Adams, 2001 and Morton, al impacts score and then fraction in three categories by divid- 2007) and diversification to non-farm activities (Howden et al., ing the deviation score by 3, than the following categories were 2007 and Eakin, 2005) are also adaptation strategies that have formulated in the Table 5. been practiced at farm level in response to climate change. The Results furnished in Table 5 shows that highest proportion farmers of Sharankhola are changing their cropping patterns (47.5%) of the respondents were in medium impact category due to climate change especially after SIDR and AILA. Increase compared to 30% in high and only 22.5% in low impact. Accord- in salinity intrusion and increase in soil salinity will have serious ing to Mohosin (2012), the Sharankhola is one the worst affect- negative impacts on agriculture so that farmer of this area ed upazilas due to situated near coastline, where salinity is a harvesting rain water and planting more tree for reducing soil current problem, which is expected to exacerbate by sea-level salinity and increasing soil humidity. Most farmers follow rise that affect food grain production and create food scarcity in cropping patterns that involve sequential cropping, mixed- Sharankhola upzila. cropping, and relay cropping, Sarjon method. The specific adoption and its using percentage are given below in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Percentage of adopting disaster risk reduction strategy in agriculture sector.

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Table 6. Distribution of the respondents according to their adoption level. Respondents Categories Mean SD Number Percent Low adoption (up to 73) 51 42.5 Medium adoption (74-128) 63 50.8 High adoption (above 128) 6 6.7 79.78 31.04 Total 120 100 (SD: Standard Deviation.) (Source: Field survey). Table 7. Relationship between selected characteristics of the respondents and their adaptation of disaster risk reduction strategies towards agriculture sector.

Co-efficient of Dependent variable Independent variables correlation (r) Age 0.383** Farming experience 0.441** Adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies towards agriculture sector Communication exposure 0.271* Organizational support 0.226* Climate change effect -0.266** * Significant at 0.05 level of probability, ** Significant at 0.01 level of probability. Table 8. Regression coefficients between adopted strategies of the respondents with their selected characteristics. Predictor Variable B SE β P VIF Age 0.372 0.339 0.118 0.274 2.406 Farming experience 1.816 0.363 0.546 0.000 2.502 Communication exposure 2.706 0.613 0.364 0.000 1.5438 Organizational support 1.783 0.989 0.165 0.074 1.753 Climate change effect -0.887 0.523 -0.139 0.093 1.421 R2=0 .459 Adj. =0 .435 F= 19.31 P<0.000

The Figure 2 shown that rain water harvesting (90%) because of Results furnished in Table 6 observed that an overwhelming salinity intrusion in farm land area and tree plantation on high majority (93.3%) of the respondents in the study area had low to land (89.16%) for protecting crop from sudden disaster risk are medium adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies in agricul- the most adopted risk reduction strategy in Sharonkhola ture because major portion of farmer in this area is middle aged upazila. Irrigation increases the yield of production (Paul et al., and in recent time the farmer starting to practice such new risk 2013 and Tolga et al., 2006), improving nutrient availability to reduction strategies in agriculture due to frequent climate the plants (Aza-Gnandji et al., 2013 and El-Ashry et al., 1985). change effect on agriculture. Uddin et al. (2014), was ranked irrigation as the first among farm adaptation strategies, while crop insurance has ranked as least Relationship between selected characteristics of the respond- important. Currently, farmers of Sharankhola (study area) can ents and adoption of disaster risk reduction practices in apply two main coping mechanisms to counter these develop- agriculture sector ments: digging canals (khals) for freshwater reservation and Pearson Product Moment co-efficient was computed in order to cultivating saline-resistant crops (Mohosin, 2012). Homestead find out the extent of relationship between the dependent gardening (80.83%) is the second most adopted practice of this variable and independent variables (at 1% and 5% level of area, which is one of the most disaster resilient and climate significance). The results of correlation analysis are shown in change adapted technology in agriculture sector. On the other Table 7. hand vegetable cultivation on bamboo platform over pond (27.5%), floating garden (25.83%), integrated cropping (20.83%) Farmer’s age and adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies and using of plastic bag or pot for cultivation (15%) are less in agriculture adopted strategy in this area. Adoption of disaster risk reduc- The co-efficient of correlation between age and their adopted tion strategies in agriculture increase ones resiliency and coping strategies in agriculture towards DRR was found positive and capacity in agriculture sector. Adoption of those strategies significant at 1% level of probability (r = 0.383**). This indicates makes farmer more sustainable towards disaster risk. Adapta- that adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies in agriculture tion scores on disaster risk reduction strategies of the respond- increase with their increasing age. ents ranged from 19 to 180 with an average being 79.78 and the standard deviation 31.04. On the basis of calculation like the Farming experience and adoption of disaster risk reduction deviation between observed maximum and minimum adapta- strategies in agriculture tion of disaster risk reduction strategies score and divided by 3 The co-efficient of correlation between farming experience and for classifying into three categories, the following categories their adopted coping strategies towards agriculture was found were formulated in the Table 6. positive and significant at 1% level of probability (r = 0.441**).

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This indicates that adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies disaster risk reduction strategies in agriculture by the respond- in agriculture will be increased with their increasing farming ents will be 1.546. The results also indicated that climate change experience in agriculture. effect (β= -0.139) had negative contribution to the adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies in agriculture. The adoption of Communication exposure and adoption of disaster risk reduc- disaster risk reduction strategies in agriculture will be 1.139 tion strategies in agriculture when the climate change effect decreases 1 unit. The co-efficient of correlation between communication exposure and adopted coping strategies towards agriculture Regression coefficients between adopting disaster risk was found positive and significant at 5% level of probability (r = reduction practices of the respondents with their selected 0.271*). This indicates that adoption of disaster risk reduction characteristics strategies in agriculture will increase with their increasing For predicting the contribution of the factors in adopting strate- availability of communication system. gies of the respondent in agriculture the regression method was applied. Among the eleven characteristics, six characteristics Organizational support and adoption of disaster risk reduction were selected for regression analysis which had shown signifi- strategies in agriculture cance relationship with the adopted strategies (dependent vari- The co-efficient of correlation between external support and able) in correlation coefficients. Age, farming experience, adopted strategies towards agriculture was found positive and communication exposure, external support and climate change significant at 5% level of probability (r = 0.226*). Also the effect in agriculture were selected for regression analysis. findings indicate that more organizational support of the Regression coefficients of adopted strategies of the respond- respondents lead to a tendency towards more adoption of disas- ents with their selected characteristics are shown in the Table 8. ter resilient practices in agriculture for reducing risk and increasing sustainability. Constraints of adopting disaster risk reduction strategies towards agriculture faced by the respondents Climate change effect and adoption of disaster risk reduction The farmers of this area are using different coping strategy in strategies in agriculture agriculture sector for adapting with current climate change The co-efficient of correlation between climate change effect conditions, but they are still facing more or less problem in the and adopted strategies towards agriculture was found negative application of those strategies. Constraints faced by the farmers and significant at 1% level of probability (r = -0.266**). The find- in respect of, adopting disaster risk reduction strategies in ings indicate that adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies agriculture sector were constructed in Figure 3. in agriculture will increase with their decreasing climate change Constraints furnished in Figure 3 indicate that, the most serious effect on agriculture. constraints are lack of economic facility and lack of infrastruc- Results furnished in Table 8 shows that the R2 value is 0.459 and ture. Whereas this area is saline affected area, so that without corresponding F value is 19.31 which were significant at 0.001 economic development the farmers can‖t construct infrastruc- levels. The R2 value indicating that 45.9 percent of the total vari- ture to preserve water for irrigation and also infrastructure like- ation in adoption of disaster risk reduction strategies in agricul- embankment etc. that needs for controlling flood water. Accord- ture was explained by five variables included in the regression ing to Mohosin (2012), several barriers have been identified to analysis. The results show that the adoption of disaster risk effective adaptation of disaster risk reduction strategy in agricul- reduction strategies in agriculture is the function of age ture sector including the lack of: freshwater, quality seeds, (β=0.118), farming experience (β=0.546), communication expo- capacity building, and training for farmers and the impact of sure (β=0.364), organizational support (β= 0.165) and climate climate change on agriculture is factual truth and it will be wors- change effect (β= -0.139). The farming experience (β=0.546) en if governments and donors fail to take suitable steps right has the strongest contribution to the adoption of disaster risk now. As we know Bangladesh is an agrarian country so that its reduction strategies in agriculture. It is therefore, concluded urgently needs to develop climate resilient agriculture cultivation that if we increase farming experience 1 unit, the adoption of pattern for its people to survive and prosper in the long term.

Figure 3. Constrains of adopting disaster risk reduction strategies in agriculture.

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Conclusion lic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. https://www.preventionweb.net/ files/22229_22229dminseriesreport1dminfolinkrep.pdf Agrawala, S., Ota, T., Ahmed, A.U., Smith, J. and Aalst, M.V. (2003). Development This study established the adoption level of disaster risk and climate change in Bangladesh: Focus on coastal flooding and the reduction strategy in crop agriculture sector by farmer of Sunderbans. Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development Sharankhola upazila. The farmers in this area were generally (OECD), http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/55/21055658.pdf Alauddin, M. and Rahman, S. (2013). Vulnerability to climate change and adapta- poor and have marginal income. On the other side this area is tion practices in Bangladesh. Journal of SUB, 4(2): 25-42. most climate change generated disaster affected area due to its Asfaw, S. and Lipper, L. (2011). Economics of PGRFA Management for Adaptation geo graphical location. 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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 151-156 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040204

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Assessment of heavy metals concentration in water and Tengra fish (Mystus vittatus) of Surma River in Sylhet region of Bangladesh Ariful Islam1, Md. Motaher Hossain2, Md. Matiur Rahim3, Md. Mehedy Hasan2* , Mohammad Tariqul Hassan 3, Maksuda Begum3 and Zobaer Ahmed4 1Department of Fisheries, International Institute of Applied Science and Technology (IIAST), Rangpur, BANGLADESH 2Department of Fisheries Technology and Quality Control, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100, BANGLADESH 3Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST), Bangladesh Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (BCSIR), BANGLADESH 4Faculty of Fisheries, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 01 April 2019 The study was carried out to assess the concentration of heavy metals in water and Tengra Revised received: 14 May 2019 fish (Mystus vittatus) of the Surma River, the largest water basin ecosystem covering the north- Accepted: 24 May 2019 eastern parts of Bangladesh. Water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples were collected from a

total of six sampling stations in which three sampling stations were in Sylhet district and the

rest three were in Sunamganj district. Samples were collected from February 2017 to June Keywords 2017 on a monthly basis. Water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples were analyzed for the Health risk assessment detection of heavy metals viz., lead (Pb), chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd) concentrations. Heavy metal Atomic absorption spectrophotometry was used for the detection of heavy metals after

Human consumption digestion of the samples. Pb and Cr were detected from both water and Tengra fish Surma River (M. vittatus) samples collected from all the six sampling stations of Sylhet and Sunamganj Tengra Fish (Mystus vittatus) district. But, Cd was not found both in water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) during the study period. This study concluded that the detected concentrations of metals (Pb and Cr) in the studied Tengra fish (M. vittatus) muscles were accepted by the international legislation limits and are safe for human consumption. But in water, Pb is the only metal that potentially poses the ecological risk to the water body as it exceeds the acceptance level recommended by World Health Organization (WHO). Consequently, close monitoring of metals pollution of the Surma River is recommended with a view to minimizing the health risk of the population that depend on the river for their water and fish supply.

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Islam, A., Hossain, M.M., Rahim, M.M., Hasan, M.M., Hassan, M.T., Begum, M. and Ahmed, Z. (2019). Assessment of heavy metals concentration in water and Tengra fish (Mystus vittatus) of Surma River in Sylhet region of Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 151-156, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040204

INTRODUCTION witnessed vital attention to the issues of serious heavy metals contamination which have been broadly studied (Abou-Arab et Heavy metals are also known as trace elements is a general al., 2014; Türkmen et al., 2009; Tuzen and Soylak, 2007; Ansari collective term which applies to a group of metals and metal- et al., 2005). Heavy metals contamination in the river is one of loids with an atomic density greater than 4g/cm3 or 5 times or the major quality issues in many fast-growing cities because greater than water (Duruibe et al., 2007). Heavy metals are one maintenance of water quality and sanitation infrastructure did of the serious pollutants in the natural environment due to their not increase along with population and urbanization growth toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation problems (Nouri et al., especially for the developing countries (Ahmed et al., 2010). 2006). Pollution of the natural environment by heavy metals is a Heavy metals may enter in river or aquatic systems from a worldwide problem (Nuremberg, 1984). Recent years have variety of sources; it can be either natural or anthropogenic

Ariful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 151-156 (2019) 152

(human activities) sources (Bem et al., 2003), including industrial concentration of heavy metals (Pb, Cr and Cd) in the water and or domestic wastewater, application of pesticides and inorganic Tengra fish (more common and available fish species in the fertilizers, storm runoff, leaching from landfills, shipping and river) of Surma river- whether it is at an alarming rate or not. harbour activities, geological weathering of the earth crust and atmospheric deposition (Yilmaz, 2009). Heavy metals entering MATERIALS AND METHODS the aquatic ecosystem can be deposited in aquatic organisms through the effects of bio-concentration, bioaccumulation via Description of sampling sites the food chain process and become toxic when accumulation The sampling site was selected on the basis of water color and reaches a substantially high level (Huang, 2003). Some heavy the distance between the location of the industry and the water metals are toxic to living organisms even at low concentrations. body. In this study, total six sampling sites (S1, S2, S3,S4, S5 and S6) When ingested in excess amounts heavy metals mix with body's were selected of which three sampling sites were in the Sylhet biomolecules, like proteins and enzymes to create stable district (S1, S2 and S3) and the rest three sampling sites were in bio-toxic compounds, thereby mutilating their structures and Sunamganj district (S4, S5 and S6) (Table 1, 2). hindering them from the bio-reactions of their functions (Duruibe et al., 2007). Collection of water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples Surma River is one of the major rivers in Bangladesh originated The water and Tengra (Mystus vittatus) fish samples were from northeast India when Barak River divided into Surma and collected from the selected six sampling stations of Surma River Kushiyara River after entering the Bangladesh border. It ends in in Sylhet and Sunamganj district. The samples were collected on a Kishoregonj district above Bhairab bazar when another river monthly basis from February 2017 to June 2017. Water samples joins with it to form Meghna River. Finally, vast water bodies of were collected manually from a depth of 0.5m below the surface. this river fall into the Bay of Bengal. With the development of Tengra fish (M. vittatus) sample was collected from the local industrialization and rapid expansion of modernization, riverine fishermen while they were harvesting fish using net and boat. environment all around the country is in a great threat in term of pollution. The water of the Surma River is also in a polluting Preservation of water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples trend due to urbanization and industrialization which affecting The water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples were immediate- the water quality for its household and other purposes. The ly preserved in a refrigerator of the Microbiological Laboratory main causes of pollution of Surma River are due to the discharge of Department of Fisheries Technology and Quality Control of wastewater from different small canals which carry (FTQC), Sylhet Agricultural University (SAU) after bringing to wastewater from the small-scale industries, rice husks from rice the laboratory in an insulated ice box. Preserved samples were mills and foodstuffs. The municipal and hospital wastes are also then sent to Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial dumped near the riverside (Iqbal et al., 2003). Till now, no Research (BCSIR), Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh in chilled condition research was found to be conducted to detect the heavy metal using an insulated ice box for further analysis. pollution in Surma River. So, there is a need to conduct research to detect the heavy metal concentration in the river water of Laboratory facilities Surma as this river has economic importance. Surma River is a Water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples were tested for good source of freshwater fishes and the river water is used for heavy metal concentrations namely Pb, Cr and Cd. This was different types of household activities by different communities done in the laboratory of Toxicology of Institute of Food Science live nearby the river. Considering all the ditto aspects the and Technology (IFST), Bangladesh Council of Scientific and present study has been undertaken to find out the presence and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh.

Table 1. Sampling sites of Sylhet and Sunamganj district. Sampling stations of Sylhet district Sampling stations of Sunamganj district

Kushighat (S1) Chhatak (S4)

Chalibandar (S2) Dowarabazar (S5)

Kanishail (S3) Oyezkhali (S6)

Table 2. The Global Positioning System (GPS) data of the selected sampling stations of Surma River. Designation Site name Latitude (N) Longitude (E)

S1 Kushighat 24°52'36.7"N 91°53'51.8"E

S2 Chalibandar 24°53'09.2"N 91°52'25.0"E

S3 Kanishail 24°54'06.5"N 91°50'20.4"E

S4 Chhatak 25°02'25.8"N 91°40'12.8"E

S5 Dowarabazar 25°03'07.3"N 91°32'20.4"E

S6 Oyezkhali 25°02'45.7"N 91°23'13.8"E

153 Ariful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 151-156 (2019)

Preparation of water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples was used in the AAS operates on Windows XP/2000. Digested The water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples were taken from samples were aspirated into the fuel-rich air acetylene flame the refrigerator and kept in room temperature for an hour. Then and therefore the metal concentrations were determined from the dorsal and pectoral fins were cut off and viscera were the calibration curves obtained from standard solutions. Each removed from Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples to reduce the determination was done from a single analysis and expressed on errors. Then the required amount of fish muscle (whole body) an “as is” basis. was finely chopped and blended manually in a chopping board and thus prepared for further analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Procedure of heavy metals extraction Lead concentration in water and Tengra fish (M. vittatus)

For the extraction of heavy metal, at first 5 g finely blended Lead (Pb) concentrations of the three sampling stations (S1, S2 -1 Tengra fish (M. vittatus) sample or 10 g water sample was and S3) of Sylhet district were found in the range of 0.044 mg L weighted and was taken in a crucible. Then 2 ml (4/5 drops) of to 0.083 mg L-1 in water and 0.076 mg kg-1 to 0.293 mg kg-1 in concentrated HNO3 was added with the sample inside a fume Tengra fish (M. vittatus), respectively (Table 3). Mean Pb hood. The sample was burned on a hot air plate inside the fume concentrations of S1, S2 and S3 were 0.048±0.003, 0.064±0.014 hood. After digestion of the sample on hot air plate, the crucible and 0.058±0.011 mg L-1 in water and 0.157±0.091, 0.167±0.087 was kept in a muffle furnace to burn the sample for 5 or 6 hours and 0.160±0.083 mg kg-1 in fish, respectively (Table 3). Mean Pb at 600°C temperature to become it ash. Then 10 ml of HCL (5M) concentrations both of water (0.064±0.014 mg L-1) and Tengra was added with the ash and boiled it on a hot plate to digest the fish M. ( vittatus) (0.167±0.087 mg kg-1) were found slightly sample again inside the fume hood. After boiling (samples higher in S2 than S1 and S3. becomes colorless or transparent) the extracts were filtered Lead (Pb) concentrations of the three sampling stations (S4, S5 into a 100 ml volumetric flask through a 12.5cm Whatman No. 1 and S6) of Sunamganj district were found in the range of 0.037 filter paper and volume it up to 100 ml with de-ionized water mg L-1 to 0.072 mg L-1 in water and 0.059 mg kg-1 to 0.355 mg inside the fume hood. Finally, the analysis was done by Atomic kg-1 in Tengra fish (M. vittatus) (Table 4). Mean Pb concentra-

Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). tions of S4, S5 and S6 of the five months investigation were 0.057±0.013, 0.043±0.003 and 0.044±0.007 mg L-1 in water and Analysis of heavy metal concentrations 0.196±0.110, 0.123±0.048 and 0.127±0.088 mg kg-1 in Tengra

The extracted solutions were analyzed by Atomic Absorption fish M. ( vittatus), respectively (Table 4). In S4, the mean Pb Spectrophotometer (AAS) (Model: AA-6300), Shimadzu using concentrations both in water (0.057±0.013 mg L-1) and fish -1 argon gas as fuel and air as an oxidizer. The “WizAArd” software (0.196±0.110 mg kg ) were found higher than S5 and S6.

Table 3. Mean (±SD) Lead (Pb) concentrations in water (mg L-1) and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) (mg kg-1) of Surma River of Sylhet district.

Sampling stations

Months Kushighat (S1) Chalibandar (S2) Kanishail (S3) Water Fish Water Fish Water Fish February 0.052 0.245 0.083 0.293 0.046 0.271 March 0.046 0.265 0.051 0.216 0.056 0.225 April 0.047 0.105 0.069 0.129 0.073 0.108 May 0.049 0.094 0.067 0.119 0.049 0.109 June 0.044 0.076 0.051 0.076 0.064 0.085 Mean 0.048 0.157 0.064 0.167 0.058 0.160 SD 0.003 0.091 0.014 0.087 0.011 0.083

Table 4. Mean (±SD) Lead (Pb) concentrations in water (mg L-1) and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) (mg kg-1) of Surma River of Sunamganj district. Sampling stations

Months Chhatak (S4) Dowarabazar (S5) Oyezkhali (S6) Water Fish Water Fish Water Fish February 0.044 0.247 0.044 0.188 0.037 0.208 March 0.045 0.355 0.044 0.144 0.038 0.238 April 0.072 0.123 0.039 0.133 0.049 0.066 May 0.056 0.181 0.046 0.076 0.040 0.066 June 0.068 0.074 0.044 0.075 0.054 0.059 Mean 0.057 0.196 0.043 0.123 0.044 0.127 SD 0.013 0.110 0.003 0.048 0.007 0.088

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In all the stations of Sylhet and Shunamganj district, Lead value (S1, S2 and S3) of Sylhet district were found in the range of 0.008 in water was found higher than 0.01 mg L-1, recommended limit mg L-1 to 0.024 mg L-1 in water and 0.015 mg kg-1 to 0.029 mg kg of Pb in drinking water (WHO, 2008). This may be due to the -1 in Tengra fish (M. vittatus) (Table 5). Mean Cr concentrations discharge of untreated industrial, agricultural and urban of S1, S2 and S3 of the five months investigation were effluent to the river. This has already made the water unsuita- 0.015±0.006, 0.016±0.004 and 0.015±0.004 mg L-1 in water and ble for human consumption as according to WHO (2008), Pb is 0.020±0.004, 0.022±0.004 and 0.021±0.005 mg kg-1 in Tengra known to be toxic even at low levels with resultant ill-health fish (M. vittatus), respectively (Table 5). In S2, the mean Cr effects as chronic exposure has been linked to growth retarda- concentrations both in water (0.016±0.004 mg L-1) and fish -1 tion in children (Awofolu et al., 2005; WHO, 2008). A similar (0.022±0.004 mg kg ) were slightly higher than S1 and S3. result was formed by Tsade (2016) in Kulufo River water, Arba Chromium concentrations of the three sampling stations (S4, S5 Minch, GamoGofa. He found the Pb concentration ranging from and S6) of Sunamganj district were found in the range of 0.007 0.050 to 0.108 mg L-1. Mokaddes et al. (2013) evaluated lower mg L-1 to 0.047 mg L-1 in water and 0.013 mg kg-1 to 0.054 mg Pb concentration (0.012 mg L-1) from the river water of Dhaka kg-1 in Tengra fish (M. vittatus) (Table 6). Mean Cr concentra- metropolitan city. Ahmad et al. (2010) reported Pb concentrations of S4, S5 and S6 of the five months investigation were tion varied seasonally and spatially from 58.17 to 72.45 μg/L 0.019±0.016, 0.015±0.008 and 0.013±0.006 mg L-1 in water and (0.058 to 0.073 mg L-1) in the water of Buriganga River which is 0.026±0.016, 0.020±0.06 and 0.019±0.005 mg kg-1 in fish, also in agreement with the present findings. A highest Pb respectively (Table 6). In S4, the mean Cr concentrations both in concentration with mean values of 13.12±0.18 05 mg L-1 was water (0.019±0.016 mg L-1) and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) -1 found by Obaroh et al. (2015) during September in River (0.026±0.016 mg kg ) were higher than S5 and S6. Argungu. In all the stations of Sylhet and Shunamganj district, Cr concen- Among the six sampling stations of both Sylhet and Sunamganj tration in water was found lower than the recommended limit of district, Chhatak station showed higher Pb accumulation in 0.05 mg L-1 for Cr in drinking water (WHO, 2008). This means tengra fish (0.196±0.110 mg kg-1). This could be attributed due that consumption of water from the selected Surma River to the discharge of untreated discharge of the cement factory stations was still in safe condition. But, it has already reported and agricultural runoff to the water. However, Pb concentration that Cr is very toxic and mutagenic when inhaled and is a known in Tengra fish from all the sampling station found lower than the human carcinogen, where long term exposure can cause WHO recommended limit for fish and fish products of 2.0 mg damage to the liver, kidney, circulatory and nerve tissues, as kg-1 (WHO, 2003). Therefore, it can be concluded that the well as skin irritation (Dayan and Paine, 2001). So, constant values of Pb at both stations were within the safe limit in case of monitoring and control program needs to be instituted to Tengra fish. In some commercial fishes of the Gulf of Cambay, protect the high population down the river using the river water Sharma et al. (2009) found Pb concentration 2.43 mg kg-1 which as it is being polluted from different sources in the present day. exceeds the WHO recommended limit. Haque et al. (2003) Hassan et al. (2015) found the mean concentration of Cr 0.0346 determined the bioaccumulation of trace metals in Mystus mg L-1 in Meghna River water which was also lower than the vittatus collected from Buriganga River and found Pb 1.031- recommended limit of Cr given by WHO for drinking water and 3.3578 mg kg-1 which is higher than the present study. Ahmed et is in correlation with the present findings. Das et al., (2011) al. (2009) investigated the heavy metal concentration in fish and reported Cr concentration of Buriganga River and Karnafuli mussel from the Dhaleshwari River, Bangladesh and found a River water was seasonally and spatially from 1.15-6.44 µg L-1 seasonal variation of Pb 9.16-13.09 mg kg-1 which is higher than (0.0012-0.0065 mg L-1) and 2.75-7.0 µg L-1 (0.0028-0.007 the present study and as well as WHO recommended limit. mg L-1), respectively which are lower than the present study. Ahmed et al. (2012) determined the level of bioaccumulation of Leena et al. (2012) measured Cr in water of Ganga River at some heavy metals including Pb in a freshwater fish Ayre selected sites in the middle Ganga plain BDL (Below detection (Sperata aor Hamilton, 1822) collected from Rajfulbaria of limit) to 1.09 mg L-1. Dhaleshwari River and compared with FAO standard levels and In all the six sampling stations of both Sylhet and Sunamganj other related studies and found that the levels of bioaccumula- district, the concentration of Cr recorded in Tengra fish were tion in the Dhaleshwari River exceeded all the standard levels. lower than the recommended limit of 0.15 mg kg-1 for chromium Rashid et al. (2012) determined various heavy metals including in fish and fish products (WHO, 2008). This means that the Pb in five fish species, viz., Puntius sophore, Glossogobius giuris, consumption of fish from the selected Surma River stations do Mystus tengara, Macrognathus aculeatus and Channa punctatus not pose an immediate threat to the population consuming fish from three different locations of Khiru River in Mymensingh and as far as Cr concentration is concerned. concluded that the concentrations of detected heavy metals in Sumon (2013) found the mean concentration of chromium fish muscle were within the permissible limit. 0.665 ± 0.075 mg kg-1 and 0.2245 ± 0.0755 mg kg-1 at UPS and PS, respectively in Karnafuli River which is higher than the Chromium (Cr) concentration in water and Tengra fish present study. In fish of Buriganga, the concentration of Cr was (M. vittatus) reported 3-13 μg L-1 (0.0030-0.0130 mg kg-1) during the rainy Chromium (Cr) concentrations of the three sampling stations season and 1.2-8 μg L-1 (0.0012-0.0080 mg kg-1) in the dry

155 Ariful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 151-156 (2019) season which is lower than the present study and the recom- heavy metals including Cr in a freshwater fish Ayre (Sperata aor mended limit of Cr given by WHO (Alam, 2003). A range of 5.27 Hamilton, 1822) collected from Rajfulbaria of Dhaleshwari to 7.38 mg kg-1 Cr concentrations have been reported in fish River and compared with FAO standard levels and other related gills (dry weight basis) of Buriganga River (Ahmad et al., 2010) studies and found that the levels of bioaccumulation in the which is higher than the present findings. Ahmed et al. (2009) Dhaleshwari River exceeded all the standard levels. investigated the heavy metal concentration in fish and oyster from the Dhaleshwari River, Bangladesh and found a seasonal Cadmium (Cd) concentration in water and Tengra fish variation of Cr ranged from 8.12-9.07 mg/kg which is higher (M. vittatus) than the present study. Haque et al. (2003) determined the Presence of Cd wasn’t detected in both the water and bioaccumulation of trace metals in M. vittatus collected from Tengra fish (M. vittatus) samples collected from all the six Buriganga River and found Cr concentration 2.04-11.79 mg kg-1 stations of Sylhet and Sunamganj district. So, all the six stations which exceeds the acceptable limit of Cr given by WHO. Ahmed (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 and S6) were reported safe from cd et al., (2012) determined the level of bioaccumulation of some contamination.

Table 5. Mean (±SD) Chromium (Cr) concentrations in water (mg L-1) and Tengra fish (M. vittatus) (mg kg-1) of Surma River of Sylhet district. Sampling stations Months Kushighat (S1) Chalibandar (S2) Kanishail (S3) Water Fish Water Fish Water Fish February 0.024 0.026 0.022 0.028 0.021 0.029 March 0.017 0.022 0.018 0.023 0.014 0.022 April 0.013 0.017 0.014 0.022 0.014 0.020 May 0.011 0.018 0.017 0.019 0.013 0.018 June 0.008 0.015 0.012 0.017 0.013 0.016 Mean 0.015 0.020 0.016 0.022 0.015 0.021 SD 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005

Table 6. Mean (±SD) Chromium (Cr) concentrations in water (mg L-1) and Tengra fish (mg kg-1) (M. vittatus) of Surma River of Sunamganj district. Sampling stations

Months Chhatak (S4) Dowarabazar (S5) Oyezkhali (S6) Water Fish Water Fish Water Fish February 0.047 0.054 0.026 0.028 0.022 0.029 March 0.021 0.026 0.021 0.023 0.013 0.019 April 0.011 0.019 0.011 0.019 0.011 0.017 May 0.011 0.015 0.008 0.016 0.011 0.017 June 0.007 0.015 0.007 0.013 0.007 0.015 Mean 0.019 0.026 0.015 0.020 0.013 0.019 SD 0.016 0.016 0.008 0.006 0.006 0.005

Conclusion level of pollution. The concentration of other heavy metals like mercury, arsenic, copper, iron, nickel and others that were not The results of the present study showed that the heavy metals studied should be assessed. concentrations in Tengra fish (M. vittatus) was in a permissible limit in terms of food safety issue especially chemical hazards. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS However, heavy metals pollution in river water was found in The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Science and alarming condition as the lead concentration has crossed the Technology of Bangladesh for providing fund to conduct the acceptable limits of 0.01 mg L-1 (WHO). So, it is high time to research. prevent heavy metals pollution in Surma River as the river serves as a source of drinking water, irrigation and fish for the Conflict of interest local inhabitants. For this, it is necessary to create awareness The authors declare there are no conflicts of interest. among the public as well as the policymakers about the importance of installing the Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) in Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under various polluting industries. Besides, the anthropogenic sources the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, and agricultural runoff should be reduced. In this study, heavy which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction metals were detected only in Tengra fish (M. vittatus), so other in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are types of fish should be analyzed for heavy metals to check the credited.

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 157-162 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040205

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Disabled user’s preference investigation of Konya Karatay City Park according to the universal design criteria (UDC) Esma ARI and Sertaç GÜNGÖR* Selcuk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture Selçuklu/42130 Konya-TURKEY *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 26 March 2019 The importance of concepts such as universal design, accessibility, and unimpeded life is Revised received: 11 April 2019 increasing as the number of disabled people within the society increases over the years and as Accepted: 22 April 2019 the effects of being disabled become more prominent. As these concepts have become wide-

spread throughout the world, architects and designers have also focused on projects that facil-

itate the life of individuals with disabilities in their designs, and they have created designs from Keywords the inside of life by incorporating the rapid development of technology into the process. The Disabled user’s universal design aims to eliminate the obstacles faced by individuals with basic disabilities and Konya Karatay City park to ensure the use of designs together with non-disabled individuals. The universal design crite-

Konya/TURKEY ria revealed in this direction are the main factors that make up the study subject. Within the Landscape design scope of the study, determination of the suitability of Konya Karatay City Park for the access Universal design criteria by disabled users and the concept of unimpeded life (Universal Design) was aimed. Social

areas, transportation systems, and recreation areas, which provide services to users within the park, were examined onsite according to their functions by quantifying them in the context of the universal design criteria. As a result of the study, it was determined that the park did not meet the universal design criteria (UDC) in terms of transportation and circulation; also, the uses of social and recreation areas were observed not to comply with the universal design criteria. According to the disabled user’s preferences, solutions related to these subjects were proposed.

Citation of this article: ARI, E. and GÜNGÖR, S. (2019). Disabled user’s preference investigation of Konya Karatay City Park according to the universal design criteria (UDC). Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 157-162, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040205 INTRODUCTION rapid decrease in open green areas both in the horizontal and vertical directions (Gül and Küçük, 2001). The aesthetic and envi- What people see in the environment where they live, visit or ronmental problems that arise with the action of rapid urbaniza- spend time in any way has an impact on their sense of satisfaction bring the need for planned green space mostly to the fore. tion with this place and the sense of belonging to this place. The While the need of an individual living in the city for nature is tried images that are in contrast with the aesthetics and beauty of to be met with planned green areas, the negative characteristics naturalness and are incompatible with natural landscapes of life in the city are also concealed (Özdemir, 2013). affects people's senses of space, belonging, and satisfaction The intensity of urban life and the pressure created by it on peo- adversely (Çelik, 2013). Reasons such as a rapid increase of ple have made open and green areas more significant in terms of urban population in nowadays' modern cities due to social, enabling urban people to relax psychologically, sustaining their economic, political and cultural conditions, an increase in the socio-cultural development, as well as involving them in recrea- number of multi-storey buildings especially in the city center tional activities; in some cities, it was understood that parks due to the "demolish and build a new one" movement, and have positive effects on the urban-social quality (Özkır, 2007). intense addition of new settlement and industrial areas lead to a Recreation comes from the Latin word “recreation” which

Esma ARI and Sertaç GÜNGÖR /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 157-162 (2019) 158 means regeneration, redesign, or reconstruction. In our country, as a business area, a large part of the population provides liveli- it is generally considered as a leisure time activity. In this case, it hood from occupations related to trade, industry, administra- means relaxing or entertaining activities that individuals or tion, and service, and where the social and cultural organization communities voluntarily perform in their free time. City parks is provided." It can also be defined as "a residential area where are the most preferred recreation areas. Parks are social areas the majority of the inhabitants work in non-agricultural business which are built in various districts and around the city and segments, the population is dense, all of the people’s needs from enable active and passive entertainment of users. In urban accommodation to entertainment are fulfilled, and the degree of parks, living and inanimate objects used in landscaping can be integration is high" (Yahyagil, 2011). Except for being a group of exemplified as follows. All kinds of buildings, terraces, pools, buildings that respond only to the housing needs of individuals, pergolas, garden walls, walkways, stairs, children's playgrounds, cities are the places where individuals shelter together with bridges, etc. are inanimate materials. The most important different social relations. There are some common or personal element of landscape design is undoubtedly green covers which needs formed by these social relations. There is a need for are considered as living materials. Trees and small trees form structured and unstructured equipment meeting urban, social, the most voluminous of living materials. Then, shrubs, flowers, technical infrastructure and superstructure needs, such as shel- and grass plants come, respectively (Akduman, 2012). Urban tering, business, leisure, culture, education, health, shopping, landscape is basically formed of open and green spaces within sports, management, access, public services, and technical infra- an urban environment. However, it is not totally independent structure services (Boyacı, 2010). According to the functions, from the surrounding buildings and structures. Altogether, they this equipment can be classified as follows: Residential areas, form the character and identity of a city, and sense of place. It trade and business areas, industrial areas, transportation areas, contributes to the cityscape by means of aesthetics and function social facilities, recreational areas and natural areas (Gül and (Dönmez and Atık, 2018). Küçük, 2001). In order to increase the positive effect of urban parks which are one of the most critical units of the system to be created in Urban outdoor space urban design, on the city, a number of studies on planning and Urban outdoor space is the parts formed by structures, which design phases are carried out. Especially, studies aiming to meas- help users to recognize their environment, and which enable ure the perceptions and preferences of users are given im- them to get in touch with all activities. What is essential for the portance because the professional knowledge and competencies city is that this outdoor space contributes to urban design and is of the people who provide the planning and design of the men- suitable for urban use (Etli, 2002). Urban outdoor use is gradual- tioned areas will be completed by the data obtained from users ly decreasing in modern cities, and accordingly, these places are (Elinç, 2011). Visitors' satisfaction with urban parks can vary de- not evaluated in terms of improving the environmental quality pending on the type of user. It is essential to provide service for and adding value to the environment. In this context, in urban the needs and demands of various age groups, gender, education, use areas, problematic areas, which cannot connect with life and and professional groups, in order to ensure optimum user satis- which are not able to help life in the outdoor space, are encoun- faction. Furthermore, for the acceptance of urban parks by indi- tered. In this sense, suggestions related to revealing problems of viduals, they are required to have easy access, to be suitable for outdoor living, raising the quality of the environment and social and cultural interaction, and to be designed to accommo- supporting outdoor living are important (Akarsu, 2002). date various recreational activities. Additionally, regular providing the safety, cleanliness, and maintenance of the park is also a Urban open-green area necessary factor (Karlıer, 2017). Balogh and Takács (2011) explained the concept of open space Society does not consist only of persons with the full physical as follows: "These are the areas which are one of the major com- and mental capacity. Nowadays in the world, the ratio of the ponents of urban texture, and which are difficult to access, such number of elderly individuals to the population is gradually as openings or empty spaces outside the architectural structure increasing. The growth rate of the elderly population in the and access areas and which have the potential for any recrea- world is 2.1%, and this rate is higher than the general population tional use." For example, water surfaces, squares, and transpor- growth rate of 1.2%. According to the estimations, this increase tation areas which not have little vegetation on them are will continue its permanence also in the following years defined as open spaces. The concept of green space is defined as (Tandoğan, 2017). It is compulsory for urban arrangements to surface areas of existing open areas that are covered by plant be designed to include people with disabilities. These arrange- elements (woody and herbaceous plants), or that are segment- ments should be dealt with within the universal design criteria ed. According to this definition, each green area is an open area. and carried out in accordance with the activities of special users, In the Zoning Regulation No. 23804, the concept of green space at the same time; they should also allow them to continue their is defined as follows: "The total of playgrounds, children's lives without restriction. gardens, recreational, excursion, picnic, entertainment, and coastal areas, which are reserved for the benefit of the commu- Definition and classification of urban space nity. International fairs, botanical gardens, and zoos, and region- The city is defined in the dictionary as "a residential area where, al parks are also in the scope of green areas." The concept of

159 Esma ARI and Sertaç GÜNGÖR /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 157-162 (2019) active green space is defined as "the whole of the urban and levels. Each individual is born with different personalities and neighborhood parks, children's parks, and playgrounds" (Önder abilities and receives training which includes many different and Polat, 2012). Open and green areas can be classified in processes. In this context, they become users who request the different ways: According to the way of use, according to the meeting of their needs and wait for different ease of use. Since ecological function, according to ownership or according to the people vary physically, mentally, and in terms of their abilities, it recreation function undertaken (Emür and Onsekiz, 2007). was necessary that the product and the environment used were Open and green areas can be classified as follows according to also compatible with this diversity. In this process, it was realized the recreation function: Parks (neighborhood, urban, District that the standard design concept based on anthropometric meas- Park, etc.), special purpose parks and gardens (roof gardens, urements did not meet the needs of users due to the diversity of hobby gardens, culture gardens, etc.), playing fields (golf, people. For this reason, with the consideration of individuals with basketball, etc.), children's playgrounds, natural and semi- different needs in the designs and arrangements that had been natural areas, corridors (urban forest, grove, etc.), other open made by considering the needs of the user who is addressed as and green areas inside the city (cemetery, residential garden, standard and who has no physical disability, the development of etc.) (Emür and Onsekiz, 2007). universal design has started. Studies designed to form the basis for the emergence of the universal design criteria have aimed at Urban park functions the design's suitability for simultaneous use by individuals from In terms of getting psychologically calm, doing recreational different geographies, having different ages, genders, advantages, activities and developing sociocultural, open and green areas and disadvantages. In studies on anthropometry and human fac- have a significant impact on the inhabitants of the city who are tor, designers used the measurements of young, white and experiencing the intensive urban life significantly (Etli, 2002). healthy men as a basis to form an average value. Nowadays, this Urban parks are one of the urban public outdoor units that can selective approach has been replaced with a more equitable ap- serve in this sense in the open area system, and they generally proach, and as mentioned above, designers have started to take have the same importance level and tasks as open green areas the geographical position, age, gender, advantages or disad- (Özkır, 2007). Welch (1991) specifies that the basic function of vantages into consideration (Ateş, 2013). parks is to please its users, in other words, to be in public use The term "universal design" was first used in the mid-1980s by and to present entertainment, happiness, and peace of mind. It the architect Ronald L Mace. The environment planned and is an essential requirement for parks to be visited by a large established according to the principles of this design approach number of people and to serve for many years. The capacity of a ensures the usage by all individuals, without any need for adap- park which is medium-sized (e.g. 20 hectares), located in the city tation. For example, the solutions developed in the planning center and offers a variety of activities, is perhaps 100 times phase, such as eliminating the need for ramps, arranging step more than an entertainment center that serves intensely less building entrances, using adjustable height kitchen benches, (Özdemir, 2013). The main functions of urban parks were listed are regarded as a set of arrangements that are put forward as follows (Boyacı, 2010): Ecological, land organization, recrea- within this understanding. At this point, the primary criterion is tion, health, aesthetics, economic, education, culture and social. that the designed structure, the environment and/or the product are perceived as average by each user and make all users Universal design feel in the same way (Şavlı, 2016). Turkish Standards Institute Every environment, in which life is sustained, hosts individuals introduced several standards regarding accessibility in Turkey. with different abilities and with competencies at different Among these, standard no TS12576 defines the standards about the accessibility features of open spaces (TS 9111, 1999). Accessibility is defined as the utilization of services provided under normal functional conditions and the physical environment with ease by individuals perceived either physically or mentally disabled (Düzgüneş and Erdoğan, 2016).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Material used for investigation The main material of our study area is the City Park in Karatay District of Konya Province. Furthermore, the literature about this park, the implementation and project reports prepared by the municipality, books, articles and journals published about universal design, information obtained as a result of the oral and written interviews held with the contractor firms that constructed the park, the photographs taken in the area, and Figure 1. Google map of the study area (37° 52´ 24.4524" and 32° 33´ 3.2256"). the measurements made will also be used (Figure 1).

Esma ARI and Sertaç GÜNGÖR /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 157-162 (2019) 160

Methodologies for data collection ture and peaceful environment, it also has become an alterna- The study method consists of 3 stages with the outlines. These tive sport and recreational area for the inhabitants of the city. stages are as follows. The City Park, which is located in an area of 343,300 m², is the A) Literature review and data collection: At this stage, data on largest park in Konya. In its amusement park part with the area universal design criteria were collected in Karatay City of 14,000 m², there are 22 kinds of entertainment areas such as Park which is within the scope of the study. Kangaroo, Kid Swing, Canoe, Mini Train and Horses, Child and B) Detection of the current situation of the study area: In Adult Bumper Car, Carrier, Carousel, Octopus, Autopisto, Crazy Karatay City Park of Konya Province, photographs were Dance, Horror House, Dragon, Gondola, Power Surge, Ranger, taken at the usage places representing the area, and Tower, Adrenaline, Kamikaze, Discovery, and Ferris Wheel. The in-place measurements were made with a Stanley brand park has recreation areas where people can relax in the land- TLM99 model laser meter and 50 m tape meter in order to scape of the artificial pond with an area of 12,500 m² and can evaluate it according to the universal design criteria. exercise in hiking and cycling paths, and there is also a scout C) General evaluation - Recommendations: The Park, which is park, where children and young people can spend time the subject of the study, was examined, by taking photo- (Anonymous, 2016a). graphs and performing measurements according to the The main idea of Universal Design concept was based on the universal design criteria obtained from the literature inclusion project to adequate urban and private paces, to be review. According to Yemenici (2019) and Güngör (2019), used by everyone, especially those victims of the Second World in order to obtain reliable results from a questionnaire, the War. United States, Japan and European nations began to dis- questionnaire should be applied to at least 30 people in cuss changes on accessibility for those people. Universal Design compliance with the "central limit theorem." Although this does not only adjust places to be used by every person, but also number increases to dozens of people, the results obtained contributes to bring people back to the social life, reintegrating will be very similar to each other according to the central them within the society, with a environment more safe and free limit theorem. However, in our study, it was evaluated that of barriers. The big issue was to not exclude anybody because it would be appropriate to conduct voluntary oral inter- everybody has equal rights (de Souza and Post, 2016). views, instead of carrying out a survey study. Accessibility of public parks in the city is largely affected due to In this context, interviews were held with randomly selected the lack of an efficient and adequate public transportation sys- volunteer participants in the "Turkey Disabled Association tem; development of commercial and related activities engulfing Konya Branch" and "Six Points Association of the Blind" on their space; unavailability of quality physical communication different days when permission was received, in the years of facilities (roads, parking, pedestrian facilities, safety and securi- 2017-2018-2019. According to these interviews, whether ty measures) and also the increase in traffic volumes resulting in Karatay City Park was preferred by disabled people, its deficien- traffic congestion and extended travel time. Similarly, according cies, and recommendations for use in order to enrich the design to Project for Public Spaces, the accessibility to parks is meas- were determined. A questionnaire on the subject was not ured by characteristics such as continuity, proximity, connect- prepared, and in order to gain the trust of disabled individuals edness, readability, walkability, convenience as well as vehicle and to receive honest answers, interviews were carried out in and pedestrian access infrastructure and visual accessibility the form of chat. In our study, no statistical data have been pre- parameters. Thus, it is crucial to evaluate the most important pared because it is not possible to conduct a questionnaire with determinants, which influence accessibility of public parks and disabled individuals and only oral interviews can be conducted. recreational facilities in the residential areas of a city and then evolve planning and design guidelines to improve accessibility RESULTS AND DISCUSSION so that the parks and recreational areas will be more vibrant and optimally utilized (Das and Honiball, 2016). There are 54 inhabitants per square kilometer in Konya prov- According to (Xing et al., 2018), various spatial accessibility ince of which surface area is 41,001 km2. The density of Konya measurements were made to assess access to public services. population is 54/km2 (Anonymous, 2019a). Konya, which is the The first methods, called container approaches, determine largest province of Turkey with its surface area and which is whether a park within a geographic unit easily obtains a high located on the Central Anatolian Plateau, is neighbor to the access point in a large unit because the evaluation is based on provinces of Ankara, Aksaray, Niğde, Mersin, Karaman, Antalya, unit size. In our study, behaviors of individuals with disabilities Isparta, Afyon, and Eskişehir. The major districts of Konya are were observed according to (Xiang et al., 2018). Behavior refers Ereğli, Beyşehir, and Akşehir. As of the end of 2018, the popula- to the action or reaction of something under certain conditions, tion of Konya Metropolitan is 2.205.609, and it ranks seventh in including both explicit and confidential behavior; however, only Turkey in terms of population (Anonymous, 2019a). secret behavior can be observed directly. Behavioral Konya Karatay City Park, which is the study area, is located 9 observation is the collection of behavioral data and can often be km from the city center. The City Park, located on the Adana- divided into approaches, including self-reporting. Ereğli ring road, was opened to service in 2016. While the park In addition, the extent to which local and demographic specific provides a good recreational environment with its regular struc- design guidelines for planning, designing and maintaining green

161 Esma ARI and Sertaç GÜNGÖR /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 157-162 (2019) open space are available in local contexts, and to what extent  Although the ramp constructed for access to the observa- they reflect or respond to empirical evidence of green space tion part of the artificial pond seems to be suitable for use, health can be discussed. In fact, the health benefits they provide as a result of the interviews conducted, it was understood emerge from the designs and practices built on conservation of that the material and slope of the ramp do not give the pos- ecosystems, reduction of floods or beautification of landscapes. sibility to wheelchair users to use their wheelchair on their Such motivations do not necessarily have to be matched with own without an accompanying person. improved features or health benefits (Douglas et al., 2017).  Bridges designed to watch the artificial pond, which is the Universal design is an approach that adopts the understanding main element of the park, are not suitable for access by any of creating products and spaces that can be used by as many disabled person. individuals as possible. Parks, which are located in cities and  It was observed that the slopes of the ramps designed for which have great importance for users, should be arranged access to the WC cabins of the disabled in the three sepa- within the universal design approach and planned according to rate WC units in the park were different. During the inter- user’s preferences. views, individuals stated that these slopes were not suita- In this study, Konya Karatay City Park was addressed according ble for wheelchair users and those they had difficulty in to the universal design criteria and evaluated according to disa- getting into the WC cabin without an accompanying per- bled user’s preferences; besides, recommendations aiming to son, and that they experienced problems when they were ensure its usability and accessibility by disabled individuals getting down from the slippery floor due to weather condi- were made. In the context of the study, disabled individuals tions because there was no railing around the ramp. were interviewed face-to-face by going to the Turkey Disabled  The thresholds in front of the doors of WC cabins are of Association Konya Branch and Six Points Association of the different heights and prevent access in all respects; they Blind, and their opinions about Karatay City Park, which is the make it difficult for wheelchair-using visitors to enter the subject of the present study, were determined. cabin on their own. Furthermore, the doors opened inward

in the WC cabins of the disabled are an application error. It Conclusion was observed that they cause disabled individuals to expe-

rience difficulties while using these cabins. The results obtained from the interviews conducted in the  For users, the most important problems related to WCs of Turkey Disabled Association Konya Branch are as follows: the disabled are that there is not an emergency button in-

side the cabin and due to the door opened inward the cabin,  Most of the disabled people visiting the park stated that they cannot get help from the outside in a fall situation. they could have visited the park thanks to the trips orga- Moreover, the height of the mirrors (excessively high) in nized by the Turkey Disabled Association Konya Branch. the cabin is not suitable for use by disabled people.  There are also disabled individuals who have never gone to

the park. They indicated the reason for this as the fact that In the park, there are no areas where disabled children and the park is located far away and access to the park by public healthy children can play together and become friends, and transportation is difficult. even there are not areas for use only by disabled children. The  Most of the wheelchair users who went to the park with common wish of all stakeholders who have contributed to our their opportunities stated that they preferred transporta- study in oral interviews is that the city administrators will make tion by tram and that transportation by bus and minibus an effort to revise the existing parks according to the universal was challenging. design criteria.  In the interviews, individuals who used wheelchairs of two different types were contacted with, and it was determined ACKNOWLEDGMENT that access was different for people who used battery- This article is part of the MSc thesis supervised by Assoc. Prof. operated wheelchairs and manual wheelchairs. Dr. Sertaç GÜNGÖR (accepted by Selcuk University Natural  While individuals using battery-operated wheelchairs stat- and Applied Sciences). ed that they had no problems while using the circulation areas in the park, manual wheelchair users stated that they Conflict of interest experienced access problems due to inadequate flooring. The authors declare there are no conflicts of interest.  Some of the disabled individuals provided access to the park with their vehicles, and they stated that they experi- Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under enced problems since there is not a part reserved for disa- the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, bled people in the car park. Although the car park has a which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction sufficient capacity, the parking area with a larger size than in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are the standard car park size is required in order to allow credited. wheelchair users to move freely.

Esma ARI and Sertaç GÜNGÖR /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 157-162 (2019) 162

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 163-170 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040206

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Species Selection Index (SSI): A novel tool designed for bio-resource selection under Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanism Salman Khan1* , Sohom Seal1, Swanti Sharma2 and Upasana Joshi3 1Forest Entomology Division, Forest Research Institute Dehradun-248006 (Uttarakhand), INDIA 2School of Environment & Natural Resources, Doon University, Dehradun-248001 (Uttarakhand), INDIA 3Centre for Business Entrepreneurial and Development, Vasant Vihar, Dehradun-248006, (Uttarakhand), INDIA *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 08 April 2019 This investigation was designed for the use of species selection index (SSI) for bio-resource Revised received: 08 May 2019 selection under access and benefit sharing mechanism. The bio-resources are being utilized by Accepted: 21 May 2019 different industries for manufacturing various end products. Uttarakhand is known for its

bio-resources having highly medicinal properties. But, these bio-resources are on the verge of

extinction because of over-exploitation. These bio-resources are not being utilized in a Keywords sustainable manner. Access and Benefit-sharing is the mechanism by which a species would Access and Benefit Sharing benefit both producer and traders apart from the conservation. Selection of the concerned Biodiversity species from the area to be considered for ABS mechanism is a tedious work. In this paper, an

Bio-resources attempt has been made to solve this issue. The objective was to formulate a methodology for Species Selection Index (SSI) the selection of native species for ABS. A novel method (Species Selection Index) has been formulated for this purpose. Study was conducted at organization, industry and village level. Different species from Uttarkashi, Pauri and Haridwar of Uttarakhand has been analysed by this method and compared with each other. Positive and Negative criteria were considered for the selection and based on the result Terminalia chebula and Zanthoxylem armatum was suggested for ABS. Therefore, The SSI can be used in the selection of any bio-resources to be considered for ABS mechanism or for any other developmental project. More SSI value means more suitable species to be considered for project related activity.

Citation of this article: Khan, S., Seal, S., Sharma, S. and Joshi, U. (2019). Species Selection Index (SSI): A novel tool designed for bio-resource selection under Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanism. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 163-170, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040206

INTRODUCTION 2011). Tully (2003) provided the detailed on technical and practical elements added by the Bonn Guidelines in Article 15 of the Biodiversity does not confine to the species of forest area only CBD. The biodiversity of different biological resources are being but it also includes biodiversity of Agriculture, Horticulture, declined day by day, especially in the Himalayan region. The Fisheries, grasslands and others. India is named among the 17 Himalayan region accounts for the good diversity of flora and mega-diversity countries of the world having 2.4% of the world’s fauna including medicinally important species (Khera et al., land area, supporting 7% of globally recorded species including 2001). So far about 8000 species of angiosperms, 44 species of 45,000 plants and 91,000 animal species (ABSPP, 2017). The gymnosperms and 600 species of pteridophytes have been Ministry of Environment and Forest implemented the Confer- reported in the Indian Himalaya (Singh and Hajra, 1996). The ence of Parties decision of CBD and made the induction of reason for the decline of such bio-resources could be both Biological Diversity Act. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and natural and anthropogenic factor. The natural factors are also Rules, 2004 was formulated by National Biodiversity of India u/s directly related to the anthropogenic activities. The diversity of 8 (Venkataraman, 2008) to facilitate ABS (Prathapan and Rajan, plants in an area is related to site attributes and human impacts

Salman Khan et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 163-170 (2019) 164 and varies accordingly (Parthasarathy and Karthikeyan, 1997). to be formulated are being selected on the basis of certain crite- The anthropogenic activities are inversely related to the biodi- ria. (1) The first criterion is that it should not be a species of con- versity of an area (Spangenberg, 2007). The loss of any cern i.e., Rare, Endangered or Threatened. (2) The species select- bio-resource is also due to the unsustainable use or overexploi- ed should not be exotic. (3) and the species should not be on the tation of such bio-resource. As per the ASI (1994) around 4635 list of Not Traded Commodity as decided by National Biodiversi- tribal communities are based on 7500 plant species in India. The ty Authority, Government of India (NBA, 2017). The present local community is primarily based on medicinal plants of the work is on the selection of bio-resources for ABS mechanism nearby areas for the healthcare (Shankar and Majumdar, 1997; based on different criteria. Venkataraman, 2008) as part of their Traditional Knowledge (TKs). The TKs associated with any village community are the MATERIALS AND METHODS Indigenous knowledge of that community. Though, the Indige- nous peoples and local communities have an important role in The study was conducted in Uttarkashi, Pauri and Haridwar dis- the conservation and management of the local biodiversity trict of Uttarakhand, India with the geographical area as 8016 km2 (Mauro and Hardison, 2000). Based on such traditional (Census 2011a), 5329 km2 (Census 2011b) and 2360 km2 (Census knowledge associated with the bio-resource, different herbal 2011c) respectively. A survey was conducted in the month of Sep- industries are now established throughout India. Use of the tember-October, 2017 in all the three districts. At preliminary traditional knowledge of any community for business purpose is level, the literature survey was conducted with NFLIC (National being regulated by the government of India but its main aim is to Forest Library and Information Centre, Dehradun) and CBED conserve the right of the forest dwellers or local communities to (Centre for Business Entrepreneurial and Development, which the TKs belongs. The uses of concerned bio-resources for Dehradun). Various research organisations were also visited for manufacturing different end products are increasing every year the collection of secondary data related to the study area. (Kuniyal et al., 2013). As demand for medicinal plants is increas- Government departments and NGOs were also considered for ing, the supply cannot be maintained due to the unavailability of the data collection. The forest divisions of all the three districts the concerned bio-resources. The industrial demand for any bio- were visited for identification of the bio-resources available in the resource is too high and thus it requires to feed lots of quintals area and the working plan was also consulted. The study was of the bio-resource but the major source of obtaining those bio- conducted at three different level: Industry level, Organization resources are forest only. As forest has natural ecological envi- level (Government/NGOs/Research) and Village level (Figure 1). ronment balanced in its own way naturally (Thuiller, 2007). No The method followed for the study, at all the three-level included one can rely on the collection of the bio-resources from the for- questionnaire-based survey and personal interviews (Sharma et est because it is being maintained by the forest department of al., 2016). At industries level, basic information about procure- the concerned range or division. But still, the industries are able ment of raw materials to the manufacturing of the final product. to get some amount of bio-resources from the forest where it is Management policies at the different level of operations were available, legally or illegally. These results, stress on the forest also discussed with the officials of the concerned industry. Ques- biodiversity and species extinction started. Bioprospecting is tions related to forest-based bio-resources, the collection proce- somewhat similar to this as exploration of commercial genetic dure, quantity, demand and supply mechanism, sharing of royalty resource (Moran, 2000). Also, due to unavailability of such bio- or ABS information (if present), other associated cost, bi-products resources many industries were shut down. So, plantation of and its management and R&D related information were also such bio-resources over an area is the alternative of the forest- asked during the meetings with industrial staffs. Based on such based collections. But to ensure that the bio-resources are interactions, villages from where the raw materials (bio- being supplied on a continuous basis in a sustainable manner, resources) are procured were selected. Similarly, the study at the concept of Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) came into government level was conducted using the methodology followed existence after Nagoya Protocol (Anuradha,2000). ABS agree- for industries. The management plan, conservation strategies, the ments govern the access to these bio-resources and sharing of scientific approach adopted (if any) were discussed. Also, the the benefits arising from their use between involved parties working plan was reviewed for the collection of information on (Cock et al., 2010). ABS benefits are recognized as floral and faunal diversity. Jila Bheshaj Sangh (JBS) and UFDC non-monetary as no royalty has been extracted from such (Uttarakhand Forest Development Corporation) at each district agreement in many countries including Brazil (Davalos et al., were visited for survey and data collections. Survey at village level 2003). In Uttarakhand, around 107 industries have applied for was conducted using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), the ABS for different bio-resources (UKSBB, 2017a). Also, First Questionnaires and personal interviews. The BMC (Biodiversity ABS Agreement signed between Uttarakhand Biodiversity Management Committee), Self Help Groups (SHGs), Mahila Board and Habib Cosmetic Pvt. Ltd. (UKSBB, 2017b). ABS Mangal Dal (MMD) and Yuva Mangal Dal (YMD) were the target requires support from a wide range of stakeholders, such as audience for the data collection at the village level. The data government organizations, Non-Governmental Organizations collected was further analysed by SPSS (16.0). The Boston (NGOs), Industries, local villagers (Siebenhüner and Suplie Consulting Group (BCG) matrix was also analysed for the 2005). The selection of the bio-resources for which the ABS has selection of the species under ABS mechanism.

165 Salman Khan et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 163-170 (2019)

Figure 1. Different level of study for data collection.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION demanded by the different stakeholders (Traders). It is basically criterion of market demand and relative availability of the Based upon the questionnaires, the results obtained was catego- market. Any bio-resources consider for ABS should have the rised on the basis of six criteria namely, Availability, Price, Market proper market to be sold. So, if the market is poorly available availabilities, Traditional knowledge and diversified uses, Industri- then the index value of that bio-resource would be 1 and if it has al demand, labour cost, Time-bound, Accessibility, Collateral dam- very high market demand then it would be assigned the index age to regeneration, Storage issues. The mentioned characters are value of 5. The scenarios of any species in between index value divided into two categories, Positive and Negative criteria. of 1 and 5 would be considered for index value as 3 (Table 1). Description of the Species Selection Index (SSI) is as follows: Traditional knowledge and diversified uses Positive criteria Traditional knowledge (TKs) is the indigenous knowledge of any Positive criteria of Species Selection Index (SSI) are related to community associated with any bio-resource. It includes the vari- the direct or indirect effect of any criterion on bio-resource. ous beliefs, faith, traditions and uses of any bio-resource in their These criterions are based upon the questionnaires survey religious or cultural activities. Diversified uses include the uses of conducted in the study areas (Table 1). Higher the index value of any bio-resource other than its general uses. It could be the TKs any criteria signifies the suitability of the concerned of any community. The index value of 5 denotes that the bio-resource for ABS. concerned species have very wide range of uses in the different communities. If any specific species has not much-diversified use Availability or TKs then it would have given the index value as 1 (Table 1). The availability of any bio-resources is one of the positive criteria under SSI. The availability of any bio-resources in an area is Industrial demand termed as Availability in this context. Any bio-resources is said The industrial demand is also one of the criteria in SSI as the to be available in an area only if it is distributed throughout. demand is a very important factor. Industrial demand is the Also, the concerned species should be in available in adequate demand of any important bio-resource by the industries for man- quantity. This criterion is measured on the scale of 1 to 5 in posi- ufacturing various end products. If the demand for any species tive quantity. The scale value of 1 denotes that the concerned would be high at the industrial level then the species would be bio-resource or species are very less available; 2 means the more prioritize for cultivation among the local community. So, availability is less. Similarly, 3 and 4 values, denote medium and this way the species would be regenerated throughout the area. high availability of the bio-resource. The value 5 denotes very The value index of 1 and 5 denotes the very low and very high high availability of any bio-resource (Table 1). demand of any bio-resource by different industries (Table 1).

Price Negative criteria The price of any bio-resources is the market rate at which, it can Negative criteria of Species Selection Index (SSI) are related to the be sold. If the market rate of any specific bio-resource is very direct or indirect effect of any criterion on bio-resource. The index high then we would assign it 5 as its index value. Similarly, if any values of these criterions are taken in negatives (-ve) as they are species or bio-resource has a very low rate in the market then the considered as a constraint in the bio-resources uses (Table 2). we would assign its index value as 1. In the case of bio-resource Less negative, the index value of any criteria signifies the more whose market rate is neither too high and nor too low then such chance of selection of the concerned bio-resource for ABS. species would be treated with index value as 3 (Table 1). Labour cost Market availabilities Labour cost is considered as one of the major factors for the Market availabilities are directly related to the bio-resource selection of any bio-resource. The extraction of some of the bio- trade. If any specific bio-resource, available in the area is widely resources can only be possible by employing the labours. From

Salman Khan et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 163-170 (2019) 166 Table 1. Mechanism of crediting the positive criteria according to their degree. Criteria Range Index Availability: Frequency of the targeted species is Frequency > 80% 5 calculated. (Phillips 1959) Frequency = 60-80% 4 Frequency = 40-60% 3 Frequency = 25-40% 2 Frequency < 25% 1 Price: Price at which the bio-resource is available to the Price > Rs. 400/kg 5 primary consumers. Price = Rs. 200-400/kg 4 Price = Rs. 100-200/kg 3 Price = Rs. 50-100/kg 2 Price < Rs. 50/kg 1 Market availabilities: The distance from the point of Distance < 5 km 5 collection to the nearest market available. Distance = 5-10 km 4 Distance = 10-20 km 3 Distance = 20-40 km 2 Distance > 40 km 1 Traditional knowledge and diversified uses: No. of Traditional knowledge and uses >=4 5 different traditional knowledge associated to the targeted Traditional knowledge and uses = 3 4 species. Traditional knowledge and uses = 2 3 Traditional knowledge and uses = 1 2 No Traditional knowledge 1 Industrial demand: Percentage of bio-resource being sold 100% sold 5 from the Mandis to the industries. 70-100% sold 4 50-70% sold 3 30-50% sold 2 < 30% sold 1 extraction to the final product, labour is required for the various tain bio-resource regeneration get uprooted, collapsed or dam- purpose. The cost of extraction of any bio-resource is related to aged and also, the seed get disturbed during its regeneration the availability of that species. The index for labour cost varied period. So, the collateral damage to regeneration is related to from –1 to -5 of which -1 denotes very low labour cost, while the type of bio-resource being extracted. If the extraction of any very high labour cost was denoted by -5 for concerned bio-resource has a large adverse impact on the other crops bio-resource (Table 2). being regenerated then the index value assigned would be -5 and if no collateral damage occurs to regeneration then the Time-bound index value assigned would be -1 (Table 2). The time bound is a very important factor while selecting the bio -resource for ABS mechanism. Time-bound is meant to be the Storage issues availability of any bio-resource in the year. Few species are The storage-related issue includes the problems faced during available 3 months in a year and few available throughout the the storage of any bio-resource. Any bio-resource can be stored, year. So, the availability duration of any bio-resource in a year either for short duration or long duration. The fruits of some bio was taken as one of the factors for determining the SSI. If any -resources contain a high amount of water, which tends to have species is available throughout the year, has been recommend- the low storage properties. If any species found to have long ed -1 as its index value. Similarly, the index value of -5 denotes duration storage properties was given its index value as -1 and if very seasonally (3 months or less) (Table 2). the storage is not possible for much time, have been assigned its index value as -5 (Table 2). Accessibility Accessibility of any bio-resources to be collected from an area is Case studies of Species Selection Index (SSI) also considered as one of the important factors in determining The information collected about the bio-resources from the the SSI. Some species are available at higher altitudes or three districts Haridwar, Uttarkashi and Pauri were analysed unreachable places. So, if one not able to harvest such using SSI. Not all the species were taken into consideration but bio-resources cannot be considered for ABS mechanism. If the for the purpose of example, 10 bio-resources were selected. SSI harvesting of such bio-resources is very difficult, then the index is the advanced form of Force Field analysis (Thomas, 1985). value assigned would be -5. Also, if the same is easy then the The index value assigned to each character is given in Table 3. index value given would be -1 (Table 2). The Aegle marmelos is being used as important medicinal plant against the abdominal related disorders. The positive criteria, Collateral damage to regeneration “Availability” for the A. marmelos was assigned with index value While collecting or harvesting the bio-resources, there is some of 4 because throughout the selected district (Frequency 60- negative impact on other plant individuals, considered under the 80%), the species was found available. Also, the “Price” and collateral damage to regeneration. During the extraction of cer- “Market availabilities” are assigned with an index value of 3 and

167 Salman Khan et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 163-170 (2019) Table 2. Mechanism to credit the negative criteria according to their degree. Criteria Range Index Labour cost: Labour Cost associated with individual species is calculated per -5 Highest extreme value kg of extraction. > than median value but < Highest extreme value -4 Median Value -3 > than median value but < Highest extreme value -2 Lowest extreme value -1 Time-bound: No. of months the specific bio-resource is available in a year. < 4 months -5 4 months -4 6 months -3 9 months -2 >9 months -1 Accessibility: Time for extraction of 1 kg of the targeted bio-resource is -5 1 kg. extracted @ > 8 hours calculated. 1 kg. extracted @ < 2 hours -4 1 kg. extracted @ 4-6 hours -3 1 kg. extracted @ 6-8 hours -2 1 kg. extracted @ 2-4 hours -1 Collateral damage to regeneration: A 1x1 quadrat is laid at the spot of extrac- -5 Death of regenerating plant > 10 tion and the damage to regeneration crops are calculated. Death of regenerating plant = 8-10 -4 Death of regenerating plant = 6-8 -3 Death of regenerating plant = 4-6 -2 Death of regenerating plant < 4 -1 Storage issues: Only air-drying storage mechanism is considered. No. of days stored > 15 days -5 No. of days stored = 10-15 days -4 No. of days stored = 7-10 days -3 No. of days stored = 3-7 days -2 No. of days stored < 3 days -1

Figure 2. Total SSI index and indexes of positive and negative criteria of the bio-resources from Uttarakhand.

4 respectively. The price for A. marmelos is neither too costly and during the A. marmelos extraction (<4 plants/sampling unit). So, nor too cheap (100-150/kg). Similarly, the market availability of both “Collateral damage to regeneration” and “Accessibility” were the A. marmelos is in relatively good conditions (with 5-10 km of assigned with an index value of -1. The A. marmelos has certain harvesting). The A. marmelos has the much traditional knowledge storage issue because of its pulpiness. The water in A. marmelos and diversified uses apart from the general use so the index value tends to make the A. marmelos more prone to attack by the various is 4. The Industrial demand for A. marmelos is also up to the mark microorganisms. So, due to some moderate storage issue (can be (more than 50% of the stock sold) due to its highly medicinal stored for 7-10 days), it has been assigned the index value of -3. property and thus the index value assigned is 3. The negative cri- The index value of positive criteria was found highest for Saus- teria such as “Labour cost” is also not too much for the extraction surea costus, Aconitum heterophyllum and Zanthoxylum armatum of A. marmelos and is being available only at the certain time frame due to the high price, market and traditional uses. Similarly, the of the year (April-July) so “Labour cost” and “Time-bound” were index value for negative criteria was found the minimum for S. assigned with an index value of -1 and -4, respectively. The costus. Also, Terminalia chebula was observed with minimum index “Accessibility” of the A. marmelos is also very easy and approacha- value in negative criteria suggest it almost equal to positive ble. The “Collateral damage to regeneration” was also not much criteria (Figure 2).

Salman Khan et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 163-170 (2019) 168

S. costus and Rhododendron sp. were given lowest index value in

8 5 6 8 4 8

14 14 10 10

SSI “Availability” (Table 3). As in Rhododendron sp. the flower cannot Total Total take place in sexual reproduction and next generation hardly

regenerate. It is because of the plucking of the Rhododendron

3 1 1 2 2 3 2 1 2 1

------

- flower for squash preparation. The maximum index value of issues

Storage Storage Quercus floribunda and Pinus roxburghii (index value 5). The price

was found highest (index value 5) for S. costus and A. heterphyllum.

The low price (index value 3) was found in A. marmelos, Ageratina

1 1 1 3 2 4 4 3 1

1 adenophora, Q. floribunda and Murraya koengii due to the large

------

production. The market availability of Z. armatum and S. costus

Collateral Collateral damage to damage

regeneration was indexed as 5 because they can be sold in the very nearby

market (less than 5 km). Other species with the index value as 3

can be sold easily but the market is not nearby and they have to

travel to a particular place or mandi to sell the produces.

1 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 1 3

------The Traditional knowledge and diversified uses of Z. armatum, S.

Accessibility costus and A. heterphyllum were found highest and so given the Negative criteria Negative

index value as 5 whereas, A. adenophora, Q. floribunda, Pinus

roxburghii and Rhododendron sp. was an index with the lowest

value as 3 in comparison to other species. The industrial demand

bound 4 3 3 3 4 3 2 2 2 2

------of the T. chebula, Z. armatum, Saussurea costus and A. heterophyl-

Time lum was found highest and so assigned by the index value of 5.

The A. adenophora and Q. floribunda were measured as the low-

est index (2) due to the less demand by the industries. In the

1 1 2 2 4 3 2 2 2 1

------

cost case of negative criteria, the labour cost was noted minimum in Labour A. marmelos, T. chebula and Rhododendron sp. whereas the

maximum cost was observed for S. costus.

5 5 2 5 5 2 4 4 4 3 A. marmelos and S. costus are very timely bound and available for

Demand less than 4 months. The accessibility was found the maximum Industrial Industrial

(-1) in almost all the species except S. costus, A. heterophyllum, Q.

floribunda and Rhododendron sp. which means that the above-

mentioned species are very hard to collect. The collateral dam-

4 5 3 5 5 3 3 4 3 4 age to the regeneration was minimum (-1) in A. marmelos, T.

chebula, Z. armatum, A. adenophora and Rhododendron sp. but the

Traditional Traditional

knowledge and knowledge

diversified uses diversified maximum collateral damage was observed in the case of Quer-

cus floribunda and Pinus roxburghii (index value as -4) and thus

the regeneration of other species including Q. leucotrichophora

4 5 3 5 4 3 4 4 3

4 get affected because of extraction. The storage capability of A. Market Market

Positive criteria Positive marmelos and A. heterophyllum was observed highest as they can availabilities be stored for 7-10 days only. So, they are assigned with an index

value of -3. In case of T. chebula, Z. armatum, P. roxburghii and

4 4 3 5 5 3 4 3 4

3 Rhododendron sp., the storage capacity was found good. Price

Finally, the species which receives maximum total SSI value

resources from Uttarakhand. from resources

- should be selected for the ABS mechanism as a potential species

to be considered for trade in a sustainable manner. So, T. chebula

4 4 3 3 2 3 5 5 5 2 and Z. armatum are recommended for ABS potential species as

Availability they receive the highest SSI value of 14 (Table 3). Similarly, P.

roxburghii and M. koengii was found with SSI value as 10 which is

quite low, but in comparison to other species, they have good

values of criteria. So, if we could supplement the positive criteria

and control the negative criteria by making policies and plans then these two species can also be considered for ABS. The Species selectionbio index of Species minimum SSI was observed in Q. floribunda (4) which means that

this particular species should not be considered for any type of

Scientific Name Scientific Aeglemarmelos chebula Terminalia armatum Zanthoxylum adenophora Ageratina costus Saussurea heterophyllum Aconitum floribunda Quercus roxburghii Pinus koengii Murraya sp. Rhododendron Table 3. Table trade. The biodiversity of Uttarakhand should be conserved in the proper way by utilizing the bio-resources in a sustainable manner.

169 Salman Khan et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 163-170 (2019)

Conclusion REFERENCES

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 171-176 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040207

This content is available online at AESA

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Journal homepage: www.aesacademy.org e-ISSN: 2456-6632

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Nitrogen uptake and economics of black rice (Oryza sativa L. indica) under different crop geometries and nitrogen management practices Suraj Singh Karkee1* , Shrawan Kumar Sah1, Santosh Marhatta1, Suman Dhakal1, Manoj Kandel2 and Jiban Shrestha3 1Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur Chitwan, NEPAL 2Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Hill Crops Research Program (HCRP), Baiteshwor-4, Dolakha, NEPAL 3Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Agriculture Botany Division (ABD), Khumaltar, Lalitpur, NEPAL *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 09 April 2019 Black rice has more antioxidants than any other rice variety. It is considered to have multiple Revised received: 07 May 2019 benefits in human health due to the presence of different antioxidants. A field experiment was Accepted: 21 May 2019 conducted during rainy season of 2015-2016 to assess the nitrogen uptake, use efficiency and

economics of black rice production under different crop geometry and nitrogen (N) manage-

ment practices in Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. The experiment was laid out in strip plot design Keywords with three replications. The experiment consisted of treatment combination of three crop Black rice geometry (20 cm × 20 cm, 20 cm × 15 cm and 15 cm × 15 cm) in vertical plots and three nitro- Crop geometrics gen management practices (N level: 30 kg N ha-1, 60 kg N ha-1, and LCC based N-management)

Economics in horizontal plots. The results showed that the highest N uptake was recorded from closer Nitrogen uptake spacing (15 cm × 15 cm) with LCC based N management. The net return and B: C ratios were Nitrogen management practices higher at a closer spacing of 15 cm × 15 cm with LCC based N management and closer spacing of 15 cm × 15 cm with N application of 60 kg ha-1. The overall analysis revealed that LCC based N management under closer crop geometry (15 cm × 15 cm) was the best management practices because of high nitrogen uptake and highest monetary return with B: C ratio of 5.76.

Citation of this article: Karkee, S.S., Sah, S.K., Marhatta, S., Dhakal, S., Kandel, M. and Shrestha, J. (2019). Nitrogen uptake and economics of black rice (Oryza sativa L. indica) under different crop geometries and nitrogen management practices. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 171-176, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040207

INTRODUCTION (Peng et al., 1955). Crop geometry is an arrangement of the plant in different rows and column in an area. It is an important Black or pigment rice is rice of high demand. The popularity of factor for optimizing spacing between plants for efficient utiliza- this rice is due to its health benefit, high demand among urban tion of the natural resources like light, water, nutrient and space societies and high market value. The antioxidant property of rice (Haque et al., 2012). Crop geometry in plant varied according to is due to anthocyanin content and it is also rich in fiber, several genetic characteristics of the plant (size of the plant, elasticity of minerals like Fe, Mn, Cu, etc. (Kushwaha, 2016). The accumula- the plant, foraging area or soil cover dry matter partitioning and tion of anthocyanin in different layer of the pericarp and crop and variety), time of sowing, environmental factors, and aleuronic region makes rice black or deep purple in color fertilizer application. (Chaudhary, 2003). Nitrogen is one of the most important There is limited information on N uptake and use efficiency by essential nutrients for growth of plant as it is important compo- black rice grown under different N management practices. nent of RNA, DNA, amino acids, nucleic acids, nucleotides, Mineral uptake is the process in which minerals enter the chlorophyll, enzymes, and hormones. The chlorophyll present in cellular mineral through plant roots, typically following the the leaves determines the ability of crop to utilize solar same pathway of water. Plants absorb minerals in ionic form: + - radiation, which depends upon uptake of nitrogen from soil nitrogen enters as nitrate (NH4 ) or ammonium ion (NO3 ).

Suraj Singh Karkee et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 171-176 (2019) 172

A large portion of applied nitrogen losses from flooded rice field separately harvested at full maturity. Data on nitrogen content which contribute to the low N use efficiency of rice as compared of grain and straw was obtained by adopting Kjeldahl method to another crop. Rakshit et al. (2014) reported that an average N and benefit cost ratio was calculated after taking data of biologi- recovery efficiency for fields managed by farmers ranging from cal yield. The price rate of rice grain was NRs. 250/ kg and rice 20 to 30% under rainfed conditions and 30-40% under irrigated straw was NRs. 3.25 /kg. Total N uptake was determined by the conditions. Major driving processes responsible for these heavy formula adopted by Sikdar et al. (2008). Data analysis was done losses from rice field are Volatilization, nitrification, denitrifica- with Microsoft Excel ver. 2016 and R-program. Data were sub- tion, and leaching (Aulakh and Singh, 1996). Nitrogen Use jected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests. When significant Efficiency (NUE) is a term used to indicate the ratio between the differences were found, means were separated and assessed amount of fertilizer N removed from the field by the crop and using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT). the amount of fertilizer N applied. Khadka (2016) performed experiment in response of Black rice to different dose of nitro- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION gen and found that black rice var.G60 is very low response to nitrogen. A field experiment was conducted with objectives to Effect of crop geometry and nitrogen management known the nitrogen uptake, use efficiencies and economics of black since rice is not only a source of food, it is also a major Nitrogen uptake and use efficiency employer and source of income for people. Grain nitrogen uptake, Straw nitrogen uptake and total nitrogen uptake was found non-significant under different crop geometry MATERIALS AND METHODS and nitrogen management practices (Table 1). Grain nitrogen uptake and total nitrogen uptake was significantly influenced The experiment was conducted at the Agronomy Farm of where as straw nitrogen uptake was found non-significant under Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), Rampur, Chitwan, different nitrogen management practices (Table 1). Higher total Nepal during July to December 2015-2016. The soil of the nitrogen uptake in 60 kg ha-1 and LCC might be due to higher experimental field was silty loam in texture and acidic in uptake of nitrogen with higher availability. Similarly, total nitro- reaction (pH 5.71) with low organic matter content (2.47 %). gen uptake in LCC based nitrogen management is relatively high- The total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable er than nitrogen applied at the rate of 60 kg ha-1 this might be due potassium were 0.12%, 35.22 kg ha-1, 57.77 kg ha-1 soil. The to fewer loss results more uptake of applied nitrogen. Similar total rainfall during the crop season was 1707.6 mm and the result was found by (Bhat et al., 2017) and (Kumar et al., 2010) relative humidity ranged from 75.0% in June and 89.7% in Octo- Partial factor productivity of applied Nitrogen (PFP-N), ber. The mean Maximum temperature during the experimental Nitrogen Efficiency Ratio (NER), and Internal Efficiency (IE) period ranged from 30.84oC to 35.18oC. were found non-significant in case of crop geometry (Table 2). The experiment was laid out in strip plot design with two factors Similarly Nitrogen Efficiency Ratio (NER), and Internal Efficiency with three replications. The horizontal factor consisted of three (IE) was found non-significant in case of nitrogen management crop geometry (20 cm × 20 cm, 20 cm × 15 cm, and 15 cm ×15 practices but Partial factor productivity of applied nitrogen (PFP cm) and vertical factor consisted of three nitrogen management -N) was significantly influenced and found significantly higher in practices (30 kg N ha-1, 60 kg N ha-1, and LCC based N applica- 30 kg ha-1 than others (Table 2). Partial factor productivity is tion). The plot size was 3m × 4.2 m. Black rice (var. G 60) seed- found relatively higher in LCC based N management then same lings were raised in well prepared dry seed bed. Rice seed was amount (60 kg ha-1) applied adopting splitting this might be due sown on June 8, 2016 with the seed rate of 50 kg ha-1. The to higher uptake of nutrient in LCC based N management. nursery bed was fertilized through using Urea and SSP with 2.25 Decline in partial factor productivity at higher level of N may be g m-2 and 50 g m-2, respectively and mulched using wheat straw. due to decline in indigenous soil N supply and low response of Frequent irrigation through hand watering jar was given to re- black rice to applied N. Khadka (2016) found that black rice cover the seedling from drought. Twenty six old seedlings were var.G60 is very low response to nitrogen. Major decline in partial uprooted carefully from the nursery and transplanted (2-3 seed- factor productivity for N might be due to nutrient imbalance, lings/hill) on the well puddled experimental plots on with three decline in indigenous soil N supply, subsoil compaction, crop geometry as treatments. Full dose of phosphorous, potash reduction of root volume and increased disease and pest -1 and 25 kg ha ZnSO4 were applied as basal dose. Basal doses of incidence (Karim and Ramasamy, 2000). nitrogen were applied in 30 kg ha-1 and 60 kg ha-1 nitrogen treatment @ 30 kg ha-1. Remaining nitrogen dose of treatment 60 kg Economics ha-1 was applied during active tillering stage after first hand The cost of cultivation greatly differed among the crop geome- weeding. In LCC no nitrogen was applied as basal dose. First try and nitrogen management practice (Table 3). On an average, reading of LCC was done at 15 DAT the value of LCC was found the lowest cost of cultivation was found in wider spacing (20 cm below critical (< 4) and 30 kg ha-1 nitrogen was applied at a time. × 20 cm) by 10.78% and 14.38% than the spacing (15 cm × 15 Similarly 2nd split of nitrogen using LCC was applied at 36 DAT cm) and spacing (20 cm × 20 cm) respectively. Cultivation cost which was 3rd reading of LCC. The crop of individual plots was was increased as geometry between crop and row decreases,

173 Suraj Singh Karkee et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 171-176 (2019)

Table 1. Grain nitrogen uptake, straw nitrogen uptake and total nitrogen uptake as influenced by crop geometry and nitrogen management at Rampur, Chitwan in 2015-16.

-1 Nitrogen uptake (kg ha ) Treatment Straw nitrogen Grain nitrogen Total nitrogen uptake (SNU) kg ha-1 uptake (GNU) kg ha-1 uptake (TNU) kg ha-1 Horizontal factor: Crop geometry 20cm × 20cm 25.9 12.22 38.2 20cm ×15cm 33.1 14.46 47.6 15cm × 15cm 35.3 16.58 51.9 LSD (0.05) NS Ns NS SEm (±) 2.18 1.27 3.11 CV(%) 12.0 15.3 11.7 Vertical factor: Nitrogen management 30 kg ha-1 28.3 11.86b 40.1b 60 kg ha-1 31.6 15.21a 46.8ab LCC (60 kg ha-1) 34.5 16.20a 50.7a LSD (0.05) NS 2.35 6.86 Sem (±) 1.30 0.60 1.75 CV(%) 7.1 7.2 6.6 Grand mean 31.5 14.42 45.9 Treatment means in columns followed by common letters are not significantly different from each other based on DMRT at 5% level of significance.

Table 2. Nitrogen use efficiency of black rice as influenced by crop geometry and nitrogen management at Rampur, Chitwan in 2015- 16.

Nitrogen use efficiency Treatment Partial factor productivity of Nitrogen efficiency Internal efficiency applied nitrogen (PFP-N) ratio (NER) (IE) Horizontal factor: crop geometry 20 cm × 20 cm 18.34 94.6 21.96 20 cm ×15 cm 19.98 85.0 19.31 15 cm ×15 cm 24.26 89.1 22.71 LSD (0.05) NS NS NS SEm (±) 1.22 5.37 0.82 CV(%) 10.1 10.4 6.7 Vertical factor: Nitrogen management 30 kg ha-1 27.75 a 93.7 21.41 60 kg ha-1 16.38 b 86.6 20.71 LCC (60 kg ha-1) 18.44 b 88.5 21.87 LSD (0.05) 3.20 NS NS SEm (±) 0.82 4.69 0.72 CV(%) 6.8 9.1 5.8 Grand mean 20.86 89.6 21.33 Treatment means in columns followed by common letters are not significantly different from each other based on DMRT at 5% level of significance. this may be due to more seed requirement, more labor for trans- of inputs like labor, seed results in higher input cost in closer planting and higher requirement of other input. Cultivation cost geometry. But relatively higher B: C ratio was obtained from increases as nitrogen dose increases. When LCC is adopted the narrow crop geometry. Jena et al. (2010) found that highest cultivation cost was increased this might be due to increased monetary return and highest B:C ratio was from plant spacing cost for the additional amount of nitrogen and labor for LCC 15 cm × 15 cm. Gross return and Net return was significantly adoption. Gross return and Net return was significantly higher higher in LCC based nitrogen management followed by 60 kg in narrow crop geometry 15 cm × 15 cm than other crop geome- Nha-1. Similarly the B: C ratio was significantly different among try of 20 cm × 15 cm and 20 cm × 20 cm (Table 3). This might be treatments, it goes on increasing as nitrogen rate goes on increas- due to higher biological yield from narrow geometry. Mondal et ing and found significantly highest in LCC based nitrogen man- al. (2013) also found that high density paid highest gross and net agement than others (Table 3). Satpute et al. (2014) and Maiti et return. B: C ratio was non- significant among treatments but it al. (2004) also favors the use of LCC for nitrogen management in goes on increasing as space between crops and rows goes on rice as it increases return by decreasing nitrogen use as well as decreasing (Table 3). This may be due to the higher requirement increasing yield of rice as compared to N broadcasting.

Suraj Singh Karkee et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 171-176 (2019) 174

Interaction effect of crop geometry and nitrogen management planting resulting higher biomass production and record higher The interaction effect between crop geometry and Nitrogen nitrogen uptake (Dhyani et al., 2017). management Practices was significant in Grain Nitrogen B: C ratio, Net return and Gross return were significantly Uptake. Significantly higher Grain Nitrogen Uptake was influenced by Interaction effect between crop geometry and obtained from treatment combination closer geometry (15 cm × Nitrogen management Practices (Tables 5-7). Significantly 15 cm) with LCC based N management (21.21 kg ha-1) (Table 4). higher Gross return (488.9 thousand ha-1), Net return (404.0 Field applied N adopting LCC and closer spacing had higher thousand ha-1) and B: C (5.76) ratio was obtained from interac- biological yield. Higher N uptake was obtained when better tion of Closer geometry (15 cm × 15cm) with LCC based N synchronization of N supply with crop N demand (Dhyani et al., management. It might be due higher biological yield results 2017). Similarly, closer crop geometry consists of high density higher net return.

Table 3. Cost of cultivation, gross return, net returns, and B: C ratio of black rice as influenced by crop geometry and nitrogen management at Rampur, Chitwan in 2015-16.

Total Production cost Gross returns Net return Treatments B:C ratio (NRs.ha-1) (000) (NRs.ha-1) (000) (NRs.ha-1) (000) Horizontal factor: Crop geometry 20cm × 20cm 74.46 246.02b 171.56b 3.30 20cm × 15cm 79.46 270.25b 190.79b 3.40 15cm × 15cm 83.46 344.01a 260.54a 4.11 LSD (0.05) 69.07 57.769 NS SEm (±) 14.71 14.71 0.18 C.V(%) 8.9 12.3 8.8 Vertical factor: Nitrogen management 30 kg ha-1 77.40 245.68c 168.29c 3.17c 60 kg ha-1 79.40 289.28b 209.88b 3.61b LCC (60 kg ha-1) 80.60 325.32a 244.72a 4.02a LSD (0.05) 37.57 31.47 0.386 SEm (±) 8.016 8.02 0.098 CV(%) 4.8 6.7 4.7 Grand Mean 79.13 286.76 207.63 3.60 Treatment means in columns followed by common letters are not significantly different from each other based on DMRT at 5% level of significance

Table 4. GNU of black rice as influenced by the interaction between crop geometry and N management at Rampur, Chitwan in 2015- 16.

GNU (kg ha-1) Nitrogen management practices Crop geometry 20cm × 20cm 20cm ×15cm 15cm ×15cm

30 kg ha-1 11.98d 12.68cd 10.06d

60 kg ha-1 9.99d 17.17abc 18.48ab

LCC (60 kg ha-1) 14.69bcd 13.53cd 21.21a

Treatment means in columns followed by common letters are not significantly different from each other based on DMRT at 5% level of significance.

Table 5. Net return of black rice as influenced by the interaction between crop geometry and N management at Rampur, Chitwan in 2015-16.

Net return (NRs. thousand ha-1) Nitrogen management practices Crop geometry 20cm × 20cm 20cm ×15cm 15cm ×15cm

30 kg ha-1 206.7cd 234.5cd 217.7cd

60 kg ha-1 166.1d 271.4bc 359.7ab

LCC (60 kg ha-1) 284.2bc 222.4cd 404.0a

Treatment means in columns followed by common letters are not significantly different from each other based on DMRT at 5% level of significance.

175 Suraj Singh Karkee et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 171-176 (2019) Table 6. Gross return of black rice as influenced by the interaction between crop geometry and N management at Rampur, Chitwan in 2015-16. Gross return (NRs. thousand ha-1)

Nitrogen management practices Crop geometry

20cm × 20cm 20cm ×15cm 15cm ×15cm 30 kg ha-1 279.4cd 315.5cd 299.4cd 60 kg ha-1 240.8d 351.1bc 443.5ab LCC (60 kg ha-1) 360.2bc 300.1cd 488.9a Treatment means in columns followed by common letters are not significantly different from each other based on DMRT at 5% level of significance.

Table 7. B: C ratio of black rice as influenced by the interaction between crop geometry and N management at Agronomy farm, AFU, Rampur in 2015-16.

B: C ratio

Nitrogen management practices Crop geometry

20cm × 20cm 20cm ×15cm 15cm ×15cm

30 kg ha-1 3.84cd 3.90cd 3.66cd

60 kg ha-1 3.22d 4.40bcd 5.27ab

LCC (60 kg ha-1) 4.74abc 3.86cd 5.76a

Treatment means in columns followed by common letters are not significantly different from each other based on DMRT at 5% level of significance.

Conclusion efficiency in wheat as influenced by leaf color chart and chlorophyll meter based nitrogen management. International Journal of Current Microbiology and This investigation concluded that black rice is low responsive to Applied Sciences, 6(12): 1696–1704. Haque, M.A., Razzaque, A.H.M., Haque, A.N.A. and Ullah, M.A. (2012). Effect of applied nitrogen but found relatively higher uptake of nitrogen plant spacing and nitrogen on yield of transplant aman rice var. BRRI in LCC based nitrogen management in closer crop geometry (15 dhan52. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 4(02): 52-59. cm × 15 cm). Highest monetary return (404.0 thousand ha-1) and Jena, S., Poonam, A. and Nayak, B.C. (2010). Response of hybrid rice to time of highest B: C ratio (5.76) can be obtained from LCC based nitro- planting and plant density. ORYZA-An International Journal on Rice, 47(1): 48-52. gen management with closer spacing (15 cm × 15 cm). Therefore Karim, A.A. and C. Ramasamy. (2000). Expanding frontiers of agriculture: contem- Black rice can be grown profitably in closer crop geometry (15 porary issues. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India. cm×15 cm) with LCC based nitrogen management. Khadka, R.B. (2016). Evaluation of Black rice under different fertilizer doses in western Terai, Nepal. Nepal Journals Online, 4:136–141,

http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ ajn.v4i0.15536 Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under Kumar, D., Devakumar, C., Kumar, R., Das, A., Panneerselvam, P. and Shivay, Y.S. the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, (2010). Effect of neem-oil coated prilled urea with varying thickness of neem which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction -oil coating and nitrogen rates on productivity and nitrogen-use efficiency of lowland irrigated rice under Indo-Gangetic plains. Journal of Plant Nutrition, in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are 33(13):1939-1959, https://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2010.512053 credited. Kushwaha, U.K. (2016). Black rice anthocyanin content increases with increase in altitude of its plantation. Advances in Plants & Agriculture Research, 5(1): 1–4, https://doi.org/10.15406/apar.2016.05.00170 REFERENCES Maiti, D., Das, D.K., Karak, T. and Banerjee, M. (2004). Management of nitrogen through the use of leaf color chart (LCC) and soil plant analysis development Aulakh, M.S. and Singh, B. (1996). Nitrogen losses and fertilizer N use efficiency in (SPAD) or chlorophyll meter in rice under irrigated ecosystem. The Scientific irrigated porous soils. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 47(3): 197-212, World Journal, 4: 838-846. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01986275 Mondal, M.M.A., Puteh, A.B., Ismail, M.R. and Rafii, M.Y. (2013). Optimizing plant Bhat, T.A., Kotru, R., Verma, A., Ganai, M.A., Latie, Dar, L.A. and Teli, N.A. (2017). spacing for modern rice varieties. International Journal of Agriculture & Leaf colour chart based n management for yield, nutrient uptake and yield of Biology, 15(1): 175-178. rice genotypes. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sci- Peng, S., Cassman, K.G. and Kropff, M.J. (1955). Relationship between leaf photo- ences, 6(9): 3531-3538 synthesis and nitrogen content of field grown rice in the tropics. Crop Chaudhary, R.C. (2003). Speciality rices of the world: Effect of WTO and IPR on its Science, 35: 1627-1630. production trend and marketing. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, Rakshit, A., Singh, H.B. and Sen, A. (2015). Nutrient use efficiency: From 1(2): 34-41 basics to advances. Springer, 417, Dhyani, V.C., Chaturvedi, S. and Gouda, H.S. (2017). Growth, yield and nitrogen use https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2169-2

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Satpute, S.B., Surje, D.T. and Maity, S.K. (2014). Leaf colour chart based nitrogen Sikdar, M.S.I., Rahman, M.M., Islam, M.S., Yeasmin, M.S. and Akhter, M.M. (2008). management in rice-its economic, environmental and technological Effects of nitrogen level of aromatic rice varieties and soil fertility status. dimensions. Journal of Agriculture Technology, 1(2): 62-65 International Journal of Sustainable Crop Production, 3(3): 49-54.

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CASE STUDY

Impacts of rainfall and temperature variation on maize (Zea mays L.) yields: A case study of Mbeya Region, Tanzania Peter Batho1*, Nyimvua Shaban1 and Agnes Mwakaje2 1Department of Mathematics, University of Dar es Salaam, TANZANIA 2Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, TANZANIA *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 14 April 2019 Based on the multiple regression model the impacts of rainfall and temperature on maize (Zea Revised received: 15 May 2019 mays L.) yields in Mbeya region have been analyzed. Overall, findings revealed that the seven Accepted: 25 May 2019 selected variables, that is, January maximum temperature, February maximum temperature,

April maximum temperature, Rainfall from February to April, Rainfall during growing season,

December rainfall and October maximum temperature influenced maize yields in the region Keywords by 65.4%. Diversely, the results showed 34.6% wasn’t explained by the model, meaning that Maize (Zea mays L.) there are other factors apart from temperature and rainfall could be used to explain the varia- Mbeya region tion of maize (Z. mays) yield in the region. Furthermore, taking 1990 -2012 as baseline period,

Rainfall the model projection for a period of 2020-2042 shows that maize (Z. mays) yield may change Regression model from 1.5% to 2.3%, 2.6% to 3.6% and 2.4% to 3.5 %, as a result of separate future influence of Tanzania 10% decrease in rainfall, 10C raise in temperature and combined influence of both tempera- Temperature Yields ture and rainfall change, respectively. Nevertheless, the findings from this study, reveals that Mbeya region may still be potential maize (Z. mays) growing region in the prescribed period provided the magnitude change of both future rainfall and temperature hold and other factors not explained by the model do not change significantly. Therefore, the government must focus to conduct more research on uses of appropriate maize (Z. mays) varieties to obtain the maximum maize (Z. mays) crop yield in the region.

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Batho, P., Shaban, N. and Mwakaje, A. (2019). Impacts of rainfall and temperature variation on maize (Zea mays L.) yields: A case study of Mbeya Region, Tanzania. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 177-184, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040208

INTRODUCTION the models are calibrated for individual sites and are assumed to be accurate to simulate crop responses over that particular site A better understanding of the impacts of climate change and (Lobell and Field, 2007). Furthermore, the scarcity of reliable variability on crop yields to a stakeholder in the agricultural data on weather, soil and management limits the use of models sector is of vital importance for proper planning in farming prac- as an extensive predictive tool in evaluation as well as for plan- tices. One of the useful ways in enhancing such understanding is ning and thus models have ended up providing only ‘best-guess’ the use of models related results. Statistical and process based estimates (Jones et al., 2003; Schlenker and Roberts, 2009). models are prominent in anticipating the effects of climate Statistical models employ historical data on crop yields and change and variability on crop production. Process based climate to develop statistical relationships. The main models usually simulate crop responses to specific weather, soil, advantages of these models are on their limited dependence on management and crop factors governing agricultural productivi- field calibration data, transparence during model uncertainties ty (White et al., 2011). Despite of their contribution in examining assessment through the use of coefficients of determination and the effects of climate change on agricultural productivity, there confidence intervals as well as their usefulness at large spatial are some limitations associated to these models. For instance, scales. However, absence of adaptation responses in examining

Peter Batho et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 177-184 (2019) 178 the future crop response projection is one of the limitations of Livestock and Fisheries Development and Tanzania statistical models; for instance, changes in varieties grown, Meteorological Agency (TMA). The meteorological and maize planting and harvesting dates, and so on, are not taken into (Zea mays L.) yield data included monthly rainfall and rainfall account (Lobell and Burke, 2010). during growing season, minimum and maximum temperatures Different studies conducted to investigate the impact of climate as well as maize (Z. mays) yields in Mbeya region. Time series change on crop production in Tanzania have reported mixed data (1990 -2012) covered 23 years were used for this study. relationship between climate change and variability on crop Table 1, shows the variables used in the study, namely, production. Lema et al. (2014) reported the existence of positive observed maize (Z. mays)yields (OMY) as response variable and relationship between rainfall and maize and beans; and negative explanatory variables were January maximum temperature relationship between temperature and maize and beans. Haji (Tjanmax), February maximum temperature (Tfebmax), April (2013) identified a positive correlation between rainfalls, mean maximum temperature (Taprmax), Rainfall from February to minimum temperature and maize yield, but maximum tempera- April (Rfa), Rainfall during growing season (Rgs), December ture showed a negative relationship. Mongi et al. (2012); rainfall (Rdec) and October maximum temperature (Toctmax). Mndeme (2016) and Majule (2015) reported that climatic varia- Table 1, shows the climatic and maize (Z. mays) yields data used bles, especially change of rainfall and temperature lead to the in the study area. reduction of crop production. Rowhani et al. (2011), applied CERES (Crop Environment Resource Synthesis) model to exam- About the study area ine the ability of statistical models to predict yield responses to Mbeya region lies between latitude 7° and 9°31’ south of the changes in mean temperature and precipitation. The results equator and between longitude 32° and 35° east of Greenwich. reveal that both models projected maize yields decrease. This The region lies at an altitude of 500 metres above sea level with study assesses the impacts of rainfall and temperature variation high peaks of 2981 metres above sea level at Rungwe higher on maize yields in Mbeya region in Tanzania using multiple attitudes. The region shares borders with countries of Zambia regression model. The choice of the model is linked to the and Malawi to the South; Rukwa Region to the West; Tabora and availability and nature of the data as well as transparence in Singida Regions to the North; while Iringa region lies to its East assessing the model. Mbeya region is chosen as a case study (URT, 2007). In 2015 Mbeya region was divided into two regions area because; the region is the biggest maize producer in the of Mbeya and Songwe. The region usually receives rainy from country (URT, 2007). Maize (Zea mays L.) in the region as well as October to May ranging from 650mm to 2600 mm per annual in the country is a major staple food, most marketed crop, and while dry season starts from June to September. The region also determinant of the national maize surplus. Furthermore, to the experiences the temperatures range from about 16°C in the best knowledge of authors, there is no single study which has highlands to 30°C in the lowland areas (Figure 1) (URT, 2007). been conducted in the study area to assess the combined future Southern highland zone in the major maize (Z. mays) producer, impacts of rainfall and temperature variation on maize (Z. mays) accounting for about 33% of the total maize production in the yields using multiple regression models. country. Mbeya region alone accounts for 11% of the maize produced in the zone (AGPTAP, 2015). Maize (Z. mays) in MATERIALS AND METHODS Mbeya region is both a major staple food and most marketed crop (in volume terms). This being the case, maize (Z. mays) is Collection of data of vital importance to the region considering its level of The secondary data used in this study were collected from the production as well as an important determinant of the national Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Ministry of maize surplus.

Figure 1. Depicts major maize production regions in Tanzania, including the study area (Source: Luhunga, 2017).

179 Peter Batho et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 177-184 (2019)

Table 1. Depicts the climatic and maize (Z. mays) yields data used in the study.

OMY Tjanmax Tfeb Taprmax RFA RGS Rdec Toctmax Year (tanne/ha) (0C) (0C) (0C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (0C) 1990 1.80 23.2 23.7 23.6 318.5 697.5 202.4 27.4 1991 1.90 23.2 24.5 23.5 390.5 797.2 215.8 25.6 1992 2.40 24.1 23.8 23.5 390.1 768.9 137.8 26.8 1993 1.70 22.6 23.2 23.1 428.9 846.3 20.4 26.6 1994 1.70 23.9 22.9 23.0 446.9 826.2 110.8 26.7 1995 1.70 23.7 23.1 23.3 507.3 881.5 106.6 27.6 1996 1.70 23.6 23.0 23.2 504.2 1061.9 235.9 27.5 1997 1.70 24.5 23.2 23.3 423.5 992.3 372.4 26.7 1998 1.90 23.4 23.4 23.4 442.0 743.2 76.6 27.0 1999 1.40 22.7 24.9 23.4 449.8 948.3 144.7 25.8 2000 2.00 24.0 23.9 23.6 461.2 918.1 252.6 27.1 2001 2.30 22.2 23.6 23.5 305.1 846.6 174.5 25.9 2002 1.20 22.8 24.0 23.4 396.1 766.1 153.9 27.3 2003 2.00 23.9 25.1 23.6 321.7 772.5 162.3 27.4 2004 2.30 24.6 23.9 23.4 388.3 896.6 286.9 26.7 2005 2.20 23.9 25.6 23.7 315.2 641.3 112.9 27.1 2006 2.00 24.8 24.6 23.0 369.3 991.6 319.6 27.7 2007 1.80 23.6 24.1 23.4 352.2 842.4 209.1 27.0 2008 2.20 23.3 23.3 23.4 432.7 905.5 167.4 27.3 2009 2.20 24.4 23.5 23.3 443.4 897.6 160.7 27.8 2010 1.90 24.6 24.2 23.4 400.8 677.3 93.1 28.1 2011 1.80 24.5 24.2 23.6 453.1 1058.4 356.3 27.3 2012 1.80 24.4 25.4 23.6 283.1 695.4 187.3 28.2

Regression model development Normality assumption Normality assumption considers that variables have normal Model assumptions distributions. When the variables are not normally distributed, In developing the multiple regression model to be used in they can distort relationships and significance tests (Osborne predicting the impacts of future rainfall and temperature and Waters, 2002). Shapiro-Wilk test is useful in examining the variation on maize (Z. mays) yields in Mbeya region, we first normality assumption whereby comparison is done between pre check the assumptions for multiple linear regression model. -assigned significance level and Shapiro-Wilk Test value. Shapiro-Wilk test is used when the sample size is less than 2000 Linearity assumption (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965). If the significance value of the Shapiro The linearity assumption requires that the relationship between -Wilk test is greater than the pre-assigned significance level the dependent variable and independent variables is linear. then the data is normal, and once it is below the pre – assigned Garson (2012) suggests that a proper method detect linearity is significance level then the data significantly deviate from a to run regression analysis. normal distribution. The p-values of dependent and independ- In this study, if there is a significant linear relationship between ent variables using Shapiro –Wilk test are shown in Table 3. the independent variables (climatic variables), xi, i=1,…….,7 and The Shapiro - Wilk p- value for each variable is greater than the dependent variable (maize yield), yj , i=1,…, 23, the slope will 0.005 (Table 3). The test suggests that the residuals are approxi- not equal zero. The null hypothesis therefore states that the mately normally distributed, meaning that the normality slope is equal to zero, and the alternative hypothesis states that assumption is met. Therefore the variables used in this study are the slope is not equal to zero. Table 2 indicates the results from normally distributed. analysis of variance for the test of goodness of fit of the model at significance level of 5%. Independence of errors assumption Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (Table 2) indicates that p-value This assumption requires that the regression model errors are (0.011) < 0.05, in this case null hypothesis is rejected. The test independent; that is, the error terms are uncorrelated for any provide evidence that the linear relationship between maize two observations (Mooi and Sarstedt, 2011). DW test is a yields and January maximum temperature, February maximum prominent statistic test used in testing for the occurrence of temperature, April maximum temperature, rainfall from Febru- serial correlation between residuals. The value of DW statistics ary to April, rainfall during growing season, December rainfall ranges between 0 and 4. DW value below 1.5 or larger than 2.5 and October maximum temperature exists. indicates a problem. We apply DW to test this assumption.

Peter Batho et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 177-184 (2019) 180

2 The model summary for this study indicates that the values of R, denote as VIFi and is defined by the equation VIFi = 1/1-Ri , 2 R square, Adjusted R square, Standard error of the estimate and where Ri is the multiple coefficient of determination for the DW are 0.809, 0.654, 0.493, 0.2065 and 1.953 respectively. The regression. There is no formal VIF cut off value for examining DW statistic is 1.953 which is between 1.5 and 2.5, in this case the existence of multicolinearity but (Alauddin and Nghiemb, the data is not autocorrelated, implying that independence 2010), recommend the VIF cut off point of 10, because a value assumption is met and errors associated with the data used in greater than 10 is often used as an indication of potential this study are uncorrelated. multicollinearity problem.

Homoscedasticity assumption The model Homo (equal) scedasticity (spread) is the assumption that the Suppose we denote X1=Tjanmax (0C), X2=Tfebmax (0C), X3 error variance denoted by is equal for all observations. On the =Taprmax (0C), X4=Rfa (mm), X5= Rgs (mm), X6 = Rdec (mm), other hand, heteroskedasticity is the violation of the homosce- X7 = Toctmax (0C), and Y represents maize yields (tonne/ha), dasticity assumption. Gelfand (2013) asserts that when this then the Regression Model relating these variables may be happens, the OLS estimates become inefficient, the regular written as: standard errors of these estimates are wrong, leading to incor- rect inferences. According to Chong (1993) the assumption of This system of n equations can be written equivalently in matrix homogenous variance of residuals is highly affected by outliers format as: because of large residuals. In this study we use the Glejser test method which is applied by performing the regression analysis y=β+x+βx011 22 +βx+βx 33 44 +βx 55 + and use the absolute residuals from the regression to test for β6 x 6 +β 7 x 7 + ε (1) the heteroskedasticity assumption. where, The multiple regression equation relating the residuals and the climatic variables is given by; β0 is the intercept when all x are set equal to zero and β through β are regression    X   X ......   X  e 17 ui 0 1 1 2 2 k k i coefficients population parameters. x1 thro - where, 0 through k are residuals parameters, ugh x7 are the explanatory variables and XX through are the explanatory variables, 1 k ε is the random error (residual) compon -

and ei , i 1,2,..., k is an error term. ent. To test for heteroskedasticity , we have the follo-

wing hypotheses: Suppose n>k observations are available, and yi H0:0 0  1   2   3   4   5   6   7  denotes the ith observed response and xij deno- H : 0, at least one of the 's is not equal to 1 ii tes the ith observation of explanatory variable x . zero, for i=1,2,....,7. j Then, the classical linear regression model is If the significant value of each of the explanatory variable is given by: greater than the significant level (α), then, the null hypothesis is accepted (there is no problem of heteroskedasticity). On the other hand, if the significant value of each of the explanatory y=iβ 0 + 1 x 1i +β 2 x 2i +...... +β k x ki variable is greater than the significant level (α), the null hypoth- +εi (i = 1, 2, ....., n) (2) esis is rejected (there is problem of heteroskedasticity). The p- we can write the equation for each value (from Table 4) of each of the residual parameters X1 through X7 is greater than a preassigned significance level of observation as a sytems of n equations 0.005. This means that null hypothesis is accepted and for the classical linear regression model heteroskedasticity is not a problem. (equation 2) as follows :

Multicollinearity assumption By definition, multicollinearity is a situation in which there is an y1 = β 0 +β 1 x 11 +β 2 x 12 +...... + β k x 1k + ε 1 exact or nearly relation among two or more of the input varia- y=2β 0 +β 1 x 21 +β 2 x 22 +...... + β k x 2k + ε 2 bles (Hawking and Pendleton, 1983). If the explanatory varia- ...... bles are highly correlated may result into inappropriate model, ...... erroneous conclusion and sometimes insignificant parameters y=β +β x +β x +...... + β x + ε with significant model (Vaughan and Berry, 2005; Hawking and n 0 1 n1 2 n2 k nk n Pendleton, 1983). The VIF is widely used to test the extent of This system of n equations can be written multicollinearity. The variance inflation factor for variable Xi is equivalently in matrix format as :

181 Peter Batho et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 177-184 (2019)

y = Xβ + ε (3) The estimated coefficients of the model generate the predicted where, values given by; y is n×1 vectors

β is m×1 vectors and     y = +  X +  X +  X + X is n×m vectors. 0 11 2 2 3 3     X +  X +  X  X + ε (8) where, 44 5 5 6 6 7 7 m = k +1 is the number of parameters.  From table 6,  23.716,   0.499,  01 Let β be k×1 vector of estimates of β, then    the estimated model (equqtion 3) may be   0.289,   1.161,    0.006 , 2 3 4 written as :     5 0.003,  6   0.004, and  7   0.219. y = Xβ+ e (4) Hence equation (8) becomes : e is n×1 vector of residues, computed as :

 e = y - Xβ (5) Y =- 23.716 + 0.499 X1i0.289 X 2i To determine the least square estimator, i

we write the sum of squares of the resi - 1.161XXX3i 0.006 4i +0.003 5i

 dues (a function of β) as : 0.004X6i 0.219 X 7i + ε (9)  n T S(β) = e2T = e e =  (6) Equation  9 represents the model that describes  i y - Xβ  y - Xβ i=1 the relationship between maize yields and climatic variables.

 S(β) The minimum of is obtained by setting the derivatives TestingTesting the the significance significance of the of themodel Model

 To be sure that the model works well and produces S(β) of equal to zero. reliable results, testing its siginificance is vital impor -

tance. The significanceof the model is tested by formula -

 ting two hypotheses. The model hypotheses are stated S( β)  =-2XTT y+2X Xβ =0 below.  S(β)

Null hypothesis

 XTT y=X Xβ (7) = 0; none of the explanatory variables is significant.

Multiplying both sides of equation (7) by we have;

 TT-1 β = X X X y Alternative hypothesis

0, for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; at least one of the explanato-       β ,β , β , β , β , ry variables is not equal to zero. Since k = 7, then β = 0 1 2 3 4    β5 ,β 6 ,β 7 From analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Table 2), the Test statistic equal to 4.051 and its corresponding p- value (0.011) is less than 5%, implying that there is strong statistical evidence that at

       least one of the regression coefficient in non –zero. We use t-  0    3   5 67 and test to examine the significance of each (individual) explanatory Where, , 1 , 2 , , 4 , , variable. Since the p-value for each explanatory variable is less

0  2  4 than 0.05 this implies that all climatic variables are non–zero. are the estimators of , 1 , , 3 , , Therefore the developed model is significance.

5,  6 , and  7 respectively.

Peter Batho et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 177-184 (2019) 182

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Maize yields change due to separate and combined future impact of rainfall and temperature We focus on results from the regression model in assessing the In this study, we consider the future rainfall decrease of 10% impacts of rainfall and temperature variations on maize (Z. and 1°C increase in temperature to predict the separate and mays) yields in Mbeya region. We first show the predictive combine impact of both temperature and rainfall on maize ability of the model by examining the coefficient of multiple (Z. mays) yields in Mbeya region. Lobell and Burke (2010) argue determination and p- value in relation to the significance level. that time series models can extremely be useful for projections Then, we present the projection of the impacts of rainfall and for the next 20-30 years. Therefore, taking 1990 -2012 as temperature variation on maize (Z. mays) yields in the region in the baseline period, the study may predict the future influence 2020 -2042 period, taking 1990- 2012 as the baseline period by of these climatic changes on maize (Z. mays) yields in 2020- considering the temperature increase of 1°C and rainfall 2042 period taking the maximum projection of 30 years. decrease of 10% in the prescribed period. The choice of two Table 6, describes maize (Z. mays) yield change due to future climatic variable variations in future is based on result from separate and combined impact of rainfall and temperature climate models for Tanzania which project that future average variation. annual temperature may increase between 1°C-3°C, and the areas which receive uni modal rainfall seasons, could experience Future impact of rainfall variation on maize (Z. mays) yield in annual rainfall decrease of 5% - 15% (United Republic of Mbeya region Tanzania, 2014). Considering the rainfall variable alone, the model indicates that the coefficients of total rainfall from February to April (Rfa), Goodness of fit of the model rainfall during growing season (Rgs) and December rainfall The result showed that predictive model for maize (Z. mays) (Rdec) are -0.006, +0.003 and -0.004, respectively. This being yield was statistically significant with α ≤ 0.05 (Table 2). The the case, Rfa and Rdec impact maize (Z. mays) yields negatively. value of R2 = 0.654, indicating that 65.4% of the variation in Importantly, Rgs, rainfall during the growing season is positive maize (Z. mays) yield in Mbeya region is explained by the climatic and favours maize (Z. mays) yields in the region. Generally, the variables. On the other hand, 34.6% could be attributed to other rainfall decrease of 10% may cause the maize (Z. mays) yields in factors not captured by the model (Figure 2). Mbeya region to change between 1.5% to 2.3% in 2020 -2042 taking 1992 -2012 as baseline period. Baijukya et al. (2016) suggest that maize usually needs about 500mm -1500 mm of rainfall per growing season although some maize types can do well with as little as 250 mm of rainfall. Examining the rainfall per growing season from the data, rainfall decrease of 10% may cause the rainfall during the growing season to fall into the range of 577mm and 956 mm inclusive. Thus, such decrease in future may not have substantial impact on maize yields in prescribed period, provided other factors not explained by the model do not change significantly.

Figure 2. Observed maize (Z. mays) yields (OMY) and predicted maize yields (PMY) in tonne/ha in Mbeya region of Tanzania.

Table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the test of goodness of fit of the model α =5%. Model Sum of squares Df Mean square F Significance Regression 1.210 7 0.173 4.051 0.011 Residual 0.640 15 0.043 Total 1.850 22

Table 3. Depicts the P- values for dependent and independent Table 4. Depicts the P-value corresponding to the residual variables for Shapiro- Wilk at α =5%. parameters X1 through X7 at α =5%. Variable P-Value Variable P-Value

Y 0.308 X1 0.972

X1 0.372 X2 0.154 X2 0.231 X3 0.164 X3 0.065 X4 0.631 X4 0.384 X5 0.549 X5 0.785 X 0.590 X6 0.559 6

X7 0.336 X7 0.572

183 Peter Batho et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 177-184 (2019)

Future impact of temperature variation on maize (Z. mays) kernels, and thus reduced grain sink strength and yields. This yield in Mbeya region being the case, considering the temperature data used in this Regarding the temperature variable, the model indicates that study, the maximum temperatures in the region will not be the increase of 1°C in 2020-2042, maize (Z. mays) yields in beyond 30°C, implying that the future temperatures change Mbeya region may change between 2.6% to 3.6% (Table 6) in prescribed period by considering the increase of 1°C may still taking 1990-2012 as baseline period. This finding is in agree- be in the limit that is suitable and not harmful for growing ment with the result obtained by Mtongori et al. (2016). They maize. found that increase in temperature favored maize yield in southern part of Tanzania for some cultivars. Importantly, Future impact of combined variation on maize (Z. mays) yield in Statistical studies have indicated that daily maximum tempera- Mbeya region ture greater than approximately 30°C limit maize yields The model results also indicate that the future combined effect (Schlenker and Roberts, 2009; Lobell et al., 2011). Commuri and of both temperature and rainfall may cause maize yields change Jones (2001) found that temperatures above 30°C increasingly between 2.4% and 3.5% in 2020 -2042, taking 1990 -2012 as impaired cell division and amyloplast replication in maize the baseline period.

Table 5. Depicts unstandardized and standardized coefficients, t and p-values and VIF of climatic variables. Unstandardized Standardized Collinearity statistics Variable coefficients coefficients T Significance B Std. Error Beta VIF Constant -23.716 8.482 -2.796 0.014

Tjanmax (X1) 0.499 0.110 1.242 4.521 0.000 3.273

Tfebmax (X2) -0.289 0.088 -0.763 -3.280 0.005 2.349

Taprmax (X3) 1.161 0.348 0.763 3.340 0.004 2.265

Rfa (X4) -0.006 0.001 -1.220 -3.939 0.001 4.159 0.003 0.001 1.201 2.971 0.010 7.079 Rgs (X5) -0.004 0.001 -1.281 -3.460 0.003 5.941 Rdec (X6)

Toctmax (X7) -0.219 0.088 -0.507 -2.495 0.025 1.793

The VIF of all independent variables, that is, VIF of X1, X2, X3, X4, X5 and X6, and X7 are less than 10. This indicates the absence of multicollinearity and implies that variables are not highly correlated.

Table 6. Shows maize (Z. mays) yields change in Mbeya region due to future separate and combined impact of rainfall and temperature variation. OMY Maize yields in % due to Maize yields change in % due to temperature Maize yield change in % due Years (tons/ha) temperature rise by 10C rise of 10C and rainfall decrease of 10% to rainfall decrease of 10% 1990 1.80 3.2 3.0 1.8 1991 1.90 3.0 2.9 1.7 1992 2.40 3.6 3.5 2.3 1993 1.70 3.1 2.9 1.7 1994 1.70 3.2 3.0 1.9 1995 1.70 3.0 2.9 1.7 1996 1.70 2.9 2.8 1.6 1997 1.70 3.3 3.2 2.1 1998 1.90 3.1 2.9 1.8 1999 1.40 2.9 2.7 1.5 2000 2.00 3.2 3.0 1.9 2001 2.30 3.5 3.3 2.2 2002 1.20 2.6 2.4 1.3 2003 2.00 3.5 3.3 2.1 2004 2.30 3.6 3.4 2.3 2005 2.20 3.3 3.2 2.0 2006 2.00 3.0 2.9 1.7 2007 1.80 3.3 3.1 2.0 2008 2.20 3.2 3.0 1.9 2009 2.20 3.4 3.2 2.1 2010 1.90 3.2 3.1 1.9 2011 1.80 3.3 3.2 2.1 2012 1.80 3.4 3.2 2.0

Peter Batho et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 177-184 (2019) 184 Conclusion Haji, S.J. (2013). Assessment of Effects of Climate Variability on Maize Production in Mbeya Region. A Research Project submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the award of Postgraduate Diploma in Meteorology. This study has demonstrated that multiple regression model Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi, pp 26-32. might provide more insight on assessing the effects of rainfall and Hawking, R.R. and Pendleton, O.J. (1983). The regression dilemma. Communica- temperature variation on maize (Z. mays) yields at regional level. tion in Statistics- Theory and Methods, 12: 497-527. Jones, J.W., Hoogenboom, G., Porter C.H., Boote, K.J., Batchelor, W.D., Hunt L.A., Since the model has revealed that change in temperature and Wilkens P.W., Singh, U., Gijsman, A.J. and Ritchie, J.T. (2003). The DSSAT rainfall may have impacts on maize (Z. mays) yields in the region, cropping system model. European Journal of Agronomy, 18: 235-265, the following recommendations are useful: Factors other than https://doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(02)00107-7 temperature and rainfall variables should be included in the Lema, A.A., Munishi, L.K. and Ndakidemi, P.A. (2014). Assessing vulnerability of food availability to climate change in Hai District, Kilimanjaro Region, Tanza- model. This may provide a deep understanding on how various nia. American Journal of Climate Change, 3: 261-271, factors affect maize (Z. mays) yields in the region. Such variables https://doi.org/10.4236/ajcc.2014.33025 could include market access, input use, and extension services Lobell, D.B. and Burke, M.B. (2010). On the use of Statistical models to predict crop yield responses to Climate change. Agriculture and Forest Meteorology, and so on. A comparison study using different type of models https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.agrformet.2010.07.008 should be applied in the study area. The result may provide solid Lobell, D.B. and Field, C.B. (2007). Global scale climate – crop yield relationships standing for informing policy and decisions making process which and the impacts of recent warming. Environmental Research Letters, 2: 1-7. may be useful to agricultural stakeholders in improving maize Lobell, D.B., Schlenker, W. and Costa-Roberts, J. (2011). Climate trends and global crop production since 1980. Science, 333: 616-620, (Z. mays) yield. Since, temperature and rainfall variables have https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204531 impact on maize (Z. mays) yields in the region, the government Luhunga, P.M. (2017). Assessment of the impacts of climate change on maize through the responsible ministry should insist in conducting production in the southern and western highlands sub-agro ecological zones of Tanzania. Retrieved from research frequently in order to come up with suitable maize https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264219739 (Z. mays) varieties that maximize yield in the region. Mndeme, F.G. (2016) Adaptation strategies to climate variability and climate change; Impacts on food security among smallholder farmers in Moshi Rural ACKNOWLEDGEMENT District, Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania: Perceptions, Capacities and Limitations of adaptive strategies. Master Degree Programme in The authors would indeed like to express their sincere gratitude Agro-Environmental Management. Department of Agroecology-Faculty of to the Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA) and the Ministry Science and Technology, Aarhus University, Denmark, pp. 74-76. of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MALF) for their support Majule, A.E. (2015). Climate change risk on agriculture and response strategies by small holder farmers in Lake Victoria Basin, Tanzania. World Journal of on data provision. Agricultural Sciences, 3 (3): 38- 49. Mongi, H., Majule, A.E. and Lyimo, J. G. (2010). Vulnerability and adaptation of rain Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the - fed Agriculture to climate change and vulnerability in semi-arid Tanzania. terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, which African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 4: 371-381. Mooi, E. and Sarstedt, M. (2011). A concise guide to market research: The process, permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any data, and methods using IBM SPSS Statistics. New York: Springer. Retrieved medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are credited. from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-12541-6 Mtongori, H.I., Stordal, F., Benestad, R.E., Mourice, S.K., Pereira-Flores, M.E. and Justino, F. (2015). Impacts of climate change and farming management on REFERENCES maize yield in southern Tanzania. African Crop Science Journal, 23(4): 399 -417. Osborne, J. and Waters, E. (2002). Four assumptions of multiple regressions that AGPTAP, Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper (2015). researchers should always test. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, Tanzania: Agricultural sector risk assessment. Washington, USA. pp. 22-23. 8(2): 1-5. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org Rowhani, P., Lobell, D.B., Linderman, M. and Ramankutty, N. (2011). Climate varia- Alauddin, M. and Nghiemb, H.S. (2010). Do instructional attributes pose bility and crop production in Tanzania. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, multicollinearity problems? An empirical exploration. Economic Analysis and 151: 449-460. Policy, 40:351- 362. Schlenker, W. and Roberts, M.J. (2009). Nonlinear temperature effects indicate Baijukya, F., Wairegi, L., Giller, K., Zingore, S., Chiwoko, R. and Mapfumo, P. (2016). severe damages to U.S. crop yields under climate change. Proceedings of the Maize- Legume Cropping guide. Africa Soil health Consortium, Nairobi, pp. National Academy of Sciences, 106: 15594-15598. 4-6. Retrieved from http:// africasoilhealth.cabi.org Shapiro, S.S. and Wilk, M.B. (1965). An analysis of variance test for normality Chong, H.Y. (1993). Use and effectiveness of navigational aids in hypertext. A (complete samples), Biometrika, 52: 591-611. Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the URT, United Republic of Tanzania (2014). Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and. Requirements for the Degree of Master of Education. University of Cooperatives. Agriculture Climate Resilience Plan 2014- 2019, pp. 12 -15. Oklahoma Graduate College, pp. 17 -18. Retrieved from United Republic of Tanzania (2007). National Sample Census of agriculture http://www.creative-wisdom.com/education/thesis/thesis.PDF 2002/2003.Volume VI: Regional Report: Mbeya region, pp. 40-42, Retrieved Commuri, P.D. and Jones, R.D. (2001). 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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 185-189 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040209

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Effect of genotype on proximate composition and biological yield of maize (Zea mays L.) Sayed Hasanul Kabir1, Ashim Kumar Das2* , Md. Sadiqur Rahman3, Samiron Kumar Singh4, Monjur Morshed5 and Aung Sing Hla Marma6 1Department of Biochemistry, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, BANGLADESH 2Department of Agroforestry and Environment, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur–1706, BANGLADESH 3Scientific Officer, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Moulovibazar, BANGLADESH 4Department of Biochemistry, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, BANGLADESH 5Department of Soil Science, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur–1706, BANGLADESH 6Department of Agronomy, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur–1706, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 18 April 2019 An experiment was conducted to study the proximate composition of five released maize Revised received: 11 May 2019 varieties (Zea mays L.) of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), which was popu- Accepted: 22 May 2019 larly growing in Bangladesh namely BHM-5, BHM-8, BHM-13, BHM-15, and Barnali. There

was none a single variety performed best in all nutrient parameters. Among these maize varie-

ties, the highest grain weight of 100 seeds, and yield was found in BHM-15 (32.84g and 12.6 Keywords ton/ha). In the case of proximate analysis, the highest protein, ash, and fat content was record- Genotype ed from BHM-15 (13.11%, 2.33%, and 5.44%), the highest carbohydrate content was recorded Maize (Zea mays L.) from BHM-13 (82.40%), and the highest amount of fiber was recorded from BHM-5 (2.07%).

Nutrient and mineral composition On the other hand, the lowest amount of carbohydrate and protein was recorded from BHM- Proximate composition 15 (77.67%) and BHM-8 (10.96%), respectively. BHM-13 contained the lowest amount of fiber (1.24%) and fat (4.27%). Barnali and BHM-15 showed better performance for most of the minerals. The findings concluded that the different genotypes of maize differ substantially in their chemical and mineral compositions.

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Kabir, S.H., Das, A.K., Rahman, M.S., Singh, S.K., Morshed, M. and Marma, A.S.H. (2019). Effect of genotype on proximate composition and biological yield of maize (Zea mays L.). Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 185-189, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040209 INTRODUCTION plasticity. By origin, it is a tropical crop and has adapted magnificently to temperate environments with much higher Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important cereal crop in the productivity. It is grown from latitude 580 N to 400 S, from sea world after wheat and rice. Maize literally means that which level to higher than 3000 m altitude and in areas receiving “sustains life”. Pieces of evidence from Botany, yearly rainfall of 250 to 5000 mm (Dowswell et al., 1996; Genetics and Cytology have pointed towards a common origin Premlatha and Kalamani, 2010). The United States of America for every existing type of maize (2n = 20). Maize belongs to has the largest cultivated area of corn. Major maize producers Family Poaceae and Genus Zea. Maize is a highly cross- are the USA (30%), China (15%), European Union (14%), Brazil pollinated species. It was also one of the first plant species iden- (4%) and India (3%). These five countries have around 60% of tified to photosynthesize by C4 pathway with high yield poten- the world’s corn harvested area (Annonymous, 2007; Tao Ye et tial. The suitability of maize to diverse environments is al., 2015). unmatched by any other crop as the expansion of maize to new Maize is used as a basic food ingredient, either in its original or areas and environment still continues, as it has a range of modified form. Maize grains are a rich source of starch (72%),

Sayed Hasanul Kabir et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 185-189 (2019) 186 ash (17%), protein (10.4%), fiber (2.5%), oil (4.8%), vitamins and minerals (Farhad et al., 2009; Zhiqiang et al., 2018). The oil and protein contents have commercial value and are used in food products manufacturing (Paliwal, 2000). Maize is used primarily as a food for humans in most areas of the world, in contrast to the United States where about 85 percent of the crop is used as cattle feed. Maize is used for livestock feeds in a variety of ways. It may be used for grain, silage, hogging down, grazing and forage. Most of the crop in the United States is used for grain. About 40 percent is fed to hogs, followed by cattle (29%) and poultry (19%). The mixed feed manufacturing industry is the largest industrial user of shelled grain. Byproducts of processing are gluten feed, gluten meal, oil cake meal, germ meal, distiller’s and brewer’s grains. About three-fourths of the mixed feed Figure 1. Photograph showing variations in seed coat color, seed size and industries output is manufactured poultry and dairy feed. shape of maize varieties (Z. mays). American industries are greatly interested in the starch part of the kernel. In general, it has a great worldwide significance as human food, Determination of 100 grain seed weight animal feed and a source of a large number of industrial The mass was determined by randomly selecting 25 seed products. It has the highest potential of per day carbohydrate samples and weighing in an electronic balance of 0.001 g sensi- productivity. Thus, the father of the green revolution, the tivity. The weight was then converted into 100 seed mass. renowned Noble Laureate, Dr. Norman E. Borlaug, stated that “After the last two decades saw the revolution in rice and Determination of moisture wheat, the next few decades will be known as maize era”. A The moisture content of maize sample was determined by the number of genotypes e.g. single crosses, double crosses, three- method of (Ezeagu et al., 2011). The drying, cooling, and weigh- way crosses, vertical hybrids, multiple hybrids composites, syn- ing were continued repeatedly until a constant weight was thetics, pools, populations etc. are feasible to maize growing obtained by the difference. The weight of the moisture loss was farmers for commercial cultivation by virtue of the crop being determined and expressed in percentage. The procedure was highly cross-pollinated (Tao Ye et al., 2015; Zhiqiang et al., repeated for samples. It was calculated as shown below: 2018). Though maize is an important crop occupies a huge area in Bangladesh chemical characteristics contributing to yield are not clearly understood. Keeping in view of the above facts the present investigations were undertaken to evaluate the physical and chemical composition of different varieties of maize, to Determination of ash compare the physico-chemical parameters and nutrition quality The sample is ignited at 600°C to burn off organic material. The of different varieties of maize and to identify nutritionally po- inorganic material which does not volatilize at that temperature tential maize varieties for the welfare of human being. is called ash. The procedure was described by Ranganna (1986). It was calculated as shown below: MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was conducted at the Laboratory of Department of Biochemistry, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; and, oilseed research center and Chemical analysis soil science division, BARI, Gazipur, Bangladesh. Five released variety of maize namely Barnali (Evolved by the BARI in 2005 Estimation of fats and grain is small in size and yellow in color), BHM-5 (Evolved by The fat content of the samples was determined by the continu- the BARI in 2005 and grain is big in size and yellow in ous solvent extraction using a Soxhlet apparatus by the methods color), BHM-8 (Evolved by the BARI in 2005 and grain is big in of Hughes (1969) which contains usual lipids including waxed size and yellow in color), BHM-13 (Evolved by the BARI in 2005 pigments, certain gums, and resins. A better name for these and grain is big in size and white in color), BHM-15 (Evolved by constituents would be “ether soluble extract”. It was calculated the BARI in 2005 and grain is big in size and yellow in color) as shown below: were selected for the study. The seeds were collected from Bangladesh Agriculture Research Institute (BARI). Seeds were cleaned, sun-dried and stored into a plastic container in a cool place until used for the chemical analysis (Figure 1).

187 Sayed Hasanul Kabir et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 185-189 (2019)

Estimation of total protein content by Micro Kjeldhal method tion, 1 ml aliquot from dilution 1, 9 ml of water and 10 ml of color The protein content of foodstuff is obtained by estimating the reagent were mixed together. It was allowed to stand about 20 nitrogen content of the material and multiplying the nitrogen minutes and reading was taken of the spectrophotometer at 680 value by 6.25 (according to the fact that nitrogen constitutes on nm. For calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) determination, 1 ml average 16% of a protein molecule). This is referred to as crude aliquot from dilution 1, 9 ml of water and 10 ml of 1% lanthanum protein content since the non-protein nitrogen (NPN) present in solution were mixed together. It was analyzed by AA procedure. the material is not taken into consideration. The estimation of For Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn) determination, the original filtrate was nitrogen is done by the Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 1984). used to analyze these elements by the AA procedure.

Statistical analysis The recorded data for each character from the experiments were analyzed statistically to find out the variation resulting Where 14.007 is the equivalent weight of nitrogen from experimental treatments using R software. The mean for Nitrogen % is converted into protein by multiplying with a all the treatments was calculated and analysis of variance of factor 6.25 for cereals and pulses. characters under the study was performed by F variance test. The mean differences were evaluated by Least Significance test. Estimation of carbohydrate Total carbohydrate estimated by the methods of Raghuramulu RESULTS AND DISCUSSION et al. (2003). The content of the available carbohydrate was determined by the following equation: Biological yields The highest weight of 100-grain weight was found in BHM-15 Carbohydrate = 100 − {(Moisture+ Fat protein +Ash+ Oil/Fats) (32.84g) where the lowest weight was found in BHM-13 g/100g} (26.40g). According to Jha et al. (1979), variation ranged from 10.8 to 25.7 g in 100 grain weight which might as much as Estimation of minerals similar. Duncan and Hesketh (1968) observed the variation in plant height of different genotypes in maize ranging from 120 Digestion solution cm to 300 cm where highest plant height in BHM-5 (153.98 cm) Concentrated Perchloric acid (100ml) was added to 500 ml and lowest in BHM-13 (146.47 cm). However, Yield of BHM-15 concentrated HNO3 to prepare the nitric-perchloric solution. (12.6 ton/ha) showed the highest value where the lowest value was found in Barnali (4.8 ton /ha) which one as similar as report- Digestion of maize seed sample for determination of Ca, Mg, P, ed by Paramasivan et al. (2011) presented in Table 1. Seed dete- S, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Fe and B rioration increased when the moisture content is increased. Maize seeds contain above 18% moisture which may accelerate Analytical procedure insect infestation and diseases. The maximum moisture was Nitric-perchloric solution (1:5) is used for digestion of samples measured in BHM-5 (13.84%) and the minimum was recorded in than by using a combination dilute-dispenser, 1 ml aliquot was BHM-13 (10.22%) which is almost similar to Gopalan et al. taken from the filtrate and 19 ml water (dilution 1) was added. (1985). On the other hand, Ash reported by Cortéz and Wild- The other dilutions were made in the following order. For Altamirano (1972) and Bressani et al. (1958) was more or less sulpher (S) determination, 7 ml of the aliquot from dilution 1, 9 similar with BHM-15 (2.33%) which was the highest value and ml of acid seed solution and 4 ml of turbidimetric solution were lowest amount of ash content (1.24%) showed by BHM-5 mixed together thoroughly. It was allowed to stand 20 minutes followed by BHM-13, Bornali, and BHM-8 (1.67%,1.68%,1.70%). and not longer than 1 hour. The reading was taken in turbid However, BHM-13 contains significantly the highest amount of meter or in colorimeter at 535 nm using a cuvette with 2 cm dry matter (89.78%) and the lowest amount of dry matter light path. For phosphorous (P), and potassium (K) determina- content (86.16%) was recorded in BHM-5.

Table 1. Weight of 100 seeds, plant height, yield, moisture, ash and dry matter of different maize (Z. mays). Name of the varieties 100 seeds Moisture Dry matter Plant height (cm) Yield (ton/ha) Ash (%) (Treatment) weight (g) (%) (%) Bornali 27.36b 147.88c 4.8e 11.65c 1.68b 88.35c BHM-5 27.30b 153.98a 9.4d 13.84a 1.24c 86.16e BHM-8 27.32b 149.47b 10.6c 12.06b 1.70b 87.94d BHM-13 26.40c 146.47d 11.1b 10.22e 1.67b 89.78a BHM-15 32.84a 146.86d 12.6a 11.55d 2.33a 88.45b

LSD(0.05) 0.021 0.138 0.087 0.059 0.055 0.059 CV(%) 13.56 18.32 2.45 0.26 1.66 0.04 Figure in a column followed by common letter do not differ significantly at 5% level by DMRT.

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Proximate analysis of crude fiber contents were found in BHM-5 (2.07%) which was followed by the varieties of BHM-8, Bornali, and BHM-15 Carbohydrate (1.63%, 1.60%, and 1.45%). Significantly lowest amount of crude Generally, starch, reducing sugar and crude fiber are considered fiber content was found in BHM-13 (1.24%). the main components of carbohydrate. Tomov and Min (1995) recorded that grain yield and 100-grain weight were negatively Minerals correlated with grain starch in maize lines and hybrids where The range of Calcium (%) reported in different maize varieties BHM-13 gave significantly the highest amount of carbohydrate varied from 2.47 to 3.92%. The Phosphorus (%) of ranged from (82.40%) and BHM-15 contains significantly the lowest amount 0.30 to 0.39% which is presented in Table 3. However, Singh of carbohydrate (77.67%) presented in Table 2. (1976) reported Ca and P content (%) of two maize varieties Ganga-5 (0.65, 0.14) and Vijay (0.47, 0.15), the difference ob- Protein served might be due to different cultivars and environmental Protein content is genetically controlled. The amount of protein conditions. The concentration ranges of the micro-minerals Cu, has been presented in Table 2. The results showed that among Fe, Mn, and Zn were 10.71-13.95 ppm, 57.54-74.52 ppm, 34.65- the different maize varieties BHM-15 contains significantly the 45.89 ppm and 30.51-42.18 ppm respectively. Calcium, copper, highest amount of protein (13.11%) and BHM-5 contains signifi- zinc and iron were present in appreciable quantities in all the cantly the lowest amount of protein (9.46%). Proteins reported varieties of maize. The main factors affecting the mineral com- by Krishnaveni (1983), Verma et al. (2003), Xiang-ling et al. position of forages are species, variety, stage of maturity, soil (2011) were more or less similar with present value. and environmental factors, morphological fraction and use of fertilizers etc. On the other hand, minerals content of Mg, K, S Fat and B were ranged from 1.07-1.42%, 0.51-0.60%, 0.02-0.06% Crude fat is one of the most important components of maize and 11 ppm- 30 ppm, respectively. grains; improvement in fat content is useful for good human Azim et al. (1989) also observed the variation in Na, K, Ca and, P health. In the present study, the highest total means fat content content of different fractions of the plant. Hussaini et al. (2008) are present in BHM-15 (5.44%) and BHM-13 contains signifi- showed that nitrogen fertilizer application up to 60kg/ha s cantly the lowest amount of fat (4.027%) as similar to Xiang-ling ignificantly increased the concentration of N, P, Ca and Mg in (2011). maize grain. Zhang et al. (2010) evaluated the effects of genotype and environment on mineral compositions of wheat Crude fiber grains grown in different locations, and found a large variation The crude fiber content of different maize cultivars is varied for all mineral elements. Peterson et al. (1983) also reported from 1.24% to 2.07% presented in Table 2. The concentration of significant variation in mineral concentration by genotypes and protein decreases and the fiber content increases as the plant concluded that the genotype effect was much larger than matures (Vaswani et al., 2016). The significantly highest amount environment factors.

Table 2. Proximate analysis of protein, fat, crude fiber and carbohydrate of different released and advanced line of maize varieties (Z. mays).

Name of the varieties Carbohydrate Protein Fat Crude fiber (Treatment) (%) (%) (%) (%) Bornali 80.05d 11.47b 5.20b 1.60c BHM-5 82.08b 9.46e 5.14b 2.07a BHM-8 80.64c 10.96c 5.07c 1.63b BHM-13 82.40a 10.42d 4.27d 1.24e BHM-15 77.67e 13.11a 5.44a 1.45d LSD(0.05) 0.087 0.029 0.069 0.021 CV(%) 0.06 0.13 0.72 0.77 Figure in a column followed by common letter do not differ significantly at 5% level by DMRT. Table 3. Proximate analysis of several minerals of different maize varieties (Z. mays). Name of the Ca Mg P K S B Cu Fe Mn Zn varieties (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (Treatment) Bornali 2.47d 1.07d 0.39a 0.56b 0.02d 30.00a 10.71e 57.54e 34.65e 42.18a BHM-5 3.19c 1.23bc 0.36b 0.51e 0.03c 19.00b 12.51c 67.44d 40.63d 40.40b BHM-8 3.23c 1.28b 0.34c 0.54d 0.04b 16.00b 12.43d 72.34b 41.96c 32.63d BHM-13 3.39b 1.21c 0.30e 0.55c 0.06a 11.00c 12.62b 70.33c 42.56b 34.14c BHM-15 3.92a 1.42a 0.32d 0.60a 0.04b 17.33b 13.95a 74.52a 45.89a 30.51e

LSD(0.05) 0.066 0.069 0.006 0.006 0.006 3.27 0.055 0.055 0.029 0.075 CV(%) 1.1 2.97 1.13 0.12 6.19 9.30 0.24 0.04 0.04 0.11 Figure in a column followed by common letter do not differ significantly at 5% level by DMRT.

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Conclusion Journal of Animal and Plant Science, 19(3): 122-125. Gopalan, C., Ramasastri, B.V. and Balasubramanian (1985). Nutritive value of

Indian foods. National institute of nutrition, Indian council of medical re- From the above results, it was observed that none of the variety search, Hyderabad, India. of maize performed the best by all nutrient parameters. BHM- Hughes, M. (1969). Determination of moisture and oil in the seed of winter rape 13 could be considered better for carbohydrate. BHM-15 and (Brassica napus) II. Comparison of extraction methods for the estimation of BHM-5 performed well results in protein and fiber contents. In oil. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 20(12): 745-747, https:// doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740201211 case of minerals, most of the varieties contained the higher Hussaini, M.A., Ogunlela, V.B., Ramalan, A.A. and Falaki, A.M. (2008). Mineral amount of minerals than the reference rate due to change of composition of dry season maize (Zea mays L.) in response to varying levels fertilizer application rate and as well as soil properties of the of nitrogen, phosphorus and irrigation at Kadawa, Nigeria. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4(6), 775-780. different maize growing area. Different varieties viz., Barnali Jha, P.K., Kumar, V. and Akhter, S.A. (1979). Variability and association of charac- and BHM-15 showed better performance for most of the miner- ters for oil content in maize. Journal of Applied Biology, 7, 1-2. als. Farmers are cultivating maize in their field for the consump- Krishnaveni, S. (1983). Biochemical constituents of certain promising maize tion as feed, fodder as well as public consumption. Based on the cultures. Madras Agricultural Journal, 70: 139-140. Paliwal, R.L. (2000). Introduction to maize and its importance. Tropical Maize information mentioned above, it may be concluded that Barnali, Improvement and Production (No. CIS-3064. CIMMYT.). BHM-5, BHM-13, and BHM-15 can be grown in large scale as Paramasivan, M., Kumaresan, K. R., Malarvizhi, P., Thiyageswari, S., Mahimairaja, S. they contained the highest amount of different nutrient and Velayudham, K. (2011). Nutrient optimization strategy for sustainable productivity of hybrid maize (Zea mays L.) in Peelamedu (Plm) series of soils contents. These results will be useful to know about the of Tamil Nadu. Research on Crops, 12(1): 33-38. nutritional properties of the local maize varieties and may guide Peterson, C.J, Johnson, V.A. and Mattern, P.J. (1983). Evaluation of variation in us in designing strategies that maximize the utility of maize mineral element concentrations in wheat flour and bran of different germplasm. cultivars. Cereal Chemistry, 60: 450–455. Premlatha, M. and Kalamani, A. (2010). Correlation studies in maize (Zea mays L.). 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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 190-197 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402010

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Performance of Agribusiness Microfinance Institutions (MFIA) by using approach of Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) in district of Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Riris Nadia Syafrilia Gurning1* , Jangkung Handoyo Mulyo2 and Masyhuri2 1Master of Agribusiness Management, Gadjah Mada University, Flora Street, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta-55281, INDONESIA 2Departement of Agricultural Socio-Economic, Gadjah Mada University, Flora Street, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta-55281, INDONESIA *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 26 April 2019 This investigation was aimed to analyze the performance of MFIA Rural Agribusiness Revised received: 05 May 2019 Development Program in District of Gunungkidul. Program of Agribusiness Rural Enterprise Accepted: 22 May 2019 Development aimed as stimulus that could developed into an MFIA for sustainable financing

for farmers. The Agribusiness Microfinance Institution (MFIA) is the only financial institution

established specifically to provide agricultural capital facilities in the countryside. This Keywords research was conducted at 65 of MFIA in District of Gunungkidul based on MFIA that had Agribusiness conducted the Annual Members Meetings (AMM) on January-March, 2018. Primary data CIPP collection was conducted through direct interviews using questionnaires with the manager of

Institution MFIA. Secondary data was obtained from the report of AMM 2017. The method used in this Microfinance study was CIPP model (Context, Input, Process, Product). Based on the four performance MFIA indicators in CIPP models, the results shown that the performance of MFIA in District of Performance Gunungkidul in 2017 was included in the good criteria.

Citation of this article: Gurning, R.N.S., Mulyo, J.H.M. and Masyhuri (2019). Performance of Agribusiness Microfinance Institutions (MFIA) by using approach of Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) in district of Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta Indonesia. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 190-197, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402010

INTRODUCTION dominant among farmers, this needs more attention from the government. Indonesia is agricultural country, that means, agriculture has an (Saragih, 2015) states that farmers in rural areas are generally important role to courage the national economy. This is small-scale businesses but in large numbers. Small farmers are indicated by the majority of Indonesia's population who working often unable to capture economies of scale in the fields of in agriculture and earning income from the agricultural sector. production, distribution, and services. This is the economic According to Statistics (2017), there were 27.771 million of reason for the importance of a farmer's economic organization. Indonesia’s population that included into poor people. There are The policy of developing 1 (one) farmer-based institution of the about 17.097 out of 27.771 million poor people live in rural Combined Farmers Group (Gapoktan) in 1 (one) village is an areas with the main livelihood in agricultural sector. Poverty in effort of the Ministry of Agriculture to build a strong, independ- Indonesia is a phenomenon that is closely related to socio- ent farmer organization as the basis for economic growth which economic conditions in rural areas, generally and in agricultural is expected to improve the economic performance of rural sector, particularly. The study of (Setijowati, 2012) in analyzing farmers. the efficiency of MFIA’s performance in province of Special Re- The program of poverty reduction is the part of Long-term gion of Yogyakarta, the poverty was most found in agricultural Development Plan and global agreement implementation to sector and concentrated in the area of Districts of Gunungkidul achieve millennium goals. The Ministry of Agriculture began in and Kulonprogo. Poverty in Special Region of Yogyakarta is still 2008 to implement the Program of Rural Agribusiness

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Enterprise Development (RAED), that is rural society empower- Institute (MFIA) in District of Gunungkidul, Special Region of ment program that aimed to develop agribusiness through the Yogyakata. Location was determinated purposively, deliberately provision of capital in the form of Direct Assistance Program for with the consideration that MFIA in District of Gunungkidul had Society (DAP-RAED) in the amount of IDR. 100 million per farmer been formed since the beginning of the establishment of RAED group. Distribution of funds to farmers through the Agribusiness program. In Province of Yogyakarta, District of Gunungkidul had Microfinance Institution (MFIA) that formed and run by Farmer the highest number of MFIA, they were 144 MFIA. The sampling group (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014). The strengthening of technique in this study was conducted by using purposive venture capital funds of RAED, structurally rolled by Farmer sampling method with criteria of MFIA that had conducted the group to the farmer groups member as the loans, thus in the 2nd Annual Member Meeting (AMM) in 2017, that conducted from year Farmer group is able to develop The Unit of Saving and Loan January to March 2018. According to these criteria, the samples Business. Farmer group member who is recipient of Independent that met the requirements were 65 MFIA. The type of data used Direct Assistance-RAED expected to be able to maintain revolv- in this study was primary data that obtained through structured ing funds until the growth phase of Agribusiness Microfinance interviews with manager of MFIA with the help of question- Institutions (MFIA) in the 3rd year (Utami, 2015). naires. While secondary data obtained from the report of AMM This effort is conducted by the government to solve the major 2017 that obtained from the manager of MFIA and information problems of farmers in running the business system, such as: (1) on the description of implementation, asset development and the difficulty of the community in accessing capital; (2) the weak- profile of MFIA in District of Gunungkidul which were obtained ness of community capital, especially those belonging to the crite- from related agency, Agriculture and Food Service of District of ria of poor or small farmers. The development of MFIA in rural Gunungkidul and Penyelia Mitra Tani (PMT). area is based on: (1) ease of access; (2) fast process; (3) simple procedure; (4) follow the local social culture and close to the busi- CIPP method to measure the performance of MFIA ness location; (5) manager of MFIA knows the character of farm- Performance was the work ability and the results or ers (customers); and (6) the existence of funds/assets handled by achievements in implementing a program (Nawawi, 2017). The the group (Ministry of Agriculture, 2010). Research conducted by performance assessment of government program could also be (Kurniati, 2016) shows the results of the t-statistic test on per conducted on performance evaluation system. Evaluation was a capita income per month before and after the RAED program process for making systemic assessment regarding to policy, shows tangible results. It can be seen that the p value is less than program, project or activity based on information and analytical alpha 0.05, meaning that there is a significant difference between results compared to the relevance, effectiveness, and success income before the RAED program is implemented and after the for the purposes of stakeholders (Suryahadi, 2017). RAED program is implemented in Indragiri Hulu Regency. In the Measurement performance by evaluation system on MFIA in research of (Nugroho et al., 2018) in the Special Province of order to provide information about institutional performance of Yogyakarta said that RAED is not only beneficial for farmers, but MFIA and as consideration to determine the next steps for the also has many problems including irregularities in RAED fund continuation of MFIA. Conceptually, the evaluation model used distribution, RAED funds that are not according to plan, bad in this study to measure the performance of MFIA was CIPP credit and low human resource capacity. model that presented in Figure 1. Research on measuring the performance of MFIA has been carried out a lot, one of the studies conducted by (Saleh et al., 2013) in Bantul Regency, efforts to improve the performance of MFIA need to be done with internal and external approaches. The internal approach is related to improving the human resource management of reliable MFIA, and externally on growing customer awareness and optimizing the role of the government. Special efforts are needed in developing MFIA, considering there are many and varied types of other microfinance institutions that have been established especially in rural areas so that in order to maintain stability and existence, MFIA is required to continue to strive to carry out its functions as microfinance institution that providing facility to small farmers. This study aimed to measure the performance of MFIA in District of Gunungkidul by using the Context, Input, Process and Product (CIPP) method.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Figure 1. Component analysis of CIPP (Source: Stufflebeam, 2003). Studies sites The research was conducted in the Agribusiness Microfinance

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CIPP stood for Context, Input, Process and Product. CIPP was consisted of four criteria, the input indicator consisted of six the first evaluation analysis introduced by Stufflebeam in 1971. criteria, the process indicator consisted of ten criteria and prod- CIPP was comprehensive instrument for evaluating on the level uct indicator consisted of seven criteria. The implementation of personal, project, product, organizational and policy systems. performance indicators of MFIA in this study could be seen in Although, initially CIPP was used in education area, but later Table 1 below. The answer of each respondent scored by CIPP had been heavily modified for use in various disciplines scoring on an assessment of the performance of MFIA with (Stufflebeam, 2003). The purpose of CIPP was to look all of scoring criteria of (1) Score 3 was given if the answer “a”, (2) strategies and evaluation components and to seek the answers Score 2 was given if the answer “b”, and Score 1 was given if the of the questions, whether the evaluation design that functioned answer “c “. The answers of manager of MFIA in the form of properly? Which points were problematic and how could it be questionnaires were calculated by total score per question, then resolved? Was there a more efficient way to do? Collecting the researcher could determine the performance criteria of data? Stufflebeam suggested the evaluator to follow these manager of MFIA according to the table of criteria score that steps, as a logical structure, to be used in types of evaluation: shown in table 2 to see whether the MFIA of District of evaluation focus, gathering information, organizing information, Gunungkidul was in very bad, good or very good criteria. information analysis, information reporting and administration The choice of answers from each question consisted of 3 answer evaluation (Hakan and Seval, 2011). Context indicator was an choices, thus, to get maximum score from the number of indicator of need. The purpose of context indicators to determine questions should be multiplied by the number of answer the relevant context, identify opportunities to address the choices. The next step was determine the quality of each criteria problem and diagnose problems. Input indicator identified the with maximum score of 100 with the difference value of each procedural design to achieve predetermined objectives included criteria was 25. Then determined the equivalent value obtained assessing the strategy and the resources required and used to from 100 divided by the minimum value of each criteria. To fill reach program. Process indicators were the indicators used to the value range of each criteria by dividing the maximum score monitor the implementation of program. The process indicators value for each CIPP model with calculated equivalent value. in principle be used to provide feedback and documenting These results become the minimum value of each criteria that programs that required the implementation of policy. Product were poor, good and very good. indicator was an indicator that identified the outcome of After obtaining the scores of each indicator in the CIPP program. The purpose of indicators were to measure the product, model, then matching the scores into table 2, thus, the translate and assess the success of the program. criteria were known respectively. Based on table 2, it could be The performance measurement using CIPP model assessed seen that MFIA included into criteria of poor, good or very based on the criteria of each indicators, the context indicator good.

Table 1. Indicator of performance measurement of MFIA. No. CIPP method Performance indicators Improving the welfare of farmers 1 Context Making joint business plan Accommodating and following up any aspirations or complaints beneficiaries The improving capital by partnering with third parties The suitability of Independent DAP-RAED The self-capital that owned by MFIA (deposits) The MFIA had AD/ART 2 Input The self-capital sources of MFIA The educational activities to increase knowledge The existence of infrastructure of MFIA (offices, computers, cash books, the loan application form, the book installments, savings books, deposit slips/withdrawal of savings, etc.) The implementation of extension activities on the role of RAED program 3 Process Analysis of the feasibility of the business of the beneficiary in considering the distribution of funds Business survey methods to prospective borrowers Recording and bookkeeping the activities of MFIA Controlling mechanism of funds distribution was discussed in committee Supervising the financing in order to use the funds on target Incentives mechanism of manager of MFIA Sanctions mechanism in MFIA Voluntary savings for members of MFIA AMM held on time according to the rules Distribution of funds managed for agriculture Distribution of funds for financing to poor farmers Cumulative distribution (total lending to members) 4 Product The level of financing problems that occurred (bad loans) Increasing farmers’ income Increasing farmer’s productivity Managed assets (capital of RAED + deposit + profits + simultaneously funds) Source: Adapted from Stufflebeam (2003).

Riris Nadia Syafrilia Gurning et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 190-197 (2019) 193 Table 2. Assessment score of criteria on each performance indicators. Score criteria Model CIPP Maximum score Poor Good Very good Context 12 3.00-5.99 6.00-8.99 9.00-12.00 Input 18 4.50-8.99 9.00-13.49 13.50-18.00 Process 30 7.50-14.99 15.00-22.49 22.50-30.00 Product 21 5.25-10.49 10.50-15.75 15.75-21.00 Total of performance 81 20.25-40.49 40.50-60.74 60.75-81.00 Quality 100 25-49.99 50-74.99 75-100 Equivalent 4.00 2.00 1.33

Figure 2. Total MFIA’s assets of Gunungkidul, Indonesia. Figure 3. The NPL Level of MFIA in district of Gunungkidul, Indonesia.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION owned with a value of IDR 150-200 million. But as many as 28 MFIA (43%) had not been able to manage funds from the govern- The performance of MFIA ment, they only reached IDR 100 million-150 million, thus, the The Program of Rural Agribusiness Development (RAED) in improvement of management was needed to get a solution on Gunungkidul had been running since 2008 until now 2018 and how the business was conducted to be able to increase the there were 143 villages out of 144 villages that received funding accumulated assets owned. According to Nugroho et al. (2018) of Direct Assistance Program for Society (DAP) RAED. This the slow development of capital in District of Gunungkidul was meant that almost every village in District of Gunungkidul had caused by Farmer group institutions that needed to be strength- RAED program. RAED program required the Farmer group ened as well as business activities that had not operated well. institutional in every village as the recipient of DAP RAED that According to Figure 3 shown that problematic financing level of coming from the State Budget of Ministry of Agriculture. MFIA in District of Gunungkidul dominantly was in the level of > Furthermore, Farmer group directed to foster the formation of 10% with total of 37 MFIA (57%). Whereas MFIA which was at MFIA as one business unit that specialized in serving the problematic financing level <5% was 19 MFIA (29.2%). This financing Farmer group capital for micro-scale farmers. The shown that determinant factor that also determined a MFIA as difference in human resources and management in managing good MFIA was the customer. No matter how good MFIA caused various of implementing patterns at MFIA. The management was shown by MFIA without being supported by a loan method determined by each MFIA was different, as many shared awareness to make progress and develop from the as 38 MFIA (58.4%) applied the loan method with the group customer’s side, the performance of MFIA would not be good. method or it was known in the society as “joint responsibility”, while 14 MFIA set loan method individually (21.5 %) and the Validity and reliability rest serve loans with mixed methods, that was group and Validity testing against the manager of MFIA used samples of individual (20.1%). 65 respondents who were interviewed using 27 questions that According to Figure 2 shown that from the initial capital of each divided by each indicator on the CIPP model. The results of MFIA the recipient of RAED was IDR 100 million, from the begin- validity test shown that all questions were valid because they ning of MFIA's development until now the assets owned by MFIA had the value of r count was greater than r table (0.244) which continued to grow, but these developments differed from each meant that each item was valid and suitable for research and as MFIA. There were 15 MFIA (23%) that had succeeded in develop- test instrument in research. The result of reliability test ing their assets up to more than IDR 200 million. This shown that indicated that Cronbach alpha value of each variable was around 23% of MFIA had successfully developed and were able to greater than the comparative alpha of 0.60, which meant that manage finances well. Good performance and management that each question that would be used in this study was reliable and could develop assets owned. While as many as 22 MFIA (34%) appropriate for further research in analyzing the performance classified as quite good because they were able to develop assets of MFIA.

194 Riris Nadia Syafrilia Gurning et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 190-197 (2019) Table 3. Results of performance measurement in context indicators of MFIA in District of Gunungkidul, Indonesia. Context criteria Score Achievement (%) Improving the welfare of farmers 2.46 82% Preparation of a joint business plan 2.20 73% Accommodating and following up all aspirations and complaints of beneficiaries 1.89 63% The improving capital by partnering with third parties 1.32 44% Total 7.87 65.6% Interval (6.00 - 8.99) Source: Analysis of Primary Data, 2018.

Table 4. The results of performance measurement in input indicators of MFIA in district of Gunungkidul, Indonesia. Input criteria Score Achievement (%) The suitability of Independent DAP-RAED 2.41 80.3% The self-capital that owned by MFIA (deposits) 2.21 73.6% The MFIA had AD/ART 2.75 91.6% The self-capital sources of MFIA 1.49 49.6% The educational activities to increase knowledge 2.15 71.6% The existence of infrastructure of MFIA (offices, computers, cash books, the loan application 2.21 73.6% form, the book installments, savings books, deposit slips/withdrawal of savings, etc.) Total 13.24 73.3% Interval 9.00 to 13.49 Source: Analysis of Primary Data, 2018.

Performance measurement of MFIA Based on Table 4 above shown that the performance of MFIA in Performance assessment was systematic description of the input indicators regarded to CIPP model was included in criteria strengths and weaknesses associated with a person or group of of good. This was supported by the percentage achievement people. To evaluate the performance of MFIA which were achieved by the input indicator of 73.3%. The supporting factor recipients of DAP-RAED in District of Gunungkidul, the CIPP in input indicator was the suitability of DAP-RAED funds, 80.3% model was used (context, input, process, product). The of MFIA felt that the grant provided by the government was IDR performance assessment of MFIA could be seen in the Table 3. 100 million per Farmer group in accordance with the needs of According to the results of performance assessment of MFIA in Farmer group members as MFIA borrowers. Self-capital owned context indicator could be concluded that the performance of by MFIA was obtained from principal savings, mandatory MFIA in context indicator included into good criteria because it savings and voluntary savings, the acquisition of the three was included in the internal value of 6.00-8.99 with the total savings funds obtained from own members had reached 73.6%. percentage of achievement was 65.6%. One of the supporting This meant that MFIA was able to collect the funds from factors of the context indicator was an effort to improve the members. The more self-capital, the greater the level of trust of welfare of farmers. The results of the study shown that 82% of members to MFIA. Almost all MFIA up to 91.6% who had had MFIA had made improvements to the welfare of farmers as Articles of Association and Bylaws (AD/ART) as the guiding evidenced by the distribution of RAED program funds to had an principle in running the MFIA. The next supporting factor in impact on the welfare of farmers, especially micro-scale input indicators was the existence of educational activities to farmers. Another supporting factor in the context indicator was increase knowledge with an achievement percentage of 71.6%. the making of a joint business plan that had score of 2.20 with There was training to provide knowledge to the manager of percentage of achievement of 73%. Based on these results, MFIA, if it was important to be held routinely to provide input shown that almost every MFIA had made and carried out joint and provide understanding to Farmer group especially manager business plan with members. Furthermore, the supporting of MFIA, how to manage and make financial reporting that was factors accommodated and followed up on the aspirations and understandable and used transparency system. Apart from complaints from customers. MFIA was at the percentage level of training, the performance of MFIA performance was also achievement of 63%. This meant, there was 63% of the efforts assessed by the existence of infrastructure facilities owned by that MFIA had made in addressing customer problems and MFIA. The percentage of achievement was 73.6%. Generally, following up on customer aspirations. Another supporting factor MFIA in District of Gunungkidul did not have their own office in was the improving capital by partnering with third parties with providing services to customers but service time was carried out percentage level of 44%. This value was included in the lowest in a village hall or in one of the Farmer group members' houses, percentage level in context indicator because in reality there but generally all MFIA had cash books, loan slips, and complete were not many MFIA that had cooperated with third parties in installments so that it could be concluded that MFIA improving capital because it was valued by the amount of capital infrastructure was available but limited. owned by MFIA that had fulfilled the loan request from the According to Table 5 presented about the performance of MFIA borrower. in process indicator of CIPP model included criteria of good.

Riris Nadia Syafrilia Gurning et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 190-197 (2019) 195 This was indicated by the score obtained was 21.80 which was understood the characteristics of the members of Farmer group, in the interval of good criteria, that was 15.00-22.49. thus, the manager known the track record of the members of The process indicator consisted of 10 criteria with total each group. One of the inhibiting factors in process indicator percentage of process indicator achievement reaching up to which had low percentage achievement value was voluntary 72.6%. Supporting factors in process indicators that had the savings with percentage achievement of 57.6%. Voluntary highest percentage were implementation of Annual Member savings were savings of Farmer group’s members whose Meetings (AMM) with an achievement percentage of 88%. numbers depend on the ability of the members themselves so Regarded to total samples of 65 respondents taken from this they had a non-mandatory savings. As many as 57.6% of MFIA study, the implementation time of the AMM varied according to that had voluntary deposits, the rest MFIA obtained self-help the policy of MFIA itself, but from the results above it was funds from principal savings and compulsory savings collected known that MFIA implemented the AMM on time in accordance from members every month and had been determined at the with recommendations from the government in January. This meeting of Farmer group. was considered by MFIA to be disciplined with regulations. The According to Table 6, the results of MFIA performance supporting factor for process indicator which had a high measurements on product indicators in CIPP model included in percentage of achievement was the criteria for recording and very good criteria with an achievement percentage of 76.9%. bookkeeping with an achievement percentage of 84%. Accord- One of inhibiting factors of product indicators was the level of ing to these results, MFIA was considered to complete on problematic financing (NPL) because it had the lowest recording and bookkeeping, meaning that all activities that con- achievement percentage of 56.6%. It could not be denied that ducted between manager of MFIA and customers had records the problem of bad credit was the biggest problem in running such as those listed in the book, cash book and loan slip. While financial institutions. Smooth money circulation was one of the the supporting indicators of process indicators that had the important factors in assessing the performance of an MFIA. The lowest percentage of achievement were survey methods for results of the study shown that the cause of fund turnover were prospective borrowers with the percentage of achievement was stalled due to the lack of customer awareness in providing loan 53.3%. The loan method applied by almost all of MFIA in District installments in accordance with the agreement between of Gunungkidul was by group method or as “joint responsibility”. customers and the manager of MFIA, thus, this affected the Borrowing funds at MFIA was conducted by each farmer group number of MFIA borrowers because they had to wait for funds leader. So that the farmer group leader coordinated with the to be available at MFIA to make further loans. The solution that manager to assess the characteristics of each member so that conducted by the manager to avoid credit congestion was by the manager did not conduct a survey before giving a loan. One conducting approach to the customer or borrower and find of the advantages of MFIA was that the manager had solutions to the problems that faced by the customer.

Table 5. The Results of performance measurement in process indicators of MFIA in district of Gunungkidul, Indonesia. Process criteria Score Achievement (%) Implementation of extension activities to challenge the role of RAED program 2,49 83% The feasibility analysis in utilizing the consideration of fund distribution 1.64 54.6% Business survey methods to prospective borrowers 1.60 53.3% Recording and bookkeeping activities MFIA 2.52 84% Controlling mechanism the distribution of funds was discussed in committee 2.46 82% Supervising the financing in order to use the funds on target 2.38 79.3% Incentives mechanism to manager of MFIA 2.21 73.6% Sanction mechanism in MFIA 2.09 69.6% Voluntary savings for MFIA’s members 1.73 57,6% AMM held on time according to the rules 2.64 88% Total 21.80 72.6% Interval 15.00-22.49 Source: Analysis of Primary Data, 2018.

Table 6. Results of performance measurement in product indicators of MFIA in district of Gunungkidul, Indonesia. Product criteria Score Achievement (%) Distribution of funds managed for agriculture 2.61 87% Distribution of funds for financing to poor farmers 2.41 80.3% Cumulative distribution (total lending to members) 2,27 75.6% The level of financing problems that occurred (bad loans) 1.70 56.6% Increasing farmers’ income 2,67 89% Increasing farmer’s productivity 2,69 89.6% Managed assets (capital of RAED + deposit + profits + simultaneously funds) 1.78 59.3% Total 16.16 76.9% Interval 15.75 - 21.00 Source: Analysis of Primary Data, 2018.

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Table 7. Total performance measurement of MFIA in district of Gunungkidul, Indonesia. Indicators of CIPP Score Criteria Context 7,87 Good Input 13.24 Good Process 21.80 Good Product 16.16 Very good Total 59.07 Interval 40.50-60.74 Good Source: Analysis of Primary Data, 2018.

One of the supporting factors of the measurement of MFIA Input, Process, Product). In terms of improving the performance performance on product indicators was the increase in of MFIA in District of Gunungkidul, it is expected that there productivity and income of farmers with the achievement would be routine assistance from the companion, that was PMT percentage of 89.6% and 89% respectively. With the existence in managing financial reporting in accordance with the standard of RAED grant, it was considered that it had helped many provisions. Then assistance and support to MFIA on the farmers, especially farmers who had micro-scale businesses. importance of legal entities, thus, MFIA had a relationship in Loan funds intended for Farmer group and those managed by terms of increasing capital so that the number of borrowers was MFIA had been distributed to all Farmer group members in expected to increase. fulfilling their needs in the agricultural sector. Small farmers did not feel the lack of capital in the procurement of fertilizers or ACKNOWLEDGMENT seeds because with the existence of RAED loan funds, farmers’ The author want to acknowledge the Agribusiness Microfinance needs were fulfilled, so that the farms run by farmers were Institutions (MFIA) that have given space to the author in smooth and provided increased income for farmers. examining the performance in Gunungkidul Regency The next supporting factor on product indicators in CIPP model was the distribution of funds distributed. 87% of RAED funds Conflict of interest had been distributed into agricultural sector and the rest was in The authors declare there are no conflicts of interest. the livestock sector and processing agricultural products. It was known that in District of Gunungkidul, in addition to cultivating Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under agricultural crops, farmers also raised livestock as an income to the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, increase farmers’ income. Then 80.3% of DAP-RAED funds had which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction been distributed to poor farmers. It was known that District of in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are Gunungkidul had the highest poverty rate compared to other credited. districts in Special Region of Yogyakarta. Therefore, with the existence of this DAP-RAED fund, the distribution of funds had REFERENCES been right on target, belonging to the criteria of poor farmers because they had micro-scale businesses. According to the Hakan, K. and Seval, F. (2011). 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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 198-205 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402011

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Agronomic manipulation for adaptation of black rice cultivars in plain land environment to eliminate hidden hunger Md. Rashedur Rahman1* , Md. Parvez Anwar1 and Iffat Ara Mahzabin2 1Department of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh - 2202, BANGLADESH 2Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh - 2202, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 25 May 2019 Two field experiemtns were conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Revised received: 03 June 2019 Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the period from July 2016 to December 2016 to Accepted: 05 June 2019 study the effect of cultivars, date of transplanting and fertilizer dose on the yield and quality of

few hilly black rice cultivars. The experiment one consisted of two factors. Factor A: Varieties,

viz., i) Galong se and ii) Gelong ni and Factor B: Planting date, viz., i) July 20, ii) August 5, iii) Keywords August 20, iv) September 5, v) September 20 and vi) October 5. The experiment two also con- Agronomic management sisted with two factors. Factor A: varieties, viz., i) Kongnam ene ii) Gelong se and iii) Nazirshail Black rice cultivars rice and Factor B: Fertilizer management viz., i) No fertilizer ii) 50% of recommended dose

Hidden hunger (RD) of fertilizers of a local aman rice variety, iii) 75% of RD of fertilizers of a local aman rice Plain land variety, iv) 100% of RD of fertilizers of a local aman rice variety, v) 125% of RD of fertilizers of

a local aman rice variety and vi) 150% of RD of fertilizers of a local aman rice variety. Results revealed that among varieties, the black rice cultivar Gelong se was best grain yielding potential variety than three other rice varieties, of which two are black rice cultivars (Kongnam ene and Gelong ne) and another one is plain land white rice cultivar (Nizershail). Regarding time of transplanting it has been found that all the varieties gave higher yield when they were transplanted either on July 20 or August 05. The worst transplanting time was October 5 when lowest grain yield was obtained. From the nutritional view point, it has been found that all the three black rice cultivars got higher crude protein (%), crude fibre (%), ash (%), crude fat (%), Fe (ppm) and Zn (ppm) content over white rice cultivar. Therefore, it can be concluded that black rice could be incorporated in human diet and it would be a way of eliminating hidden hunger.

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Rahman, M.R., Anwar, M.P. and Mahzabin, I.A. (2019). Agronomic manipulation for adaptation of black rice cultivars in plain land environment to eliminate hidden hunger. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 198-205, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402011

INTRODUCTION this mass people of Bangladesh. Hidden hunger is a chronic lack of vitamins and minerals that often has no visible warning signs, Rice is the staple food for Bangladeshi people. It is cultivated in so that people who suffer from it may not even be aware of it. Its 74.85% of our agricultural land (BBS, 2018). In Aus, Amon and consequences are nevertheless disastrous: hidden hunger can Boro season 2134, 13656, 18014 thousand metric ton rice was lead to mental impairment, poor health and productivity, or estimated to be produced in 2017 from 2327, 13797, 11060 even death. Black rice, a traditional rice cultivars, is being thousand acre land respectively (BBS, 2017). However, people cultivating in the hilly area of Bangladesh especially in the of Bangladesh consume a lots of rice as staple food but this rice, Bandarban and Rangamati region, could be a potential way of the white rice, provides mainly carbohydrate to the people’s diet eliminating the hidden hunger as it contains high amount of and this rice is lack of other important essential nutrients for nutrients required for human body. human health which ultimately enhance the hidden hunger of Black rice is a type of the rice species Oryza sativa L. which is

Md. Rashedur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 198-205 (2019) 199 glutinous, packed with high level of nutrients and mainly of black rice cultivation under plain land condition to increase its cultivated in Asia. The pericarp (outer part) of kernel of this rice productivity through different agronomic practices. This colour is black due to a pigment known as anthocyanin, an anti- ultimately may eradicate the hidden hunger from the nation. oxidant. Black rice is also known as purple rice, forbidden rice, heaven rice, imperial rice, king’s rice and prized rice. Black rice is MATERIALS AND METHODS a whole grain and nowadays, whole grain is categorized as one of the potent functional food sources since it contains high Description of experimental site amounts of phenolic compounds, especially anthocyanins in The study was conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, pericarp (Abdel-Aal et al., 2006, Ryu et al., 1998; Yawadio et al., Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh from December 2007). This rice is supposed to enhance the longivity of life, 2015 to May 2016. The experimental site is located at 240 75´ N hence it is also known as long life rice. Black rice extracts could latitude and 900 50´ E longitude in the south-west part of Brahma- scavenge superoxide anions more effectively than hydroxyl putra at an elevation of 18 m above the sea level. This site belongs radicals (Nam et al., 2006). This rice has long been consumed in to non-calcareous dark grey floodplain soil under the agro- Korea, Japan and China (Ryu et al., 2000; Han et al., 2004). This ecological zone Old Brahmaputra Floodplain. rice includes several varieties with a long history of cultivation in Southeast Asian countries such as China, India and Thailand Characteristics of test variety (Kong et al., 2008). There are more than 200 types of black rice Kongnam ene, Gelong ni and Gelon se, are three hilly rice varieties in the world. Only China is responsible for 62 % of cultivars and a local rice cultivar named Nazirshail were used as global production of black rice and it has developed more than the test crop in this experiment. The seeds of the three black 54 modern black rice varieties with high yield characteristics rice varieties were collected from Bandarban hill district of and multiple resistances. Thailand occupies the ninth position to Bangldesh. The plain land cultivar used in this experiment was black rice cultivation (Ichikawa et al., 2001; Sompong et al., Nizershail. The main characteristic features of the rice cultivars 2011). Interest in black rice is indicated by the number of acces- are discussed below: sions held in germplasm collections, e.g. China–359, Sri Lanka– Kongnam ene is a black rice variety which includes a long history 50, Indonesia–42, India–30, the Philippines–25 and Bangladesh of cultivation in Southeast Asian countries such as China, India –24 (Chaudhary, 2003). Nutrients such as protein, minerals (Ca, and Thailand (Kong et al., 2008). The pericarp (outer part) of P, Fe, and Zn) and dietary fiber contents are higher in black rice kernel of this rice color is black due to a pigment known as compared to brown and white rice. Demand for this rice is grow- anthocyanin, an antioxidant. Brown rice has also many health ing fast in the USA and European countries due to its value as a benefits. It is a transplant aman rice cultivar and matures after healthy food and its attractive organic food color. Ichikawa et al. 90 days after transplanting with average yield 3.0-3.5 t ha-1. Life (2001) reported that black rice is efficient, and two fold stronger cycle of this variety ranges from 95-105 days, which however with respect to antioxidant activities of blueberries. Black rice is may vary due to changes in climatic condition. The plant height surely a special breed of rice that is cultivated on earth. This rice is 90-95 cm and the cultivar is of non-lodging type. It is some- is getting popular in recent years because of its high nutritive what resistant to pests and diseases and especially blast disease. value and antioxidative properties. In Bangladesh it known as Gelong ni and Gelong se are rice variety traditionally cultivated "kalo dhaner chaal"(Black paddy's rice) and broadly used to in hilly upland area. This rice varieties are short duration variety. make polao or rice based desserts. Black rice is a source of iron, It matures after 110-120 days of transplanting. Plant Height is vitamin E, and antioxidants. The bran hull (outermost layer) of higher than the other two varieties tested. So, the plant some- black rice contains one of the highest levels of anthocyanins times lodges before panicle matures. Plant height is usually found in food (Yao et al., 2013). around 120 cm. The hull and bran around the kernel are brown Though the popularity of black rice and knowledge about its in color Yield is about 4.1 t ha-1. Both these rice varieties are a health benefits is growing in western nations including the US, it good source of magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, thiamin, still remains much less popular than white and brown rice. As niacin and vitamin B6, and an excellent source of manganese, more people learn about black rice’s benefits and demand it, with 88 percent of our daily manganese in just one cup cooked. black rice will probably become more widely available at larger The morphological and nutritional characteristics are almost chain supermarkets and restaurants. Today this type of rice is same for these two varieties except the thousand grain weight. picking up popularity and popping up in more health food stores The thousand grain weight of variety Gelong ni is little higher across the US, Australia, and Europe, as people discover the than that of Gelong se. numerous health benefits that whole grain black rice has to Nazirshail is a transplant aman rice. It is grown locally to offer. In Bangladesh, the black rice is being cultivating in the consume as white rice. Plant height is usually about 150 cm. No remote hilly areas including Bandarban district as shifting culti- of tillers is 6-7. Yield is about 3.5-4.o t ha-1. It is a long duration vation crop without any agronomic management practices and variety (135-145 days). This variety is resistant to leaf blight and hence giving very low yield. Also the cultivation procedure of sheath rot diseases. This rice variety can cope with water this black rice under plain land condition is still unknown in logging condition. Bangladesh. Therefore, this study intends to explore the suitability

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Preparation of the experimental land and raising of crop the threshing floor for threshing. The harvested crop were The land was first opened with a tractor drawn disc plough on 01 threshed manually. The grains were cleaned and dried to a May 2016. After two days, the land was irrigated slightly and moisture content of 14%. Straws were sun dried properly. subsequent ploughings and cross ploughings were given and Final grain and straw yields plot-1 were recorded and converted leveled by laddering. The field layout was made on 01 July 2016 to ton ha-1. according to experimental specification immediately after final land preparation. Weeds and stubbles were cleared off from indi- Nutritional analysis of grain vidual plots and finally plots were leveled properly by wooden To get the information regarding nutrient contents of the rice ladder so that no water pocket could remain in the field. Twenty varieties the grain was chemically analyzed through the eight days old seedlings were carefully uprooted from nursery standard process of chemical analysis. The nutrient elements bed and transplanted in the plots according to the treatments included soluble CHO (%), crude protein (%), crude fibre (%), maintaining a spacing of 25 cm × 15cm. Three healthy seedlings crude fat (%), ash (%), Fe (ppm) and Zn (ppm). were transplanted in each hill. Various intercultural operations viz., irrigation, weeding, disease and pest management etc. Statistical analysis of data were done as and when necessary to ensure and maintain the Data were compiled and tabulated in proper form for statistical favorable condition for normal plant growth and development analysis. The recorded data were statistically analyzed to find of crop. out the significance of variation resulting from the experimental treatments. All the collected data were analyzed using the Layout of the experiment statistical software R. There were two experiments conducted at the same time. The first experiment consisted of two factors such as Factor A: black RESULTS AND DISCUSSION rice varieties, viz., i) Galong se and ii) Gelong ni and Factor B: Planting date, viz., i) July 20, ii) August 5, iii) August 20, iv) Experiment one (Optimizing planting time of two black rice September 5, v) September 20 and vi) October 5. The second cultivars) experiment consisted of also with two factors. Factor A: black Crop characteristics rice varieties, viz., i) Kongnam ene ii) Gelong se and iii) Nazirshail All the crop characters like plant height, number of total tillers rice and Factor B: Fertilizer management viz., i) No fertilizer ii) and panicle length were significantly affected by date of planting 50% of recommended dose (RD) of fertilizers of a local aman and varieties with 5% level of significance (Table 1). The table rice variety, iii) 75% of RD of fertilizers of a local aman rice shows that tallest plant (131.03 cm) was obtained when the crop variety, iv) 100% of RD of fertilizers of a local aman rice variety, was transplanted at July 20 which was statistically at par with v) 125% of RD of fertilizers of a local aman rice variety and vi) 131.00 cm when the crop was transplanted at August 5. Consid- 150% of RD of fertilizers of a local aman rice variety. ering the varietal effect, tallest plant (108.91) was obtained from The first experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block black rice cultivar Gelong ni (Table 2). Interaction effect on plant Design (RCBD) with three replications. Thus total number of plots height was also significant at 5% level of significance and it was were 36 (2 × 6 × 3). Each plot size was 10 m2 (4m × 2.5m). The unit observed that tallest plant height (133.87 cm) was obtained with plots were uniformly fertilized with, urea, triple superphos- the variety Gelong ni (Table 3) when it was transplanted on July phate, muriate of potash and gypsum according to the recom- 20 which was statistically similar (130.93 cm) with that of same mended dose of any local aman rice variety. All intercultural variety transplanted at August 5, the cultivar Gelong se when operations were done as and when necessary. The second transplanted both on July 20 and August 05. experiment was also laid out in a Randomized Complete Block In case of total tillers, varieties did not exert any significant Design (RCBD) with three replications. Thus total number of difference on total tillers. Highest number of total tillers (8.37) plots were (3×6×3) =54. Each plot size was 10 m2 (4m × 2.5m). was found when the rice plant was transplanted at August 5. The unit plots were fertilized with urea, triple super phosphate, Considering interaction, highest total tillers (9.00) was observed muriate of potash and gypsum according to the treatments. All when the variety Gelong se was transplanted on August 05. intercultural operations were done as and when necessary. Panicle length was significantly affected by date of planting and interaction between date of planting and varieties with 5% level Observation and data collection of significance. Varieties did not exert any significant difference The crop was harvested at full maturity. The date of harvesting on panicle length. Statistically the longest panicle (23.52 cm) was confirmed when 90% of the grain became golden yellow was found when the rice plant was transplanted on August 5 in color. Five hills (excluding the border hills) were selected which was statistically similar when transplanted on July 20. randomly from each individual plot and uprooted before Considering interaction, longest panicle was observed in case harvesting for recording data., After sampling the whole both of the varieties (23.56 cm in Gelong ni and 23.49 cm in crops were harvested in each plot. The harvested crop of each Gelong se) when they were transplanted on August 05. All the plot was separately bundled properly tagged and brought to interaction effects have been presented in Table 3.

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Table 1. Effect of planting time on crop characters of black rice varieties in plain land environment. No. of Panicle No. of Grain Straw Plant No. of total 1000 grain Planting date effective length grains yield yield height (cm) tillers hill–1 weight (g) tillers hill–1 (cm) panicle-1 (t ha–1) (t ha–1) July 20 131.03 a 6.90 b 5.73 b 23.33a 142.89a 16.82a 3.7 a 3.5 a August 5 131.00 a 8.37 a 6.87 a 23.52a 129.81b 16.80a 4.0 a 2.7 b August 20 113.27 b 6.27 b 5.23 b 22.41b 101.91c 16.79a 2.41 b 2.2 b September 5 92.03 c 5.63 bc 4.40 c 19.70c 73.51d 16.58a 1.45 c 4.0 a September 20 82.67 d 6.77 b 4.23 c 19.24c 60.39e 16.39a 1.11 c 2.4 b October 5 75.34 e 4.50 c 3.66 c 17.87d 42.68f 12.04 b 0.52 d 2.2 b Level of sig. * * * * * * * * In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar lettersdiffer significantly as per DMRT; *= Significant at 5% **= Significant at 1% NS=Non-significant. Table 2. Effect of variety on crop characters of black rice varieties in plain land environment. No. of Panicle No. of 1000 Grain Straw Plant height No. of total Varieties effective length grains grain yield yield (cm) tillers hill–1 tillers hill–1 (cm) panicle-1 weight (g) (t ha–1) (t ha–1) (Gelong ni) 108.91 a 6.17 4.82 21.13 92.44 16.18a 2.1 2.97 (Gelong se) 99.54 b 6.64 5.22 20.90 91.29 15.63b 2.3 2.73 Level of sig. * NS NS NS NS * NS NS In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar lettersdiffer significantly as per DMRT; *= Significant at 5% **= Significant at 1% NS=Non-significant.

Table 3. Interaction effect of variety and planting dates on crop characters, yield and yield contributing characters of rice cultivars for Aman (summer) season in plain land environment.

Plant No. of No. of Panicle No. of 1000 Grain Straw Interaction height total effective length grains grain yield yield (variety × planting date) (cm) tillers hill– tillers hill– (cm) panicle-1 weight (g) (t ha–1) (t ha–1)

V1 × D1 133.87 a 6.40 bcde 5.20 cde 23.28ab 142.65a 16.83 3.37 b 4.10 a

V1 × D2 130.93 a 7.73 ab 6.53ab 23.56a 128.15a 16.81 3.8 ab 2.63 c

V1 × D3 114.60 b 5.60 cdef 4.73 def 22.72ab 108.25b 16.80 2.33 c 2.27 c

V1 × D4 96.67 c 5.27 def 4.13 efg 19.81c 74.51c 16.66 1.39 d 3.94 ab

V1 ×D5 95.60 c 7.00 bcd 4.33 efg 19.27cd 56.57cd 16.45 1.08 de 2.53 c

V1 × D6 81.80 d 4.99 ef 3.99 fg 18.11de 44.49d 13.51 0.65 ef 2.32 c

V2 × D1 128.20 a 7.40 abc 6.27 abc 23.38ab 143.13a 16.80 4.03 a 2.97 bc

V2 ×D2 131.07 a 9.00 a 7.20 a 23.49a 131.46a 16.79 4.3 a 2.82 c

V2 ×D3 111.93 b 6.93 bcde 5.73 bcd 22.09b 95.57b 16.79 2.5 c 2.19 c

V2 × D4 87.40 d 6.00 bcde 4.67 def 19.59c 72.51c 16.50 1.51 d 4.13 a

V2 ×D5 69.73 e 6.53 bcde 4.13 efg 19.20cd 64.21c 16.33 1.14 de 2.25 c

V2 ×D6 68.88 e 4.00 f 3.33 g 17.62e 40.86d 10.56 0.39 f 2.03 c Level of sig. * * * * * * * * In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar lettersdiffer significantly as per DMRT; *= Significant at 5%, **= Significant at 1%, NS=Non-significant; D1: 20 July, D2: 5 August; D3: 20 August; D4: 5 September; D5: 20 September; D6: 5 October; V1: Gelong ni: V2: Gelong se.

Yield contributing characters and yield was significantly affected by date of planting and interaction Effect of planting date on yield contributing characters and yield between date of planting and varieties with 5% level of is presented in table 1 and effect of varieties is presented in significance. Varieties did not show any significant difference on table 2. Number of effective tillers was significantly affected by number of grains spike-1. Statistically the maximum number of date of planting and interaction between date of planting and grains spike-1 (142.89) was found when the rice plant varieties with 5% level of significance. Varieties did not exert was transplanted on July 20 which was followed by the number any significant difference on number of effective tillers. Highest of grains spike-1 (129.8) obtained when the rice plant was number of total tillers (6.87) was found when the rice plant was transplanted on August 05. Considering interaction, transplanted at August 5. Considering interaction, highest total the maximum number of grains spike-1 was found in both tillers (7.20) was observed when the variety Gelong se was of the varieties when transplanted on July 20 followed by transplanted on August 05 (Table 3). Number of grains spike-1 August 05.

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Weight of 1000-grain was significantly affected by date of when variety Gelong se was transplanted on August 05. planting and varieties with 5% level of significance but did not show significant difference by interaction. The highest 1000- Experiment two (Response to NPKS fertilizers of two black grain weight was observed in case of variety Gelong ni and rice cultivars) considering date of planting the lowest 1000-grain weight was observed when the rice plant was transplanted on October 20, Crop characteristics otherwise all the other date of planting exerted similar results Plant height was significantly affected by rice varieties and that means statistically highest 1000-grain weight, though fertilizer dose with 5% level of significance. Tallest plant (145.90 numerically highest 1000-grain weight was observed when the cm) was obtained from Nizershail rice variety (Table 4). Consid- rice variety was transplanted in July 20 (16.82 g). Grain yield ering the fertilizer dose, tallest plants (119.7 cm) were observed was significantly affected by date of planting and interaction when 100% of the recommended dose of fertilizer was applied between date of planting and varieties with 5% level of signifi- which was statistically at par with 125% RD (Table 5). cance. Varieties did not show any significant difference on grain Interaction effect on plant height was also significant at 5% level yield (t ha-1). The highest grain yield (4.00 t ha-1) was obtained of significance and it was observed that tallest plant height when the crop was transplanted on August 05 and which was (152.6 cm) was obtained with the variety Nazirshail when statistically at par with July 20. In case of interaction effect, applied with 75% RD of fertilizer which was statistically similar statistically highest grain yield (4.3 t ha-1) was obtained when (150.2 cm) with that of same when 100% RD of fertilizer was variety Gelong se was transplanted on August 05. applied. Number of total tillers was significantly affected by Straw yield was significantly affected by date of planting and varieties and interaction between varieties and fertilizer dose interaction between date of planting and varieties with 5% level with 5% level of significance. Considering only fertilizer dose, it of significance. Varieties did not show any significant difference did not exert any significant difference on total tillers. Highest on straw yield (t ha-1). The highest straw yield (4.7 t ha-1) was number of total tillers (8.3) was found in rice cultivar Nizershail. obtained when the crop was transplanted on August 05 and Considering interaction, highest total tillers (9.3) was observed which was statistically at par with July 20. In case of interaction when the variety Gelong se was transplanted with 100% RD of effect, statistically highest straw yield (4.8 t ha-1) was obtained fertilizers.

Table 4. Effect of varieties on crop characters, yield parameters and yield of rice Plant No. of No. of Panicle No. of Grain Straw Varieties height total effective length grains WTS (g) Yield Yield (cm) tillers tillers (cm) panicle -1 (tha-1) (tha-1)

Kongnam ene 86.23 c 7.9 a 6.2 ab 25.4 a 122.7 a 20.25 c 3.3 b 4.5 c

Gelong se 119.1 b 6.9 b 6.0 b 23.3 b 101.6 b 20.84 b 4.1 a 5.9 a

Nizershail 145.9 a 8.3 a 6.6 a 20.7 c 98.88 b 21.92 a 3.8 a 5.1 b Level of *** *** ** *** *** *** *** *** significance In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar lettersdiffer significantly as per DMRT; **= Significant at 1% , ***= Significant at 0.1%, NS=Non-significant

Table 5. Effect of fertilizer dose on crop characters, yield parameters and yield of black rice cultivars Plant No. of No. of Panicle No. of straw Grain yield Fertilizer dose height total effective length grains WTS (g) yield (tha-1) (cm) tillers tillers (cm) panicle -1 (tha-1)

F1 112.6 c 7.0 65.4 b 23.4ab 100.0 c 19.78 c 3.0 c 4.5 c F2 115.9 b 7.3 6.4 b 24.7a 106. 0 c 19.15 d 3.7 b 5.05 b F3 116.7 b 7.9 6.0 b 23.5 ab 118.3 a 21.1 b 3.8 b 5.0 b F4 119.6 a 8.2 7.0 a 22.7ab 120.3 a 21.56 b 4.0 a 5.2 ab F5 118.7 a 7.7 6.8 a 22.9ab 121.3 a 21.26 b 4.0 a 5.2 ab F6 117.1 b 7.3 6.1 b 21.6b 115. b 23.17 a 3.8 b 5.6 a Level of *** NS * * * *** ** *** significance In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar lettersdiffer significantly as per DMRT; *= Significant at 5%, **= Significant at 1%, ***= Significant at 0.1%, NS=Non-significant.

F1: No fertilizer F2: 50% recommended dose of fertilizers (50 kg urea, 20 kg TSP, 10 kg MoP and 15 kg Gypsum) F3: 75% recommended dose of fertilizers (75 kg urea, 30 kg TSP, 15 kg MoP and 22.5 kg Gypsum) F4: 100% recommended dose of fertilizers (100 kg urea, 40 kg TSP, 20 kg MoP and 30 kg Gypsum) F5: 125% recommended dose of fertilizers (125 kg urea, 50 kg TSP, 25 kg MoP and 37.5 kg Gypsum) F6: 150% recommended dose of fertilizers (150 kg urea, 60 kg TSP, 30 kg MoP and 45 kg Gypsum)

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Table 6. Interaction effect of varieties and fertilizer doses on crop characters, yield parameters and yield on some hilly black rice cultivars.

No. of No. of Panicle Plant Grain no. Grain yield straw yield Interaction total effective length WTS (g) height (cm) panicle -1 (tha-1) (tha-1) tillers tillers (cm)

F1×V1 86.5 hi 8.3 ad 6.1 be 25.6ab 98.1d 17.73j 2.8g 3.7f F1×V2 88.6 g 6.7 ce 5.6 e 23.4ad 120.6ab 18.5ij 3.4eg 4.9de

F1×V3 90.2 a 8.4ac 6.4 ae 21.1ce 99.2d 19.12ab 3.9af 5.2ce F2×V1 110.3 hi 8.9 ab 6.1be 26.5a 99.8d 19.57gi 3.2fg 4.5e F2×V2 118.1eg 7.2 be 6.4ae 26.5a 131.4a 19.03hi 4.3ab 6.1ab

F2×V3 144.4 b 8.2 ad 6.7ad 21.1ce 104.2cd 18.84hi 3.5cg 4.6e F3×V1 148.2 h 8.3 ad 6.6ad 23.9ac 94.9d 20.63eg 3.5defg 4.6e

F3×V2 117.2fg 6.8 ce 6.1be 25.5ab 129.2a 20.96de 4.2ad 6.1 b

F3×V3 152.6 a 8.6 ab 6.7ad 21.1ce 106.2cd 21.72ce 4.367a 5.5bcd F4×V1 140.1 j 7.6 ae 6.8ab 24.6ac 101.2d 19.7fgh 3.6bf 4.9de F4×V2 153.6 a 9.3 a 7.2 a 22.1be 130.7 a 22.83ab 4.3 a 6.0abc

F4×V3 134.1 c 8.1 ad 5.5e 21.5ce 101.7d 23.15ab 3.5dg 4.6e F5×V1 130.9 ij 7.6 ae 5.8ce 27.1a 98.4d 22.15bc 3.4eg 4.7de F5×V2 120.4df 7.4 be 6.3ae 22.3be 115.9bc 20.86de 4.1ae 5.7bc

F5×V3 150.7 a 8.2 ad 6.2 bc 19.3e 98.8d 20.76df 3.967ae 5.267be F6×V1 130.1 hi 6.6 de 5.9be 24.7ac 101.0d 21.69ce 3.5cg 4.9de

F6×V2 122.2 d 6.9ce 5.7de 20.0de 115.3bc 23.87a 4.2ac 6.6a F6×V3 143.1 b 8.3 ad 6.8ac 20.1de 99.5d 23.94a 4.0 b 5.7bc Level of *** * * * * *** * * significance In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar lettersdiffer significantly as per DMRT. *= Significant at 5%, **= Significant at 1%, ***= Significant at 0.1%, NS=Non-significant.

F1: No fertilizer V1: Kongnam ene F2: 50% recommended dose of fertilizers V2: Gelong se F3: 75% recommended dose of fertilizers V3: Nizershail F4: 100% recommended dose of fertilizers F5: 125% recommended dose of fertilizers F6: 150% recommended dose of fertilizers

Panicle length was significantly affected by varieties, fertilizer dose 0.1% level of significance. The highest 1000-grain weight was and with their interaction at 5% level of significance. Statistically observed in case of variety Nizershail (21.92 g). In case of the longest panicle (25.4 cm) was found from the variety Kongnam fertilizer dose, the highest 1000-grain weight was found when the ene. Considering interaction, longest panicle was observed when crop field was fertilized with 150% RD of fertilizers. Considering Kongnam ene was transplanted with 125% RD of fertilizers. All the the interaction effect, highest grain weight was found when interaction effects have been presented in Table 6. Nizershail was cultivated with 150% RD of fertilzers. Grain yield was significantly affected by varietal difference with Yield contributing characters and yield 0.1% level of significance while it was affected by fertilizer dose Number of effective tillers was significantly affected by varie- at 1% level of significance. The highest grain yield (4.1 t ha-1) was ties, fertilizer dose and interaction between varieties and ferti- obtained from the variety Gelong se. Considering fertilizer dose, lizer dose with 5% level of significance (Table 4, 5 and 6). the highest grain yield (4.0 t ha-1) was found when the field was Considering individual factor effect, highest number of effective fertilized with 100% RD of fertilizers. The grain yield was also tillers (6.6) were found from Nizershail rice cultivar and with affected by interaction between variety and fertilizers with 5% 100% RD of fertilizer application (7.0). Considering interaction, level of significance. It was found that significantly highest grain highest total tillers (7.2) was observed when the variety Gelong yield (4.3 t ha-1) was obtained when Gelong se was fertilized se was cultivated with 100% RD of fertilizers. Number of grains with 100% RD of fertilizer. Straw yield was significantly affected spike-1 was significantly affected by varieties, fertilizer dose and by varietal difference and fertilizer dose with 0.1% level of with their interaction at 5% level of significance. Considering significance. The highest straw yield (5.9 t ha-1) was obtained individual effect, statistically highest number of grains spike-1 from the variety Gelong se. Considering fertilizer dose, the was found from the variety Kongnam ene (122.7) and when highest straw yield (5.6 t ha-1) was found when the field was 125% RD of fertilizers were applied. Considering the interaction fertilized with 150% RD of fertilizers. The straw yield was also effect, maximum number of grains spike-1 was observed (129.2) affected by interaction between variety and fertilizers with 5% when the variety Gelong se was transplanted with 75% RD of level of significance. It was found that significantly highest straw fertilizers. Weight of 1000-grain was significantly affected by yield (6.6 t ha-1) was obtained when Gelong se was fertilized variety, fertilizer dose and also by interaction between them at with 150% RD of fertilizer.

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a b

c d Figure 1 (a-d). Nutritional value (soluble CHO, crude protein, crude fat, Fe, Zn, crude fibre and ash content) of different black rice and white rice cultivars.

Nutrient contents of Black rice compared to white rice was obtained. This might be due to the photosensitive charac- Nutrient contents of three black rice cultivars were compared teristic of the varieties. When the varieties were transplanted with one popular white rice local cultivar named nazirshail (Figure on July 20 or August 05 they get sufficient time to get their veg- 1a-d). It was found that the carbohydrate content was found high- etative growth and produce maximum dry matter. But, when the est in nazirshail rice (86.23%) and lowest in kongnam ene transplanting time is delayed then the varieties did not get (68.17%). Crude protein (11.21%) and crud fat (2.92%) was found enough time for vegetative growth before flowering. Therefore, higher in the black rice cultivar kongnam ene compared to other late transplanting resulted lowest yield. For having maximum rice cultivars and lowest crude protein (1.41%) and crude fat grain yield provision of fertilizer to the soil is a must. From the (0.6%) was found in nazirshail rice. In case of Fe content, the high- results it has been found that 100% recommended dose of ferti- est amount of Fe (135.9 ppm) was found in the black rice cultivar lizer for a local plain land white rice cultivar gave highest yield gelong se and the lowest amount of Fe (61.3 ppm) was found in the for all of the black rice cultivars. This means the hilly black rice local white rice cultivar nazirshail. Similar pattern was also found cultivar responded to the fertilizer as the plain land local rice in case of Zn content. The highest (59.5 ppm) and lowest (13.7 cultivar respond. Therefore, finally it could be concluded that ppm) amount of Zn was found in kongnam ene and nazirshail rice black rice cultivar Gelong se can be cultivated in plain land envi- cultivar, respectively. Highest amount of crude fibre (1.25%) and ronment if it is transplanted either on Jul 20 or August 05 with a ash (1.62%) was observed in the black rice cultivar kongnam ene fertilizer dose of 100 kg urea, 40 kg TSP, 20 kg MoP and 30 kg and the lowest amount of crude fibre (0.12%) and ash (0.5%) was Gypsum. Considering the nutritional fact, either of the black rice observed in case of the white rice cultivar nazirshail. cultivar is more preferable than that of the white rice cultivar.

Conclusion ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors greatly acknowledge the Ministry of Science and Based on the findings of the two experiments the following con- Technology (MoST-39.00.0000.09.02.069.16-17/11/55/BS- clusion may be made: Among varieties, the black rice cultivar 277) Peoples Republic of Bangladesh for providing financial Gelong se considered best grain yielding potential variety than support to conduct the research work. three other rice varieties, of which two are black rice cultivars (Kongnam ene and Gelong ne) and another one is plain land Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under white rice cultivar (Nizershail). Regarding time of transplanting the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, it has been revealed that all the varieties gave higher yield when which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction they were transplanted either on July 20 or August 05. The in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are worst transplanting time was October 5 when lowest grain yield credited.

Md. Rashedur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 198-205 (2019) 205

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Role of women in pond fish farming and fish consumption situation in a selected area of Bangladesh Mohammad Ataur Rahman*, Jannatul Ferdous and Zarin Tasnim Department of Agricultural Finance, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 15 May 2019 In Bangladesh, aquaculture makes an important contribution to rural livelihoods for food Revised received: 22 May 2019 security, nutrition security and cash income. Small-scale fisheries typically depend on men and Accepted: 28 May 2019 women's roles. The Bangladesh fisheries sector is seen as a male domain and the contribution

of women is poorly recognized. This study is concerned with the contribution of rural women

in different activities of pond fish farming, profitability of pond fish culture, fish consumption Keywords level of the sample households and problems and constraints in pond fish farming. For achiev- Fish consumption ing these objectives, 60 women pond fish farmers were selected randomly from Muktagacha Pond fish farming upazila of Mymensingh district in Bangladesh. Primary data were collected personally from

Profitability respondents through a sample survey with the help of a structured and pre-tested interview Small-scale fisheries schedule. Both tabular and econometric techniques were used to analyze the collected data. Women contribution The major findings indicated that a total working hour in a season (six months) was 418 of an average 12 decimal pond sizes. Men contribute 62.68% (262 hours) and women contribute 37.32% (156 hours) of the total working hours in a season. The per hector/season production, gross return, gross margin and net return were Kg.18188, Tk. 1655108, Tk.740736 and Tk. 654202, respectively. Undiscounted benefit-cost ratio was found 1.65 in the study area. Average per capita fish consumption was 69.01 gm/day, which was higher than the nation average of 44.65 gm/person/day. The main problems faced by the respondents were high feed cost, disease, high labour demand, high cost of a pond excavation, etc. This research concludes that women play a significant role in pond fish farming and achieving household nutrition security. The government and policy makers should acknowledge the women's contribution in different farming activities and make appropriate policy for women entrepreneurship development in Bangladesh which will lead to achieve sustainable development goals.

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Rahman, M.A., Ferdous, J. and Tasnim, Z. (2019). Role of women in pond fish farming and fish consumption situation in a selected area of Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 206-212, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402012

INTRODUCTION percent to total production (DoF, 2017). In last decade average growth performance of this sector was almost 5.43% (DoF, Bangladesh is consecrated with about 4.047 million hectare 2017). Government of Bangladesh is trying to sustain this open inland water body, 0.528 million hectare closed inland growth performance, which eventually ensures to achieve the water body and marine water covers an area of 0.166 million projected production target of 4.55 million MT by 2020-21. hectares. These water bodies are very prosperous in fisheries According to FAO statistics 2016, Bangladesh is ranked 5th in resources. Bangladesh has at least 260 freshwater fish species world aquaculture production. Bangladesh has at least 260 and over 475 marine species (DoF, 2009). Bangladesh is one of freshwater fish species and over 475 marine species (DoF, the world’s leading fish producing countries with a total produc- 2009). The country has recorded surplus fish production with an tion of 4.134 million MT, where aquaculture contributes 56.44 annual output of 41.34 lacks MT against demand of 40.50 lacks

Mohammad Ataur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 206-212 (2019) 207

MT in 2016-17. This sector is contributing significantly in food (Sultana et al. 2001). However, their contribution benefits both security through proving safe and quality animal protein; almost the household and national economy is still largely invisible or 60% animal protein comes from fish. It contributes 3.61% to our ignored. Since a rural woman’s work outside her household is national GDP and around one-fourth (24.41%) to the agricultur- often unpaid, it is therefore rarely accounted in official statistics al GDP. More than 11% of total population of Bangladesh is (APC, 2006). Therefore, it is significant to recognize and identify engaged with this sector on full time and part time basis for the impacts of fish culture at the household level as well as on their livelihoods (DoF, 2017). the rural livelihoods. The main purpose of the study was to Fish can play a crucial role to alleviate poverty and reduce obtain contribution of women on pond fish farming and house- hunger and malnutrition. Fish is an important source of different hold fish consumption level the role women in pond fish farming. nutrients like proteins and healthy fats. Beside these, fish also a The specific objectives set the proposed research were to exclusive source of vital micronutrients that are necessary to measure the contribution of rural women in different activities mental and physical development, particularly in children, and of pond fish farming, estimate the profitability of pond fish are an essential part of a healthy diet. The numerous positive culture, measure the fish consumption level, and analyze effect of fatty fish high in omega-3s and tiny fish eaten whole problems and constraints in pond fish farming. having nutrients in the skin and bones evidently point up seafood’ dietary value. Both developing countries and MATERIALS AND METHODS developed world are increasingly focusing on fish to have nutritional benefit. In many countries in the world, fish is the A sample of 60 female pond fish farmers was selected randomly foremost or single supply of animal protein and is crucial for from Muktagaca upzila of Mymensingh district in Bangladesh. given micronutrients to defenseless populations (FAO, 2017, Primary data were collected personally from respondents 2018). through a sample survey with the help of a structured and Increased pond fish production in Bangladesh can help to meet pre-tested interview schedule. Focus group discussion and the increased domestic demand. In order to meet the shortage observation techniques were also used to get relevant of fish, the Department of Fisheries (DoF) and some information. The data and information were collected during the non-government organizations (NGOs) are encouraging people period from January to June 2018. Simple statistical techniques to increase fish production in their surrounding water areas, were employed to analyze the data. The fish consumption data such as pond, haor, baor, beel, etc. Generally, profitable pond of pond fish farming households of seven days were measured fish production depends on the application of its inputs manage- by the per person per day consumption level. For the calculation, ment and technologies, etc. At present, some of the fish produc- family members are defined as one adult male and one adult ers in our country understood the positive effect of scientific female is 1:1, the child whose age is below 5 years considered as aquaculture and they already adopted a number of improved zero and 5 – 10 years considered as half of an adult member. technologies for increasing fish production through pond fish Activity budgets (Dillon and Hardaker, 1993) of the pond fish culture. But most of them are facing the acute problem of culture were prepared using the following algebraic equation: financing (Rahman et al., 2015). Involvement of women directly and indirectly in fisheries and n   P Y  (P X )TFC aquaculture is an age old practice in many Asian and African y  xi i1 countries. Women perform a range of activities throughout the value chain of aquatic food products (Kevane and Wydick, 1999; Where, π = Net return (Tk./hectare); Py = per unit price of the Shaleesha and Stanley, 2000). These activities include fry collec- product (Tk./kg); Y= Quantity of the production per hectare th th tion from nature, induced breeding in hatcheries, production (Kg); Pxi = Per unit price of i inputs (Tk.); Xi =Quantity of the i and management, on the farm and on shore post-harvest inputs per hectare (kg); TFC= Total fixed cost (Tk.); activities, marketing of products and processing of fisheries i=1,2,3…………….,n (number of inputs). products (Sharma, 2003; Song, 1999). In Bangladesh, women Apart from the profitability analysis, undiscounted benefit-cost are also involved in many fisheries and aquaculture activities. ratio (BCR) was calculated dividing per hectare gross return by While aquaculture too perceived to be a man dominated gross cost. occupation, the involvement of women is just significant (Shelly and Costa, 2005). A large number of women are also employed RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in prawn processing. Rural women are also reported to be involved in small-scale aquaculture (Barman et al., 2011). Shelly Women contribution in pond fish farming (2005) notes that with the changing socio-cultural condition It is observed from Table 1 that women worked an average 156 women’s participation in agricultural production systems in hours and men worked 262 hours that means 62.68% men and Bangladesh has started to shift from the household based 37.32% women in a season (six months) of an average 12 farming activities to labor intensive farming systems. In decimal pond size. In general, women along with their daily addition, many NGO initiatives promoted the group based pond household in general, women along with their daily household management and community based fisheries management chores, play significant roles in a number of activities in the

208 Mohammad Ataur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 206-212 (2019) fields of agriculture and rural development, which include crop operations have to be done by the farmers. Human labor is and livestock production, horticulture, post harvest operations, required in different operations and managements, such as agro-social forestry, homestead production. Aquaculture plays reconstruction, feed application, fertilizer application, compost significant roles in a number of activities in the fields of agricul- making and its application. Both family and hired labor were ture and rural development, which include crop and livestock used in the pond fish culture. production, horticulture, post harvest operations, agro-social Family labor included the farm operator herself and other mem- forestry, homestead production and aquaculture (Rahman, bers of her family i.e., husband, brothers and children, etc. Labor 2005). Rural women are also contributing to pond preparation, was measured in terms of man-day which usually consisted of 8 feeding, spreading fingerling; take care of fingerling, fertilizer hours. It can observe from the table 2 that average wage rate application, seasonal fish drying, processing, net making and was Tk.300/man-day. The average labor required per hectare many of her assorted types of work associated with fisheries. was 1072 man-days in a season. The total cost for human labor But the share of work load varies in different activities of pond was Tk. 321600/hectare/season. Sharmin (2016) found human fish farming. The table 1 also shown that the highest contribu- labor cost Tk. 112007 for Pangas production and Tk. 248717 for tion of women was in feeding of fish which was about 86 hours aquaculture production per hectare. The variation of the human from 112 hours that means 76.79% of the total hours needed labor cost can be changed with different areas, labor types, gen- for feeding. der, ages, seasons etc. The stocking rate of fingerlings varies In pond preparation, uprooted weed, eradicate unexpected fish with the fertility of the pond. Pond fish farmers in the study area and animal, fertilizer application, take care of fingerling, spread- used purchased fingerlings and the cost was calculated on the ing lime, catching fish, grading, and marketing women contribut- basis of farm-gate price. The selected species of fingerlings were ed different portions of the different activities. But spreading Rui, Catla, Mrigal, Karfu, Silver carp, Grass carp, Mirror carp, fingerlings and water cleaning, women had no contribution in Shrimp, Chetol, Tilapia, Pangus, Kalabous and Sharpunti used for this study area. We can observe from the Table 1 that women fish culture. Per unit price of fingerlings depends on their sizes contributed in different activities in pond fish farming. as well as the concerned fish species. The average unit price of fingerlings was Tk.4/piece. The purchasing cost of fingerlings Cost and return of pond fish farming per hectare for one season (6 months) was Tk. 150532. The cost Cost and returns were calculated from farmer’s point of view. of fingerling can be changed with species, area of the pond and Costs were calculated for all the family supplied and purchased availability of water required, etc. inputs used in producing pond fish. The market prices of Supply of artificial supplementary feeds which can compliment concerned inputs and output of pond fish are discussed in this nutritional deficiency is important to increase fish production. It section. The cost of pond fish production included the costs of was found that almost all the farmers applied supplementary human labor and material input (feed, fertilizer, manure and feed such as rice-bran, oil-cake, wheat bran, maize, fish meal, fingerlings) land use cost and cost on operating capital. Human etc. It varied according to the intensity of cultivation. Different labor was the most important and one of the largest inputs used types of feed were used at the different stages of growth of pro- for pond fish production. There were broadly two different cate- duction. The pond fish farmers in the study area could not prac- gories of human labor, i) family labor and ii) hired labor. Human tice standard feeding methods due to lack of scientific labor is needed for most of the operations of pond fish culture. knowledge. The average feed cost per hectare was Tk. 418000 The intensity of labor depends upon how carefully and what (Table 2).

Table 1. The contribution of rural women in different pond fish farming activities. Men working Women Total working Percentage Percentage Name of Activities time in a season working time in a time in a season share of share of (Hrs.) season (Hrs.) (Hrs.) men women Pond preparation 94 12 106 88.68 11.32 Uprooted weed 17 4 21 80.95 9.05 Eradicate unexpected fish 9 3 12 75 25 and animal Fertilizer application 3 2 5 60 40 Spreading fingerling 2 0 2 100 00 Take care of fingerling 4 4 8 50 50 Feeding 26 86 112 23.21 76.79 Water clearing 2 0 2 100 00 Spreading lime 2 2 4 50 50 Catching fish 88 28 116 75.86 24.14 Grading 4 3 7 57.14 42.86 Marketing 11 12 23 47.83 52.17 Total 262 156 418 62.68 37.32 Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Mohammad Ataur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 206-212 (2019) 209

Fertilizer was generally used in the fishpond to create a condi- their respective market prices. Gross return from pond fish tion, which facilitates an increase in production of good quality production was estimated at Tk. 1655108/ha/season (Table 3). natural fish feed, thereby increasing fish production. Farmers Sharmin (2016) estimated gross return TK. 5498856 per used three kinds of chemical fertilizers namely, Urea, Triple hectare/year for Pangas production in Bangladesh. super phosphate (TSP) and Manure in the study area. The cost of fertilizer was charged at the prevailing market rate in the Gross margin study area during pond fish culture season. Farmers applied Producers generally want to gain maximum return over variable Urea, TSP, and MoP 356 Kg, 145 Kg, and 90 Kg per hectare/ cost of production. A Gross margin is the difference between season, respectively. It was observed that, farmers used cow- the gross return and total variable cost. The gross margin of dung in fish ponds as manure in the study area. Cow-dung was pond fish production was estimated at Tk. 740736/ha/season home supplied and purchased. The cost of cow-dung was calcu- (Table 3). lated Tk.1/kg. It observed from the table 2 that farmers used Kg.1564 manure per hectare. Lime was used mainly to neutral- Net return ize acidity in the soil and water of the pond. Lime assists in Per hector/season net return from pond fish production was release of the nutrient from the soil and promotes the bacterial calculated by deducting gross costs from gross returns. It can be breakdown of water material including green manure. The aver- noted from (Table 3) that per hector net return was Tk. 654202. age quantity of lime used by fish farmers was 622 Kg/hectare per season. Average cost incurred for lime was Tk.12447/ Return over per taka investment hectare. Lease value of the pond was consisted as land use cost. Net return per taka invested is the ratio between net return and Land use cost of the pond was calculated at the rate of prevail- total cost. Table 3 shows that net return per taka investment in ing cash rental value of per hectare pond land in the study area. pond fish farming was 0.65. It means that by spending Tk.100 Pond rental value was calculated at Tk. 40815 per hectare for net return of Tk. 65 was obtained. one six months. In the survey of Sharmin (2016) she found a fixed amount of land use cost is Tk. 75446 and Tk. 29750 per Benefit cost ratio (BCR) hectare, respectively. Interest of operating capital was calculat- Benefit cost ratio for pond fish culture was determined as ratio ed by taking into account total variable costs incurred on all field of gross cost return to gross cost. Table 3 reveals that benefit operations. Interest on operating capital (10% of total variable cost ratio (undiscounted) of pond fish farming was 1.65 indicat- cost for 6 months) was Tk. 45719 (Table 2). ing that production of pond fish was profitable. The finding justi- fies that benefit cost ratio was higher than one, suggesting that Profitability of pond fish farming there is a potential for pond development in study area. Sharmin, (2016) calculated the undiscounted BCR for Pangas production Gross return in selected area of Bangladesh was 1.63. So, BCR can be defer- Gross return is the value of fish produced in money terms. This ring with sample size, selected area, water availability, input cost, is calculated by multiplying the total amount of production by time periods and many other external and internal factors.

Table 2. Per hectare costs of pond fish culture. Items of cost Quantity Price/unit (Tk.) Total cost (Tk.) Human labor (man-day) 1072 300 321600 Fingerling (no.) 37633 4 150532 Feed (kg) 7600 55 418000 Fertilizer Urea (kg) 356 16 5696 TSP (kg) 145 22 3190 MoP (kg) 90 15 1350 Manure (kg) 1564 1 1564 Chemical Cost Lime (kg) 622 20 12440 Total variable cost - - 914372 Fixed cost Land use cost 40815 Interest on operating capital(10% of total 45719 variable cost for 6 months) Total fixed cost 86534 Total cost 1000906 Source: Field Survey, 2018.

210 Mohammad Ataur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 206-212 (2019)

Table 3. Profitability of pond fish farming. Particulars Cost and return (Tk./ha)/season Yield (Y) Kg 18188 Gross Return (GR) Tk. (Tk.91/Kg) 1655108 Total variable cost (TVC) TK. 914372 Total fixed cost (TFC) Tk. 86534 Total cost/Gross cost TC=(TVC+TFC) Tk. 1000906 Gross Margin GM= (GR-TVC) Tk. 740736 Net Return NR=(GR-TC) Tk. 654202 Return over per Tk. investment (NR/TC) 0.65 BCR (GR/TC) 1.65 Source: Field Survey, 2018. Table 4. Fish consumption level of different income group.

Average fish consumption National average per person per day fish Annual household income (Tk.) Number level (gm/person/day) consumption (gm/person/day) 75000 - 100000 14 78.04 100001 - 150000 31 72.85 150001 - 200000 12 66.79 44.65 200001 - 250000 3 58.38 Total/Average 60 69.01 Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Fish consumption level of the households Water was essential for pond fish culture. Bangladesh belongs Protein is a structural molecule assembled out of amino acids, to the monsoon region; sufficient water was in the monsoon many of which our body can’t produce on its own. Animal foods season but insufficient water was in the dry season. About are usually high in protein, providing all essential amino acids. 23.33% of the pond fish farmers complained that the insufficient Aquaculture’s contribution to fish consumption was pro-poor water was the problem in the selected area. Table 5 also reveals because it more than exceeded lost inland capture fisheries that 95% of the respondents were claimed that diseases of the production (Toufique and Belton, 2014). Our protein needs very fish were the major problem in pond fish culture. Das et al. based upon many factors such as age, gender, activity level, etc. (2018) also fund that in pond fish culture, fungal diseases The DRI (Dietary Reference Intake) is 0.8 grams of protein per (31.82%) were mostly reported disease in Gazipur district of kilogram of body weight or 0.36 grams per pound 56 grams per Bangladesh. Agricultural extension workers and Upazila Fisher- day. 56 grams protein needed for the adult man/day and 46 ies Officer can help to the farmers for solving this problem. Aq- grams protein needed for the adult woman/day. uaculture in Bangladesh relies heavily on formulated feed and Fish can be used as a medicine of some kind of diseases like among animal protein sources fishmeal is a common ingredient goiter. The goiter is mostly found in the area where iodized salt is in most fish feed formulation (Kundu et al. 2017). High feed cost unavailable but the eating of fish and the natural iodine it contains was another problem of the respondents. As a result of high could help diminish this disease. Dietary patterns are also shifting feed cost farmers, cost of production was increased and profita- in developed and middle-income countries, and an increasing bility decreased. emphasis on coronary and overall health has led to an increased About 86.66% of the respondents claimed that high feed cost demand for fish (FAO, 2017, 2018). Fish is a high-quality food were there big problem. Government should take appropriate item. Fish muscle contains almost all the essential nutrients policies to overcome this problem. Predators were a constrain in required for human health. Average per capita fish consumption the selected area. About 6.66% of the respondents claimed was 69.01gm/day. That was more than national Average per predators was their constrained. Some kind of bird and some person per day fish consumption 44.65 gm (Table 4). Pond fish animals that are live in the water were the predators for fish. farming play vital role for achieving household nutrition. Theft of fish was another constrained in the selected area. Table From the table 4, it is indicated that lower income group family 5 reveals that 5% of the respondents claimed that theft was consume more fish compare to the higher income group. It may another constrained. This problem was raised where ‘Night be happened because of rich people can have more choice of Guard’ was not available. Sometimes neighbored was doing that having more meat, egg and milk than less income group. But all job just for enemies. About 20% of the respondents claimed that the four groups having more fish than the national average. unexplained mortality of fish was their major problem due to Problems and constraints of pond fish culture lack of proper knowledge on the relevant technology. This As we know that a problem is solvable but a constraint must be problem arises when farmers are not able to find the causes of lived with. Pond fish culture in Bangladesh also practicing with mortality of the fish. Fisheries expert could help to solve this different problems and constrains. Table 5 analysed different problem. The lack of fingerlings was found as another problem problems and constrains faced by the women pond fish farmers for the farmers. 8.33% of the respondents claimed that non- in Bangladesh. availability of fingerling was another problem in the selected

Mohammad Ataur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 206-212 (2019) 211 area. Fingerlings are the most important material input in pond This problem could solve by exchanging their labor to other fish culture method. But proper stocking size is not always avail- farmers. Higher costs, in general, were another major problem able in the culture time, because of lack of fingerlings nursery in in pond fish culture technology. For this method farmer need Bangladesh (Ghose, 2014). Government, private organization more operating capital specially to buy fingerlings. Table 5 and Non-Government Organization could establish new nurse- reveals that 33.33% of the respondents complained that higher ries to solving this problem. Higher labor demand was another costs in general were a major problem. In the pond fish culture problem in pond fish culture technology. Here, higher labor technology needs to prepare pond excavation. This pond demand means higher human labor demand. Especially in the excavation takes a proportion of the total costs of the pond fish harvesting period more human labor were demanded in the culture. About 69.01% of the respondents claimed that higher selected area. About 70% of the respondents claimed that cost of pond excavation for pond fish culture was another major higher human labor demand were another problem in this area. problem.

Table 5. Problems and constraints of pond fish culture. Number of times problem was ranked Problem First Second Third Fourth Total (n = 60) Insufficient water 4 2 5 3 14(23.33) Diseases 38 14 00 5 57(95) High feed cost 24 15 10 3 52(86.66) Predators 0 0 2 2 4(6.66) Theft 0 2 0 1 3(5) Unexplained mortalities 0 0 7 5 12(20) Non availability of fingerling 00 00 03 02 5(8.33) High labor demand 15 21 4 2 42(70) High costs in general 03 04 07 06 20(33.33) High cost of pond excavation 06 09 12 14 41(69.01) Source: Field Survey, 2018 (Percentages are in parentheses).

Conclusion Conflicts of interest The authors confirm that there are no known conflicts of Women in rural Bangladesh have always been substantially interest associated with this publication. involved in fish production. They are active partners of the socio -economic development of the country in general and the family Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under in particular. By undertaking pond fisheries activities, women the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, contributed to increase the family income considerably; which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction ensured constant supply of much needed family nutrition; in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are generated an opportunity for self-employment; uplifted their credited. overall socio-economic condition and become more skilled. It contributes to some women’s expanding human and social REFERENCES capital in the form of self-identified increases in self-esteem, confidence, appreciation and respect from their husbands in APC (2006). Women in the food chain. ASIA PACIFIC CONSUMER, Quarterly maga- relation to earning income. The substantial numbers of rural zine ASIAPACIFIC CONSUMER, Consumers International Kuala Lumpur Office. women were involved in different pond fish culture activities Barman, B.K., Mitra, B., Belton B., Haque, M., Roy, S., Zaman, S. and Saha, S. (2011). especially in feed preparation, feeding and fry releasing in the Enhancing the impacts of decentralised (Fish) seed production (RIU-DSP) to pond. Women were found in lesser extent in pond preparation, small-scale framing households in Bangladesh, India and Nepal. Paper presented at RIU-DSP final workshop, 14 May 2011 at RDRS, Rangpur, harvesting and marketing of fish. Almost all women farmers Bangladesh. stated that the primary reason for involvement in fish farming Das, M., Islam, M.R., Akter, T., Kawser, A.Q.M.R. and Mondal, M.N. (2018). Present due to more profitability. They were not followed the scientific status, problems and prospect of fish farming at Gazipur Sadar upazila in methods of culture and stocking density. There were some Bangladesh. Progressive Agriculture, 29 (1): 53-63. Dillon, J.L. and Hardaker, J.B. (1993). Farm Management Research for Small problems in the study area in fish farming, Such as insufficient Farmer Development. FAO Farm Systems Management Series 06. FAO water, diseases, theft, high feed cost, etc. Most of the producer Rome. pp. 1-268. faces these problems. Beside those problems, repeated floods DoF (2009). Annul Report. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka. and natural disasters are believed to be main other fundamental DoF (2017). Fisheries Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh. Department of problems of pond fish farming in Bangladesh. Therefore, the Fisheries, Ministry of Fishery and Livestock, Dhaka, Bangladesh. findings suggested that in order to increase area under culture FAO (2017). Women's empowerment in aquaculture in Bangladesh and Indonesia; fish as well as its more rapid expansion the above problems Insights from four case studies. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Gender Rural and Social Development Office. should be solved as far as possible. FAO (2018). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. FAO Fisheries and

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Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United es on women of fishing communities in the Asian region. Asia Pacific Research Nations Rome. Network, pp. 27-29, Ghose, B. (2014). Fisheries and Aquaculture in Bangladesh: Challenges and http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=GB2013200424 Opportunities. Annals of Aquaculture and Research, 1(1): 1001. Sharmin, S. (2016). Potentiality of Pangas fish export from Kevane, M. and Wydick, B. (1999). Social norms and the time allocation of Bangladesh .Unpublished MS thesis, Department of Agricultural Finance, women’s labor in Burkina Faso. Review of Development Economics, 5(1): Bangladesh Agricultural University.pp.12-25. 119–129. Shelly, A.B. (2005). Participation of women in fisheries development. National Fish Kundu, G.K., Alauddin, M., Akter, M.S., Khan, M.S., Islam, M.M., Mondal, G., Islam, Fortnight -2005 Souvenir Department of Fisheries, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp. D., Mohanta, L.C. and Amdadul, A. (2017). Metal contamination of commer- 50-53. cial fish feed and quality aspects of farmed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in Shelly, A.B. and Costa, M.D. (2005). Women in Aquaculture: Initiative of Caritas, Bangladesh. Bioresearch Communications, 3(1): 345-353. Caritas Fisheries Program, Bangladesh. pp. 77-87. Rahman, M.H. (2005). A study on rural women’s empowerment through participa- Song, Z. (1999) 'Rural aquaculture in China'. RAP Publication 1999-22, FAO tion in aquaculture. Bangladesh Journal of Fisheries Research, 9(1): 73-76. Regional Office for the Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. Rahman, M.A., Ahmed, F. and Khan, M.A. (2015). Pond fish culture and needs for Sultana, P., Thompson, P. and Ahmed, M. (2001). Women-led fisheries manage- credit: A study in selected areas of Tangail district. Journal of the Bangladesh ment- A case study of Bangladesh. ICLARM-The World Fish Center, Malaysia Agricultural University, 13(1): 117-124. and Bangladesh. Shaleesha, A. and Stanley, V.A. (2000). Involvement of rural women in aquaculture: Toufique, K.A. and Belton, B. (2014). Is aquaculture pro-poor? Empirical evidence An innovative approach. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly, 23(3): 13-17. of impacts on fish consumption in Bangladesh. World Development, 64: Sharma, C. (2003). The impact of fisheries development and globalization process- 609-620.

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 213-218 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402013

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Effectiveness of fulvic acid to the growth of Swietenia macrophylla King. with addition phosphate at post mining land in Indonesia Basuki Wasis* and Dimas Okta Arifani Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB University), Bogor 16680, West Java, INDONESIA *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 16 May 2019 Mining activities would cause a decrease in carrying capacity and land function due to erosion, Revised received: 26 May 2019 changes in soil structure, loss of vegetation, pollution, nutrient depletion and increasing Al3+ Accepted: 05 June 2019 levels so that soil pH conditions will be low. This study aims to increase the Swietenia macro-

phylla King growth response at the gold mining land that can be used as a tool for considera-

tion in revegetation activities. The design used in this experiment was a complete randomized Keywords design (CRD) factorial with 2 factors. The first factor was the application of fulvic acid (F0 =

Fulvic acid control, F1 = concentration of 2% (2 ml of fulvic acid plus 98 ml of water), F2 = 3% (3 ml of fulvic Phosphate fertilizer acid plus 97 ml of water), F3 = 5 % (5 ml of fulvic acid plus 95 ml of water) and the second factor Post mining was the application of phosphate fertilizer (P0 = 0 g / polybag, P1 = 10 g / polybag, P2 = 15 g / Revegetation polybag and P3 = 20 g / polybag) were used for preparation of different treatments. The Swietenia macrophylla King. treatment of fulvic acid significantly affected the growth of S. macrophylla for parameters of diameter, total dry weight, and root dry weight of S. macrophylla. The single effect of phosphate fertilizer treatment had a significant effect on high growth, diametert, total wet weight, and total dry weight of S. macrophylla. The interaction of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizer significantly affected the diameter, total dry weight and root dry weightof

S. macrophylla. F2P3 treatment (3% fulvic acid and 20 g phosphate fertilizer is the best combination treatment. Therefore, application of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizer on post mining soil improves soil fertility and decreases Al elements which are toxic to plants.

Citation of this article: Wasis, B. and Arifani, D.O. (2019). Effectiveness of fulvic acid to the growth of Swietenia macrophylla King. with addition phosphate at post mining land in Indonesia. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 213-218, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402013

INTRODUCTION the stages of mining activities. Reclamation and rehabilitation are mandatory activities on ex-mining land, but in the Mining activities provide substantial regional and state income. implementation of reclamation and rehabilitation activities on However, mining activities also have a negative impact on post mining land there are obstacles, namely the condition of damage to forest ecosystems, loss of soil solum, damage to soil marginal land. Former gold mine land has chemical properties horizons, damage to soil properties, erosion and environmental that do not support plant growth, which has a low value of pollution (Wasis and Angga, 2017, Wasis et al., 2018). Regula- cation exchange capacity, low soil fertility, low infiltration rate, tion requires every company holding an IUP (mining business resulting in inundation that has an impact on increasing license) to improve and reduce the negative impact of mining alumunium (Al) concentrations that are toxic (Wahyudi, 2007; activities carried out. In line with the regulations listed in Law, Wasis and Angga, 2017). Determination of the type that is Indonesia No. 41 of 1999 concerning Forestry Article 45 adaptive to damaged soil conditions needs to be done, one type Paragraph 2, reclamation in former forest areas of mining areas of adaptive that can grow on marginal land is Swietenia must be carried out by mining permit holders in accordance with macrophylla King.

Basuki Wasis and Dimas Okta Arifani /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 213-218 (2019) 214

Constraints in planting S. macrophylla in fact often fail which are Seedlings of S. macrophylla are weaned into a planting medium characterized by slow, stunted growth and often experience that contains soil from post mining land. Weaning is done in the symptoms of necrosis. Failures that occur are suspected of afternoon. The steps taken in weaning the seedlings of mining residual minerals and are toxic to plants. The toxicity S. macrophylla are removed from the previous planting media caused can be overcome by adding fulvic acid (Wahyudi, 2007; and cleaned. The root of the seed is then soaked in water for 30 Wasis and Angga, 2017). The addition of fulvic acid can increase minutes. Then the seedlings of S. macrophylla are planted pH and reduce the content of minerals that are toxic to plants, according to the prescribed treatment. Seedling maintenance is but the effectiveness of fulvic acid is influenced by the presence carried out by watering (field capacity) every morning around of phosphates available in the soil (Wahyudi, 2007). This study 07.00 WIB and in the afternoon at 17.00 WIB, if the soil still was conducted to determine the effect of phosphate on the feels wet it is not necessary to do watering again. Other effectiveness of fulvic acid in the growth of S. macrophylla plants maintenance is carried out in the form of eradicating weeds. on ex-gold mine land. Data collection MATERIALS AND METHODS Data collection was conducted every week in the period of January - April 2017. Data collection was done by doing meas- Experimental design urement of height and diameter of the seedlings of The study was conducted in January - April 2017. Toxic soil S. macrophylla. Beside that, total wet weight and total dry weight samples were taken from the PT Cibaliung Sumberdaya in measurements of S. macrophylla were done after the harvesting. Banten Regency, Banten Province, Indonesia. Testing of toxic The harvested plants of S. macrophylla were separated between nutrient minerals was carried out at the Laboratory of Chemical the root and shoot. Then, seedlings of S. macrophylla were dried and Soil Fertility, Department of Land Resources, Faculty of off in the oven at 80°C as long as 24 hours (Wasis and Fathia, Agriculture, IPB University. Observation of the growth of S. 2011; Wasis and Angga, 2017). After that, S. macrophylla seed- macrophylla in the Greenhouse of the Laboratory of Forest lings were weighed again to know the dry weight. In other hand, Ecology, Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, IPB two samples of soil / tailing (planting medium) were analyzed to University, Bogor, Indonesia. The tools used in this study were know the soil characteristics. The two samples of these medium the Global Positioning System (GPS), location maps, hoes, were soil / medium with control treatment and the best treat- pitchforks, polybags of size 10 cm × 15 cm (diameter × height), ment which gave the best growth prefromance of S. macrophylla. 50 cm ruler, sterophome bowl, plant sprinklers, digital cameras, analytical scales 4 digits, ovens, label paper, tallysheet, markers. Methodology and data analysis The material used is the seeds of S. macrophylla. Phosphate Experimental design used was factorial completely randomized fertilizers in the form of SP36, fulvic acid, toxic soil media, design with two factors. The first factor is the treatment of compost in the form of manure, and water. fulvic acid, which is F0 = control, F1 = concentration of 2% (2 ml

of fulvic-acid plus 98 ml of water), F2 = 3% (3 ml of fulvic-acid

Soil sampling and soil analysis plus 97 ml of water), F3 = 5 % (5 ml of fulvic-acid plus 95 ml of

Our soil samples were taken purposive sampling, in locations water). The second factor is phosphate dosing, namely P0 = 0 g / that have high Al or Fe content, and low pH. The soil tested polybag, P1 = 10 g / polybag, P2 = 15 g / polybag and P3 = 20 g / came from composite soil from 5 locations adjacent to each polybag. So that the total plant used is 80 plants. Data obtained other. The distance between pickup points is 2-3 m and at the from observations and measurements in the field were analyzed third point or midpoint does mapping using GPS. The pattern of using experimental designs, which can be described in a linear soil sampling can be seen in Figure 1. Furthermore, soil sampling method (Stell and Torries, 1991; Mattjik and Sumertajaya, is carried out by drilling techniques with a depth of approxi- 2006). Only if there is significant effect, Duncan's Multiple mately 30 cm with a diameter of approximately 15 cm below the Range Test will be measured for getting further statistic data. surface of the ground after the gold mine mine. The analysis of soil properties includes pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), C organic, nitrogen, aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and phosphorus (P).

Preparation of cultivation media and plantation 3 Land originated from post gold mining land at PT Cibaliung Sumberdaya, Banten Regency, Banten Province, Indonesia. The filtered soil is then sieved using a sieve made of 1 m × 1 m sand wire to separate the gravel from the ground. Plant media used in 5 the form of soil and compost mixed with a ratio of 3: 1. Then put into a polybag with a size of 10 cm × 15 cm. Figure 1. Technique used for collection of soil samples during the study.

215 Basuki Wasis and Dimas Okta Arifani /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 213-218 (2019)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Duncan's test results showed that the administration of fulvic acid with a concentration of 1% and the treatment of phosphate

Effects of fulvic-acid and phosphate treatments on the growth fertilizer at 20 g (F1P3) was the best combination treatment, and parameters of S. macrophylla had a significant effect on all treatments tested, the The results of analysis of variance showed that a single combination treatment had a growth rate of 3.36 cm. of S. treatment of fulvic acid had a significant effect on growth in macrophylla with a percentage increase in diameter growth to diameter, total dry weight, and roots dry weight of S. control (F0P0) of 42%. The lowest growth of the diameter is in macrophylla. The single treatment of phosphate fertilizer had a the treatment of the combination of fulvic acid with a significant effect on high, diameter, total wet weight and total concentration of 3% and phosphate fertilizer treatment of 10 g dry weight of S. macrophylla. While the interaction treatment (F2P1) which has a growth average diameter of 1.64 cm of S. significantly affected the growth of diameter, total dry weight, macrophylla and a percentage decrease in diameter growth to and root dry weight of S. macrophylla (Table 1). control (F0P0) of 31% (Table 3). The best application of phosphate fertilizer is shown by giving The Duncan test results showed that the best treatment was 15

20 g of phosphate fertilizer (P3) with an average plant growth of g of phosphate fertilizer (P2) with a total wet weight of 23.56 g

18.84 cm of S. macrophylla and an increase in the percentage of and an increase in the percentage of control (P0) of 40%. These control by 52% (Table 2). According to Wasis and Noviani results indicate that the treatment of fulvic acid at a dose of 5% (2010), the provision of fertilizer provides better results for the is not sufficient for nutrient requirements for plants, it is shown growth of plant seeds, but beyond that there are external that a single treatment and interaction treatment has no factors that influence the growth of plant seeds in addition to significant effect (Table 4). N nutrient content in fulvic acid the provision of inorganic fertilizers. ranges from 0.7-2.6% (Tan, 1991).

Table 1. Effect of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizer impact on growth of S. macrophylla. Treatment Parameter Fulvic acid Phosphate fertilizer Fulfic acid and phosphate fertilizer Height 0.996tn 0.001* 0.107tn Diameter 0.023* 0.002* 0.005* Total wet weight 0.986tn 0.005* 0.060tn Total dry weight <.0001* 0.021* 0.050* Root dry weight <.0001* 0.068tn 0.018* Root shoot ratio 0.255tn 0.237tn 0.157tn Table 2. Duncan's test of the effect of phosphate fertilizer on the high increase in S. macrophylla. Treatment Average height growth (cm) Percent increase (%)

P0 12.4125a 0% P1 13.4000a 8% P2 13.6438a 10% P3 18.8437b 52% Table 3. Duncan Test effect of combination treatment on the growth of diameter of S. macrophylla. Treatment Average diameter growth (cm) Percent increase (%)

F1P3 3.3650a 42% F1P2 3.1200ab 32% F2P3 2.9525abc 24% F2P2 2.6950abcd 14% F0P3 2.6900abcd 13% F3P2 2.6700abcd 13% F0P2 2.6200abcd 10% F1P1 2.6100abcd 10% F0P1 2.5550abcd 8% F3P1 2.4100bcde 2% F0P0 2.3725bcde 0% F1P0 2.3625bcde 0% F3P3 2.3150bcde -2% F2P0 2.1950cde -7% F3P0 1.9675de -17% F2P1 1.6375e -31% Table 4. Duncan Test single effect of phosphate fertilizer on total wet weight of S. macrophylla. Treatment Average total wet weight (g) Percent increase (%)

P2 23.5569a 40% P3 21.6113a 29% P1 21.0369a 25% P0 16.7938b 0%

Basuki Wasis and Dimas Okta Arifani /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 213-218 (2019) 216

Table 5. Duncan test effect of treatment combinations on total dry weight of S. macrophylla.

Treatment Average total dry weight (g) Percent increase (%)

F2P3 12.6675a 57%

F3P2 12.3175ab 53%

F2P2 12.1350ab 50%

F1P2 11.9800ab 48%

F3P1 11.2350abc 39%

F1P1 11.1175abc 38%

F3P0 10.8850abc 35%

F2P1 9.8650abcd 22%

F3P3 9.4450abcd 17%

F1P3 8.8700bcd 10%

F1P0 8.1650cd 1%

F0P0 8.0675cd 0%

F0P2 7.6400cd -5%

F0P3 7.2675d -10%

F0P1 7.0350d -13%

F2P0 7.0175d -13%

Table 6. Duncan test the effect of treatment combinations on the dry weight of roots of S. macrophylla. Treatment Average root dry weight (g) Percent increase (%)

F2P3 4.1400a 91%

F2P2 3.9400ab 82%

F3P0 3.6550ab 68%

F3P1 3.6450ab 68%

F1P2 3.5450ab 63%

F3P2 3.5000ab 61%

F2P1 2.9575abc 36%

F3P3 2.7650abcd 27%

F1P3 2.6525abcd 22%

F0P0 2.1700bcd 0%

F1P0 1.6600cd -24%

F0P2 1.5450cd -29%

F1P1 1.5075cd -31%

F0P3 1.3425cd -38%

F2P0 1.3025cd -40%

F0P1 1.0500d -52%

Table 7. Effects of most effective fulvic acid and phosphate treatment (F2P3) on the characteristics of post mining soil.

Parameter Post mining soil Fulvic acid and and phosphate fertilizers (F2P3) Percent change (%)

pH 3.34 4.92 +1.58 Organic C (%) 3.02 11.16 +8.14 Total nitrogen (%) 0.06 0.26 +0.20 Phosphorous (ppm) 1.99 1502.21 +1500.22 Calcium (Ca cmol/kg) 0.59 9.41 +8.82 Magnesium (Mg cmol/kg) 0.25 2.70 +2.45 Potasium (K cmol/kg) 0.10 4.59 +4.49 Sodium (Na cmol/kg) 0.18 1.43 +1.25 CEC (cmol/kg) 9.89 15.66 +5.77 Alumunium (cmol/kg) 10.44 0.00 -10.44

217 Basuki Wasis and Dimas Okta Arifani /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 213-218 (2019)

The Duncan test results showed that the best combination Effects of fulvic-acid and phosphate treatments on the soil treatment was 3% fulvic acid and 20 g phosphate fertilizer characteristics

(F2P3) which had a total dry weight of 12.67 g of S. macrophylla This study shows that the treatment increases soil pH by 1.58, with a percentage of 57% increase in control (Table 5). Total dry which is from 3.34 on post mining soil to 4.93 in the best weight of S. macrophylla is the main parameter used as a treatment (F2P3) (Figure 2). This is caused by the addition of fulvic reference because it shows the main biomass of plants which is acid and phosphate fertilizer on post mining soil. The addition of the end result of the ecophysiological process, which expresses compost or organic matter has an effect on soil improvement, environmental (ecological) and physiological factors (Wasis and especially the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The Noviani, 2010). addition of organic matter in the form of compost has an effect on The Duncan test results in Table 6 show that the treatment of changes in pH. Organic acids can bind H+ ions through carboxyl

F2P3 (3% fulvic acid and 20 g phosphate fertilizer) is the best groups that have a negative charge (Ani, 2007; Hardjowigeno, combination treatment with an average dry root weight of 4.14 2003). g of S. macrophylla and a 91% increase in the percentage of The treatment of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizer reduced control (Table 6). Fulvic acid stimulate growth plants through a toxic Al levels on post mining soil by 10.44 cmol / kg where from variety of mechanisms that appear from several parameters, 10.44 cmol / kg to post mining soil it became 0 cmol / kg at the one of which is root weight. Fulvic acid absorbed by plants can best treatment (F2P3). The decrease in Al value is due to the increase cell permeability so that nutrient uptake also increases treatment of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizer to be able to bind (Hardjowigeno, 2003; Wahyudi, 2007). to free Al3+ ions, causing Al levels to decrease significantly. The In Figure 2, overall plant shoot growth of S. macrophylla tends to decrease in Al will increase the available P-land because Al3+ is a be higher than root, which has a value above 1. The treatment of metal that can bind P to form compounds that cannot dissolve + fulvic acid with a concentration of 5% (F3) showed a relatively and reduce soil pH due to the increased concentration of H ions plant growth pattern which has a root shoot ratio of 1 (one) in the soil (Tan, 1993; Rahmawati, 2011; Prengki et al., 2017). which means that there is a growth balance of roots and shoots The overall treatment of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizer of S. macrophylla. The value of root shoot ratio can be used to increases macro nutrients compared to post mining soil. It can be see the balance between root capability in absorbing water and seen in Table 7 that the nutrient content in the soil experienced a nutrients as well as the ability of plant shoot in the process of significant increase such as nutrients N, P, K, Ca and Mg. Cation transpiration and the rate of photosynthesis. Plant growth is exchange capacity is one of the important parameters in called has well performance when it has a value of shoot root determining soil fertility. In table 7, the treatment of fulvic acid ratio ranging from 1-3 (Mokany, Raison and Prokushkin, 2006; and phosphate fertilizer can increase the CEC on land by 5.77 Wasis and Andika, 2017). cmol / kg, from 9.89 cmol / kg to post mining soil to 15.66 cmol /

kg at the best treatment F2P3. This shows that the treatment of

fulvic acid will cause an improvement in soil CEC (Table 7).

Root shoot ratio (RSR) shootRoot ratio

Treatment of fulvic acid Figure 2. Effect of combination treatment of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizers on root shoot ratio.

Basuki Wasis and Dimas Okta Arifani /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 213-218 (2019) 218

REFERENCES

Ani, S. (2007). Soil Improvement of Citrus Crop Media with Organic Substances in the Form of Compost. [Tesis] . Sekolah Pascasarjana. Institut Pertanian Bogor. Hardjowigeno, S. (2003). Soil Science (Ilmu Tanah). Jakarta (ID) : Akademia a b Pressindo. Mattjik, A.A. dan Sumertajaya, I.M. ( 2013). Experimental Design with SAS Applications and Minitab. IPB Press. Bogor. Mokany, K., Raison, R.J., and Prokushkin, A.S. (2006). Critical analysis of root: shoot ratios in terrestrial biomes. Global Change Biology, 12: 84–96, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.001043.x Prengki S, Fauzi, dan Supriadi. (2017). Pengaruh Pemberian Beberapa Sumber Figure 3. Seedling physical condition of S. macrophylla with treatment (a) Bahan Organik dan Masa Inkubasi Terhadap Beberapa Aspek Kimia F P and (b) F P (control). 2 3 0 0 Kesuburan Tanah Ultisol. Journal Agroekoteknologi, 5(2): 256-264. Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Sumatera Utara. Conclusion Rahmawati, A. (2011). Pengaruh derajat keasaman terhadap adsorpsi logam Kadmium (II) dan Timbal (II) pada asam humat. Jurnal Penelitian Sains dan The treatment of fulvic acid significantly affected the growth of Teknologi, 12(1): 1-14. Stell, R.G.D. and Torries, J.H. (1991). Statistical Principles and Procedures, A S. macrophylla for parameters of diameter, total dry weight, and Biometric Approach. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama Jakarta , pp. 149-167 root dry weight. The single effect of phosphate fertilizer Tan, K.H. (1993). Principless of Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Marcel Dekker Inc., New treatment had a significant effect on high growth, diametert, York. total wet weight, and total dry weight of S. macrophylla. The Wasis, B. and Fathia, N. (2011). Growth of gmelina seedlings with various doses of compost fertilizers on the media of former ground gold mine. Journal of interaction of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizer significantly Tropical Forest Management, 17 (1): 29-33. affected the diameter, total dry weight and root dry weight of S. Wasis, B. and Andika, A. (2017). Growth response of mahagony seedling (Swietenia macrophylla King.) to addition of coconut shell charcoal and macrophylla. F2P3 treatment (3% fulvic acid and 20 g phosphate compost on ex-sand mining site of West Java Province in Indonesia. fertilizer is the best combination treatment. Moreover, addition Agriculture and Environmental Science 2(3): 238–243, of fulvic acid and phosphate fertilizer on post mining soil https://www.aesacademy.org/journal/volume2/issue3/AAES-02-03-018.p improves soil fertility and decreases Al elements which are toxic Wasis, B. and Noviani, D. (2010). Influence of NPK fertilizer and compost on to plants. growth seedling jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb Miq.) gold mining tailing. Journal of Agricultural Science Indonesia, 12(1): 14-19, http://journal.ipb.ac.id/index.php/ JIPI/article/view/6563 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Wasis, B., Winata, B. and Andriani, R. (2018). Growth of Agathis dammara (Lamb. We would like to thank to the Forest Ecology Laboratory, Forest Rich.) seedling on gold tailing with addition of coconut shell charcoal and Influence Laboratory, and the chairman of Department of compost. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 3(2): 131-136, https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2018.030205 Silviculture, Bogor Agricultural Institute (IPB), without their Wahyudi, I. (2007). Peran asam humat dan fulvat dari kompos dalam detoksifikasi help and support, this research would not have been possible. alumunium pada tanah masam. Buana Sains, 7 (2): 123-130.

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 219-223 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402014

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

First report on Apanteles ruidus, Wilkinson reared on Hyblaea puera (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae) teak defoliator from India Mohd. Yousuf1 and Mohsin Ikram2* 1,2Forest Protection Division, Forest Entomology Discipline, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun-248006 (Uttarakhand), INDIA *Corresponding author’s [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 17 May 2019 The present investigation is based on the first report on Apanteles ruidus, Wilkinson Revised received: 26 May 2019 (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), reported for the first time on teak defoliator Hyblaea puera Accepted: 06 June 2019 (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae) a serious pest of teak Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae) from Dehradun,

Uttarakhand, India. The investigation was carried out in the adjoining agro-forestry areas of

Uttarakhand. The extensive collection of defoliator larvae from various forest trees species Keywords for laboratory rearing and emergence of Apanteles spp. The wasps were bred from parasitized Apanteles larvae of H. puera in laboratory which were collected from teak forest, Thano range, Braconidae Dehradun, Uttarakhand. Presently studied species, A. ruidus may also be used as biological

Hyblaea puera control agent against teak defoliator H. puera after determining its biological control potential, Larval parasitoid followed by developing their mass multiplication techniques. Thus, Apanteles species are vital larval parasitoids of several lepidopterous insect pests of economic importance to agricultural crops, commercial cash crops and forest tree species. Therefore, there are fare chances of its application against the insect pests of forest tree species without adverse effect on biodiversity.

Citation of this article: Yousuf, M. and Ikram, M. (2019). First report on Apanteles ruidus, Wilkinson reared on Hyblaea puera (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae) teak defoliator from India. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 219-223, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402014

INTRODUCTION researchers (Sathe and Inamdar, 1989; Sumodan and Sevichan, 1989; Sumodan and Narendran, 1990; Sathe and Ingawale, Apanteles Foerster is the largest genus of subfamily Microgas- 1995; Kurhade and Nikam, 1997; Pandey et al., 2004; Zhdanova, trinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), comprising the economically 2011 Dang and Nga, 2012; Mau Dang Trinh et al., 2019) have important group of larval parasitoids of insect pests. They contributed toward the knowledge of Indian Apanteles. There- mainly parasitize the insect pests of agricultural crops, forest fore, in the present investigation we are presenting the first tree species, medicinal plants, orchards and cash crops. Some report on Apanteles ruidus, Wilkinson reared on Hyblaea puera researchers recorded the species of Apanteles, parasitizing the (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae) teak defoliator from India. host insects including the insect pests of forest tree species. In India, three Apanteles: A. hyblaeae, A. malevolus and A. MATERIALS AND METHODS subandinus, have been imported as biocontrol agents of some major lepidopterous pests in agriculture and forestry (Singh, Collection, preservation and card mounting 2004). Apanteles puera Wilkinson, A. malevolus Wilkinson, A. Taxonomic survey of important forestry and adjoining agro- hyblaeae Wilkinson solitary are larval parasitoids of Hyblaea forestry areas of Uttarakhand was carried out and species puera (Cramer); Apanteles (Protapanteles) stauropi (Viereck); belonging to the genus Apanteles. Foerster were collected by Apanteles javensis Rohwer, potential parasitoids of Parnara host rearing method (extensive collection of defoliator larvae conjuncta (Herrich Schaffer); Apanteles hyblaeae Wilkinson, from various forest trees species for laboratory rearing and reared from Hyblaea sanguinea (Gaede). Recently the emergence of Apanteles spp.). The wasps were bred from

Mohd. Yousuf and Mohsin Ikram /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 219-223 (2019) 220 parasitized larvae of H. puera in laboratory (Figures 3C and D) Diagnosis which were collected from teak forest, Thano range, Dehradun, (Female) Length– 2-2.5 mm, colour black, front orbital space Uttarakhand (India). Emerged Apanteles ruidus specimens were half the head width; vertex closely punctate with minute preserved in 80% alcohol (Figures 3E and F), and then air dried punctures (Figure 2A); interocellar space less than ocello-ocular specimens mounted on cards. space.

Photography Thorax Larvae and adult of H. puera were photographed with digital pronotum smooth and shiny; Mesoscutum (Figures 1C and 2D) camera (Nikon). Apanteles specimens were photographed with shining and convex with shallow but contiguous punctures on automontage Microscope with attached camera. Scanning posterior half, more densely and strongly punctate anteriorly; electron microscopy of specimens was done after drying up to scutellum (Figure 2D) moderately concave, with large shallow critical point. These were then glued on stubs and gold coated. punctures; central groove short, deep, and crenulate. The SEM photographs were taken with JEOL-JSM-6510LV. Propodeum with a weak median carina, densely rugulose medially, irregularly transversely rugose laterally. Fore wings RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (Figure 1B) more than 2× as long as wide; 1st abscissa of radius about equal to width of stigma, little longer than recurrent, Taxonomy which is obviously longer than the apical portion of transverse Apanteles ruidus Wilkinson, 1928: 94. (Figures 1 and 2) cubital, stigma shorter than the metacarp.

Figure. 1. A. ruidus (Female: A- Adult; B-Fore and hind wing; C-Mesosoma; D-Metasoma; E- Ovipositor).

221 Mohd. Yousuf and Mohsin Ikram /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 219-223 (2019)

Abdomen New record (Figures 1D and 2C) 1st tergite narrowed basally and wide Hyblaea puera (Teak defoliator). apically, medially as long as wide (apical side) and 2nd and 3rd tergites rugosely sculptured. Ovipositor sheaths (Figure 1E) Biological control is an important component of integrated pest shorter than ovipositor; ovipositor length about equal to or management and in the vast area of the forest, release of parasi- rather longer than the hind tibial spur. toids for the control of key insect pests is a vital component of key insect pest management in forest ecosystem. There are 3 types of Cocoons important parasitoids: egg parasitoid, larval parasitoids and pupal Gregarious, pale white and oval shaped. parasitoids. Many Trichogramma spp. are being utilized all over the world for biological control of insect pests and these are being Material examined released in millions after their mass multiplication. Apanteles spp. 30 ♀♀; India: Uttarakhand: Dehradun: Thano; 09.viii.2017; coll. is important larval parasitoids. It is required that mass multiplica- M. Ikram; parasitic on Hyblaea puera (Teak defoliator). tion techniques for Apanteles spp. should be standardized. After mass multiplication of selected Apanteles spp., these can be Distribution released in the field for biological control of key insect pests in India: Dehradun (Uttarakhand); Rahatgaon, Hoshangabad forests. Biological control of key forest insect pests by applying (Madhya Pradesh). larval parasitoids, will be very effective, safe, eco-friendly. Presently studied species, Apanteles ruidus may also be utilized as Host recorded biological control agent against teak defoliator H. puera after Eutectona machaeralis walker, Hapalia celatalis walker (Sharma, determining its biological control potential, followed by develop- 1973; Wilkinson 1928). ing their mass multiplication techniques.

Figure 2. A. ruidus (SEM photography: A- Head showing front view; B-Meso+Metasoma; C- Metasoma; D-Mesosoma; E- Metasoma and Ovipositor showing lateral view.

Mohd. Yousuf and Mohsin Ikram /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 219-223 (2019) 222

Figure 3. Emergence of parasitoids (A. ruidus) from host larva, H. puera (Teak defoliator): A- H. puera (Adult); B- Field collected parasitized larva; C-Parasitoid larvae emerging from host larva; D-Dead host larva with parasitoid cocoons; E, F-Emerged parasitoids.

Conclusion

Apanteles species are important larval parasitoids of several ACKNOWLEDGEMENT lepidopterous insect pests of economic importance to agricul- The authors are greatly indebted to the Director, Forest tural crops, commercial cash crops and forest tree species. Research Institute, Dehradun for providing necessary research Apanteles ruidus has been reported for the first time as larval facilities. parasitoids of H. puera. It has given excellent parasitization on H. puera and about 30 specimens could be reared and emerged Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under from a single larva. A. ruidus is well distributed and well acclima- the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, tized in teak forest of Thano range, Dehra Dun (Uttarakhand). A. which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction ruidus has selected host infesting forest tree species, hence in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are there are fare chances of its application against the insect pests credited. of forest tree species without adverse effect on biodiversity.

223 Mohd. Yousuf and Mohsin Ikram /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 219-223 (2019)

REFERENCES Sathe, T.V. and Ingawale, D.M. (1995). Two new species of the genus Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) from India. Journal of Bombay Natural Dang, P.D. and Nga, L.T.N. (2012). Diversity on Rotifera species competitions in History Society, 92: 81-84. fresh inland waters of Southern Vietnam and some new records for Sharma, V. (1973). Taxonomic studies on Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera: zooplankton fauna of Vietnam. Journal of Biology, 34 (3): 13-20. Braconidae: Microgastrinae) from India. Oriental Insects, 7 (1): 119-126. Kurhade, S.M. and Nikam, P.K. (1997). A new species of the genus Apanteles Singh, S.P. (2004). Some success stories in classical biological control of agricultur- (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) from India. Journal of Bombay Natural History al pests in India. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institu- Society, 94(1): 124-126. tions, Bangkok (Thailand), APAARI Publication (Thailand), no.2.73 pp. Mau Dang Trinh, Minh Van Vo, Anh Nguyen Quynh Tran, Huyen Ngoc Thi Le and Sumodan, P.K. and Narendran, T.C. (1990). Five new species of Apanteles Foerster Son Ngoc Tran (2019). Species diversity of rotifers (Rotifera: (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) from Kerala, India. Journal of Ecobiology, 2(3): Eurotatoria) of Phu Ninh Lake with five new records from Vietnam. Interna- 239-248. tional Journal of Aquatic Biology, 7(1): 38-44, Sumodan, P.K. and Sevichan, P.J. (1989). A new species of Apanteles Foerster https://doi.org/10.22034/ijab.v7i1.581 (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) reared from pyrallid pests of Azolla. Pandey, K., Ahmad, Z., Haidar, A. A. and Shuzauddin (2004). Apanteles malacosomae Journal of Ecobiology, 1: 319-322. sp. nov. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) parasitic on tent caterpillar, Wilkinson, D. S. (1928). A revision of the Indo-Australian species of the genus Malacosoma indica Wlk. (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) in India. Journal of Apanteles (Hymenoptera. Braconidae). Bulletin of Entomological Entomological Research, 28 (1): 51-54. Research, 19: 79-105. Sathe, T.V. and Inamdar, S.A. (1989). A new species of the genus Apanteles Foerster Zhdanova, S.M. (2011). The species composition of rotifers in the water reservoirs (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) from India. Oikoassay, 6: 5-7. of Central Vietnam. Inland Water Biology, 4(4): 425-434.

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 224-229 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402015

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Assessment of soil and water quality as affected by herbicide application in the rice field of Bangladesh Md. Rashedur Rahman1* , Iffat Ara Mahzabin2 and Md. Tofazzal Hossain3 1Department of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, BANGLADESH 2Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh - 2202, BANGLADESH 3Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh - 2202, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 25 May 2019 Weed is a vital constraint for crop especially rice cultivation. Among several techniques herbi- Revised received: 31 May 2019 cidal weed control is thought to be efficient and cost effective method. But herbicide may Accepted: 02 June 2019 change soil or water quality in rice field. Taking this into consideration a study was conducted

to assess soil and water quality in herbicide applied rice field. The study was conducted in two

phases. In first phase a list of herbicide was made according to the uses by the local farmers of Keywords Mymensingh district. It was found that among the herbicides wide used two herbicides were i. Bangladesh Laser (Pyrazosulphuron ethyl-10 WP) and ii. Changer (Acetachlor-14% + Bensulfuron methyl- Herbicides 4%). In the second phase, an experiment was conducted at Agronomy Field Laboratory,

Microbial activity Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh considering these two herbicides. It was Rice field found that the application of herbicide in the rice field did not change the nutrient content in Soil and water quality the soil or water of rice field. But herbicide significantly reduced the microbial activity and increased the chlorine content (In case of herbicide 2 i.e. Acetachlor-14% + Bensulfuron methyl-4%) in both soil and water of rice field. Therefore, it can be concluded that though the nutrient content of the soil of rice field is not significantly affected by herbicide application but the presence of high amount of Cl content in the rice field may cause burning injury of rice leaf at the early stages of its growth which could affect the yield of rice.

Citation of this article: Rahman, M.R., Mahzabin, I.A. and Hossain, M.T. (2019). Assessment of soil and water quality as affected by herbicide application in the rice field of Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4 (2): 224-229, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402015

INTRODUCTION tial impacts of residual herbicides in soil and water have on human, animal and crop health. Bunce (1993) wrote in 1993 “It Weeds are considered to be as one of the major limiting factors is useful to keep in mind the concept that a pollutant is a due to manifold harmful effects (Kalyanasundaram et al., 2006) substance in the wrong place, at the wrong time, or in the wrong and weeds inflict negative effect on crop yield either competi- amount”. While herbicides are very important to agriculture, tion for water or nutrients or space or light (Reddy and Reddi, under certain circumstances they may act as pollutants that can 2011). Herbicides are effective in controlling weeds alone or in deteriorate soils, ground waters and surface waters. Soil combination with hand weeding (Ahmed et al., 2014). Herbicides biochemical and biological processes are critical for ecosystems are used successfully for weed control in rice field for rapid functioning, as microbes have key roles in organic matter trans- effect, easier to application and low cost involvement in compar- formations, nutrient cycling and degradation of organic pollu- ison to the traditional method of hand weeding (Sathyamoorthy tants, including pesticides (Beck et al., 2005). Biological degrada- et al., 2004). The environmental fate of herbicides is a matter of tion mediated by microbial enzymes is the main route for pesti- recent concern given that only a small fraction of the chemicals cides detoxification in soils (Van Eerd et al., 2003). Depending reach the target organisms (Pimentel, 1995), leading to poten- upon the specific mode of action at work, it may involve a plant

Md. Rashedur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 224-229 (2019) 225 enzyme or a biological system that the herbicide may interrupt, Phase II thus injuring or disrupting the regular plant growth and devel- Field experiment opment and causing eventual plant death (Shariq et al., 2015). Most isolated herbicide-degrading microorganisms belong to Experimental site bacterial species, but fungi are also well-known for their capaci- The experiment was conducted at Agronomy Field Laboratory, ty to degrade complex substrates, and may be more important Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. The experi- than present isolation approaches have suggested (Smith and ment consists of two factors i.e. Factor A: Crop (2) i. Rice crop

Collins, 2007). Herbicides can indirectly affect populations of (C1) and ii. No crop (C0); Factor B: Herbicides (3) i. No herbicide birds, mammals, insects, and other animals through changes in (control) (H0), ii. Pyrazosulphuron ethyl (H1) and iii. Acetachlor- the nature of their habitat (Hossain, 2015). Herbicides may also 14% + Bensulfuron methyl-4% (H2). The experiment was cause changes in microbial community function and concomi- conducted following randomized complete block design (RCBD) tant impacts on soil health and ecosystem processes. Even with three replication and thus the total number of plots were though functions may appear unaltered, due to species redun- 18 (2×3×3). The size of the each plot was 10 m2. dancy in soil, the extinction of resistant species may compro- mise the continuity of such processes (Zabaloy et al., 2010). Soil sample collection Sondhia (2014) found that increasing incidences of intentionally The first batch of soil sample was collected before application of acute poisoning by some of the herbicide such as butachlor, herbicide. Again soil sample from each plot were collected at 30 fluchloralin, paraquat, 2,4-D, pendimethalin, glyphosate etc. are Days after transplanting and final batch of soil sample were emerging problem in India. collected after harvesting of rice. All the samples were collected Herbicide application in rice field is not a new concept in the maintaining proper procedure of soil sample collection. world context but for Bangladesh farmers’, especially the farmers in the central-north of Bangladesh, it is rather a new Chemical analysis of soil sample technology for controlling the weeds in the rice field. Different After collection, chemical analysis of the soil samples were done agro based companies in Bangladesh are producing or importing in Soil Resource Development Institute (SRDI), Dhaka for the different kinds of herbicide with different degrees of toxicity following nutrient elements viz., pH, chlorine, nitrogen (Total having both residual and non-residual effect on soil environ- N%), phosphorus (µg/g soil), potassium (meq/100g soil), sulphur ment. These companies are trying to motivate the local farmers (µg/g soil), boron (µg/g soil), zinc (µg/g soil), microbial activity to apply these herbicides in their rice field and some farmers are (CFU/ml) following standard methods (Chaturvedi and Sankar, doing so. Though the farmers only know that there would be an 2006). easy removal of weed from the rice field but most of the cases they are not concerned about the negative impact of these Water sample collection herbicides on the soil and water quality of rice field. Therefore, The water sample from the rice field was collected in a regular present research is aimed to find out the farmers perception interval (6 times). After transplanting of rice seedlings in the about the herbicides and their impact on soil environment of main field, the first batch of water sample were collected at the rice field, especially the availability of soil nutrients and water very first day of herbicide application in the rice field. The quality of rice field after application of herbicides. second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth batches of water sample will be collected at 3, 5, 10, 20 and 30 days after application of MATERIALS AND METHODS herbicide in the rice field. The study was conducted in two phases: Chemical analysis of water sample Phase I After collection, chemical analysis of the water samples were Present status of using herbicides in rice cultivation done in Soil Resource Development Institute (SRDI), Dhaka for Before starting the field experiment, the information from the following nutrient elements viz., pH, DO (Dissolved oxygen), farmer’s level regarding herbicides use was collected from BOD (Biological oxygen demand), TDS (Total dissolved solid), different villages of Mymensingh district. The data were collect- chlorine, phosphorus (µg/g soil), potassium (meq/100g soil), ed by personal interview using a semi-structrued questionnaire, sulphur (µg/g soil), boron (µg/g soil), zinc (µg/g soil) and microbial Group discussion etc. The data were collected mainly from activities (CFU/ml) following standard methods (APHA, 2012). farmer and the herbicide dealers in the respected area. After the collection of information, a list of the most frequently used RESULTS AND DISCUSSION herbicide by farmers were made and among which top two herbicides used by the local farmers were selected for field Present status of herbicide use in the study area experiment. The top two herbicides were i. Laser In the study area the local farmers are using herbicide to control (Pyrazosulphuron ethyl-10 WP) and ii. Changer (Acetachlor- weeds for the last few years (5-7 years). Before that they used to 14% + Bensulfuron methyl-4%). do it by hand pulling or Japanese rice weeder. However, usually they apply herbicide in the rice field three to five days after

226 Md. Rashedur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 224-229 (2019) transplantation of rice seedlings. There are several types of cropped field soil in both types of herbicide applied field (Table herbicides found in the local market namely Laser 1). Potassium content of the soil did not changed significantly (Pyrazosulfuron ethyl), Changer (Acetachlor + Bensulfuron after application of herbicide in the rice field. For phosphorus, methyl), Ronstar (oxadiazon), Granite (penoxsulam) etc. of though the content was higher (3.19 ppm) in initial soil but it which Laser (Pyrazosulfuron ethyl) and Changer (Acetachlor + was found that after harvesting of the rice crop the phosphorus Bensulfuron methyl) were extensively used by almost 85% of content became lower than that of initial soil. It has been also the local farmers. The interview with the herbicide users noticed that the phosphorus content after harvest was found revealed that the farmers tried to follow the recommended less in herbicide applied soil than that of no herbicide applied dose of herbicide but sometimes they go for overdoses which soil in both cropped and non-cropped field (Table 1). In case of cause a degradation of water quality. Sulphur content, higher amount of Sulphur was found after one month of rice transplantation than that of initial soil. This might Soil quality parameters as affected by herbicide application be due to the residual effect of Sulphur that has been applied as From the table 1 it can be found that before application of herbi- basal dose as gypsum during final land preparation. Also both cide in the rice field the pH of the soil was 6.3 and after the the herbicide applied in the rice field has Sulphur content application of herbicide in both crop (rice) field and non-crop in their chemical composition. Application of herbicide was field the pH value did not changed significantly and the range found a cause of declining boron content in the rice field. It has was 6.0-6.3. For the total nitrogen (%), it was also not affected been found that in the herbicide applied field the content by the herbicide application, though numerically higher amount of boron in soil was less than the plot where herbicide was not of total nitrogen was found in non-cropped field soil than that of applied. Zinc was found a little bit higher in the initial soil though the content did not change much after the application of herbicide in the field both in cropped and non-cropped field. Herbicide application showed changes in chlorine content in the soil. It has been found that initially the chlorine content was 35.5 ppm in the soil which was found higher in the plots where herbicide 2 (acetachlor and bensulfuron methyl) was applied (Table 1). This might be due to the chemical composition of that particular herbicide that contains chlorine. Regarding microbial activity in the soil after application of herbicide it has been found that the number of microbes was 35 × 104 colony forming unit (cfu/ml) (Figure 1) which was sharply declined after 3 days of herbicide application (for both the herbicides) than that of no herbicide applied soils. Though with the time the microbial activities in- Figure 1. Effect of herbicide on microbial activity in rice field soil. creased to a level similar to the initial soil. This might be due to the self-degradation of herbicides over time.

Table 1. Different soil quality parameters as affected by herbicide application in the rice field. Mean value of soil quality parameters Treatments Total N K (meq/100g P S B Zn Cl pH (%) soil) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Initial soil 6.3 0.120 0.11 3.19 9.69 0.27 2.05 35.5

C0H0 6.3 0.155 0.11 2.43 26.35 0.16 1.42 36.5

C0H1 6.2 0.151 0.11 3.01 26.21 0.03 1.50 35.8

After one month of rice C0H2 6.2 0.156 0.10 2.30 12.47 0.02 1.13 42.5

transplantation C1H0 6.1 0.115 0.10 2.11 24.85 0.17 1.44 29.7

C1H1 6.0 0.132 0.09 2.59 21.45 0.05 1.61 30.5

C1H2 6.2 0.084 0.10 2.50 19.21 0.01 1.28 40.6

C0H0 6.1 0.108 0.09 0.57 8.84 0.12 1.68 32.5

C0H1 6.1 0.104 0.10 0.35 10.30 0.07 1.86 32.8 C H 6.2 0.104 0.11 0.36 5.78 0.05 1.68 40.5 After harvest 0 2 C1H0 6.0 0.061 0.09 0.53 5.57 0.15 1.97 28.7

C1H1 6.1 0.098 0.08 0.26 6.80 0.05 1.98 28.5

C1H2 6.9 0.051 0.09 0.42 3.39 0.09 1.66 34.6

C0= No rice crop, C1= With rice crop; H0= No herbicide application, H1= Pyrazosulfuron ethyl, H2= Acetachlor + Bensulfuron methyl.

Md. Rashedur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 224-229 (2019) 227

reduced to a significant amount compared to no herbicide applied plots. Though after 30 days of herbicide application the amount of dissolved oxygen in all the herbicide applied plots and no herbicide applied plots were found almost similar (Figure 2). Figure 3 shows the relationship between biological oxygen demand and herbicide application in the rice field. It has been found that the BOD was high at the very early stage of herbicide application (1 day after application) in the rice field for both the herbicides (for pyrazosulfuron ethyl it is 9.0 mg/L and for acetaclor + bensulfuron methyl it is 8.5 mg/L) compared to no herbicide applied plots. Gradually the BOD was declined over the time and it was found that after 30 days of herbicide appli- Figure 2. Effect of herbicide on dissolved oxygen (DO) at different days after cation the herbicide applied and no herbicide applied plots got application. almost similar BOD. Microbial activity in rice field water after application of herbicide has been shown in Figure 4. It has been found that after one day of herbicide application the number of colony forming unit (cfu/ml water) has been declined to a range of 2×105 to 6×105 compared to the no herbicidal applied plots where the cfu was 12×105/ml where rice crop was grown and 13×105 where rice crop was not grown. Though in all the plots where herbicide was applied the microbial activity again increased with the increasing of time (Figure 4). This is an indication that just after the application of herbicide in the rice field, initially the microbial activity is reduced and with the time microbial activity regain. This could hamper the initial growth of the rice plant as the declined microbial activity may cause a lower level of mineralization of organic matter or applied fertilizer in the rice field. Thus, the young rice plant may suffer from malnutrition and hence tend to decrease the grain yield. Status of pH and total dissolved solid (TDS) in rice field water Figure 3. Effect of herbicide on biological oxygen demand (BOD) at different days after application. after application of herbicide is presented in Table 2. It has been found that the pH value did not change throughout the rice production period even in herbicide applied and no herbicide applied plots. The amount of total dissolved solid did not change significantly. Considering the other nutrient elements potassium, phosphorus, boron and zinc were not found significantly changed (Table 3), though there were a fluctuation in sulfur content of rice field water was found throughout the data collection period. However, in case of chlorine content, it can be seen from the table 3 that initially chlorine content in the no herbicide applied no rice plot was found 35.0 ppm which was almost similar even when the sample was collected 30 days after herbicide application in the field. But the chlorine content was found much higher (49.0 ppm) in the plots where herbicide 2 (Acetachlor + Bensulfuron methul) was applied and the

Figure 4. Effect of herbicide on microbial activity in rice field water. amount was not changed significantly even when the data were again collected after 30 days. This might be due to no rice plant Water quality parameters as affected by herbicide application in the plots to uptake chlorine. However, in the plots where rice Effect of herbicide application on dissolved oxygen of rice field was transplanted the initial chlorine content in the no herbicide water is shown in the Figure 2. It has been seen from the figure applied plots were similar to those plots where rice was not that the amount of dissolved oxygen in no herbicide applied transplanted, but higher amount of chlorine was found (48.5 plots was in a similar trend throughout the data collection time. ppm) in the plots where herbicide 2 (Acetachlor + Bensulfuron But in the herbicide applied rice plots, it is seen that just one day methul) was applied and the amount was decreased at the later after application of herbicide (for both Pyrazosulfuron and stage (after 30 days of herbicide application). This might be due Acetaclor + Bensulfuron methyl) the dissolved oxygen has been to the uptake of chlorine by the rice plants.

228 Md. Rashedur Rahman et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 224-229 (2019)

Table 2. Status of pH and total dissolved solid (TDS) of rice field water after application of herbicides. pH TDS (ppt) Treatments Day 1 Day 5 Day 20 Day 30 Day 1 Day 5 Day 20 Day 30

C0H0 7.7 8.2 8.2 8.3 0.16 0.10 0.07 0.15

C0H1 8.2 8.9 8.4 8.2 0.19 0.10 0.09 0.16

C0H2 8.1 8.4 8.4 8.4 0.18 0.16 0.06 0.22

C1H0 8.4 8.2 8.2 8.3 0.15 0.11 0.07 0.17

C1H1 8.6 8.2 8.1 8.2 0.16 0.11 0.08 0.18

C1H2 9.0 8.1 8.3 8.3 0.14 0.13 0.08 0.18 Table 3. Water quality parameters of rice field at different days after application of herbicide. Potassium (ppm) Phoshorus (ppm) Sulfur (ppm) Treatments Day 1 Day 5 Day 20 Day 30 Day 1 Day 5 Day 20 Day 30 Day 1 Day 5 Day 20 Day 30

C0H0 0.013 0.006 0.005 0.005 1.580 1.210 0.730 2.040 4.040 2.510 9.110 8.900

C0H1 0.014 0.007 0.006 0.005 2.120 2.010 0.610 1.360 5.160 6.420 6.960 9.860

C0H2 0.013 0.009 0.006 0.005 3.110 1.630 0.550 0.660 2.340 2.310 5.120 8.870

C1H0 0.013 0.007 0.004 0.005 3.070 1.710 0.710 0.810 8.220 5.200 25.740 5.400

C1H1 0.015 0.007 0.005 0.005 5.290 1.610 0.650 0.930 2.880 8.050 36.210 8.900

C1H2 0.012 0.007 0.004 0.006 1.500 1.010 1.220 0.760 2.850 8.050 16.520 7.820 Boron (ppm) Zinc (ppm) Chlorin (ppm) Treatments Day 1 Day 5 Day 20 Day 30 Day 1 Day 5 Day 20 Day 30 Day 1 Day 5 Day 20 Day 30

C0H0 0.060 0.050 0.020 0.030 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.009 35.0 36.0 34.5 34.5

C0H1 0.080 0.030 0.010 0.060 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.009 36.0 35.5 35.0 35.5

C0H2 0.050 0.030 0.050 0.050 0.006 0.006 0.010 0.008 49.0 48.0 47.5 47.0

C1H0 0.040 0.040 0.010 0.020 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.008 35.5 35.5 33.0 32.0

C1H1 0.030 0.060 0.050 0.010 0.009 0.007 0.010 0.008 35.0 34.5 33.5 30.0

C1H2 0.010 0.060 0.070 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.009 48.5 45.5 42.0 40.0

Conclusion REFERENCES

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Morphometric relationships between length-weight and length-length and condition factor of four small indigenous fishes from the Payra River, southern Bangladesh Newton Saha1* , Md. Rahamat Ullah2, Md. Samiul Islam2 and Md. Belal Hossain2 1Department of Fisheries Management, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali - 8602, BANGLADESH 2Department of Fisheries Biology and Genetics, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali - 8602, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 19 May 2019 The present study describes the length–weight (LWR) relationship, length– length (LLR) Revised received: 26 May 2019 relationship, and condition factor (K) of four small indigenous fish species from the Payra Accepted: 06 June 2019 River, southern Bangladesh, namely Mastacembelus pancalus, Lepidocephalus guntea,

Salmostoma bacaila and Mystus vittatus. A total of 867 specimens, representing 4 species of 4

families used for this study were caught by traditional fishing gear from July to October 2018. Keywords Standard length (SL) and total length (TL) for each specimen were measured by digital slide Condition factor calipers and each body weight (BW) was taken by a digital balance. The allometric coefficient b Length-weight relationship of the LWR was close to the isometric value (b=3.078 and 3.028) in M. pancalus and L. guntea

Length-length relationship respectively, although it suggested negative allometric growth in M. vittatus (b < 3.00), whilst Payra River positive allometric growth in S. bacaila (b > 3.00). All the LWRs were highly significant (P < Small indigenous species (SIS) 0.05) and most of the coefficients of determination values were ≥ 0.857. The results further indicated that the LLRs were highly correlated (r2 ≥ 0.939; P < 0.05). Fulton’s condition factor (K) by month basis ranged from 0.52 (in M. pancalus) through 1.89 (in M. vittatus). The results of this study can be very effective for stock assessment of this four species in Payra River as well as in the surrounding ecosystems.

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Saha, N., Ullah, M.R., Islam, M.S. and Hossain, M.B. (2019). Morphometric relationships between length-weight and length-length and condition factor of four small indigenous fishes from the Payra River, southern Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 230-234, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402016 INTRODUCTION due to over-exploitation incited by various ecological changes and degradation of their natural habitats. This small indigenous Small indigenous species (SIS) are the species which can grow to fish species of Bangladesh has a high nutritional value in terms a maximum size of 25 cm or 9 inches in their life cycle (Felts et of protein, micronutrients, vitamins and minerals not commonly al., 1996). Among 260 freshwater fishes, 143 species are SIS available in other foods (Ross et al., 2003). in Bangladesh (Ali, 1997). The important small indigenous fishes The relationships between length-length and length-weight can of Bangladesh, including the four species Mastacembelus be used to determine the well-being of individuals and to pancalus (Mastacembelidae), Lepidocephalus guntea (Cobitidae), determine possible differences between the same species of Salmostoma bacaila (Cyprinidae), and Mystus vittatus (Bagridae), different area (King, 2007). Moreover, length-length (LLR) and comprise an important component of riverine fisheries in the length-weight (LWR) relationships are also important in fisher- country’s vast river system. Previously abundant in rivers, ies management for growth studies among species streams, canals, lakes, reservoirs, ponds and beels, haor and (Moutopoulos and Stergiou, 2002). The relationship between baor swamplands of Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri-Lanka length-length and length-weight are still rare for most tropical (Froese and Pauly, 2011), the populations are in serious decline and sub-tropical fish species (Hossain et al., 2009a; Hossain,

Newton Saha et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 230-234 (2019) 231

2010). Condition factor (K) is an important biological parame- Collection of fish sample ter, which indicates the suitability of a specific water body for Samples were collected using different types of traditional fish- growth of fish as well as an index of species average size (Alam ing gears including cast net (mesh size 1.0 to 2.0 cm), seine net et al., 2014). The values of this factor generally depend on (mesh size 1.5 to 2.5 cm) and square lift net (mesh size ~1.0 cm) physiological features of fish especially maturity, spawning, from the Payra River in late July to early October, 2018. During life-cycle, environmental factors and food availability in a water collection of fish, care was taken that individuals of all size body (Ujjania et al., 2012; Dan-Kishiya, 2013). To the best of the groups of every population were proportionately available in knowledge there is no previous information on length-length the sample. After collection, the specimens were chilled immedi- relationship (LLR), length-weight relationship (LWR) and ately in ice and preserved in 10% formalin upon arrival at the condition factor (K) of most of these species (except Salmostoma laboratory to prevent their decomposition. bacaila) from the Payra river in Bangladesh. Subsequently, the aim of the present study was carried out to study the length- Preparation of fish sample weight relationship, length-length relationship, and condition Preserved samples were taken out from the formalin solution factor of these four species from the Payra River, southern and kept on a plastic tray. The tray was placed under running tap Bangladesh. water to eliminate dirt, odour of formalin and surplus water from fishes for half an hour. Then fishes were kept in the room MATERIALS AND METHODS temperature for gentle air dry.

Study site Recording of length and weight The present study was conducted in the Payra River, southern The each individual’s standard length (SL) and total length (TL) Bangladesh (Figure 1). The Payra River is a body of running wa- was measured to the nearest 0.1 mm using a digital slide caliper ter moving to a lower level in a channel on land in the country of (Mitutoyo, CD-6″ CSX). The TL was measured from the tip of the Bangladesh and the river finally fall into the Bay of Bengal by the snout to the posterior end of the caudal fin. The SL was meas- name of Burishwar River. It’s center lies at a latitude of 22º 35´ ured from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin. The N and longitude of 90º 26´ E and it has an elevation of 1 meter individual body weight (BW) was measured using a digital bal- above sea level. The Payra River is the suitable habitat for fresh ance (AND, FSH, Korea) to 0.01 g accuracy. All estimations were water species especially fresh water SIS species are available in done using combined sex. Data were input in on the spread this River. sheet of the computer software, Microsoft Excel.

Determination of length-weight and length-length relationships The length-weight relationship was estimated by linear regression analysis based on natural logarithms: ln (W) = ln (a) + b ln (L), where W is the body weight (BW, g), L is the total length (TL, cm), and a and b are the regression parameters. Furthermore, SL vs. TL was estimated by linear regression using combined sex. According to Froese (2006), all extreme outliers were excluded from the analyses. A t-test was applied to determine significant differences from the isometric value (b= 3.0 for length-weight relationship and b = 1.0 for length-length relationship) (Sokal and Rohlf, 1981). Deviation of the b value from the theoretical isometric value indicates either positive (b > isometric value) or negative (b < isometric value) allometric growth.

Determination of Condition Factor (K) Fulton’s condition factor (K) was estimated using the equation: K = (BW ⁄ SL3) × 100, for monthly basis.

Data analysis The statistical analyses were performed using GRAPHPAD PRISM 8 software (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA) and Microsoft Office Excel software (version 2010). Analysis of co- variance (ANCOVA) (Zar, 1984) was used to test for significant differences in slopes and intercepts between the relationships. All the statistical analyses were considered significant at 5% Figure 1. Map of the study site where fish samples were collected. (P < 0.05) level of significance.

232 Newton Saha et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 230-234 (2019)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION LWRs indicated negative allometric growth in M. vittatus (b < 3.00) and isometric growth in L. guntea (b = 3.00). On the other During this study period, a total of 867 specimens belonging to hands, Hossain et al. (2009b) reported isometric growth for both four (4) fish species and four (4) families were collected from the of the two species M. vittatus and L. guntea from the Ganges, Payra River, southern Bangladesh. Descriptive statistics on the Bangladesh. In the present study, the b value of the LWRs length-weight and length-length measurements and results of indicated isometric growth in M. pancalus (b = 3.00), while Narejo other regression analysis are showed in the Tables 1 and 2. In et al. (2003) reported negative allometric growth in M. pancalus case of body length, the minimum and maximum body length (b<3.00) from Mymensingh, Bangladesh. So, none of the existing was observed 5.7 cm and 17.2 cm from L. guntea and M. pancalus results were similar with the present study, which might be due to respectively. While the minimum and maximum body weight the uses of different types of fishing gears with different mesh observed 0.85 g and 18.00 g from S. bacaila and M. pancalus, sizes. Consequently, a standardized sampling procedure is need- respectively. ed to compare the results of LWRs from the different studies. The allometric coefficient b of the LWR was close to the Another reason of these variations may be the preservation tech- isometric value (b = 3.078 and 3.028) in M. pancalus and niques of the fish samples (Tesch, 1971) as the present study used L. guntea, respectively, although it suggested negative allometric formalin (10% formalin solution) preserved samples. Therefore, growth in M. vittatus (b < 3.00), whilst positive allometric growth further study is needed using fresh samples to compare the in S. bacaila (b > 3.00). All the LWRs were highly significant (P< results and deserve to be explored in future research. 0.05) and most of the coefficients of determination values were ≥ The condition factor is an important index reflecting interaction 0.857. The coefficient of determination (r2) ranged from 0.857 for between biotic and abiotic factors in the physiological condi- M. vittatus to 0.950 for M. pancalus. ANCOVA revealed significant tions of fishes. Hence, the condition factor may vary among fish differences among species for the intercepts (a) and slopes (b) of species in different locations (Blackwell et al., 2000). This factor the regression lines (P < 0.05). In addition, all LLRs were highly is also used as an index of growth and feeding intensity (Seher significant (P < 0.05) and most of the coefficients of determination and Suleyman, 2012). Condition factors of ≥1 indicate a good values were ≥0.939. The Fulton’s condition factors (K) varied level of feeding and proper environmental conditions (Ujjania et monthly showing different pattern for all of the four species al., 2012). Based on the results, it was <1 for M. pancalus and S. (Figure 2). Monthly condition factor ranged from 0.52 (in M. bacaila showing no proper environmental conditions of habitat pancalus) through 1.89 (in M. vittatus). The lowest and highest K for this two species in Payra River, whereas, K values of the rest value ranges were found 0.52-0.58 in M. pancalus and 1.85-1.89 in of two species were >1 showing suitable conditions of this river M. vittatus, respectively from July to October. for them. The length-weight relationship (LWR) can be resulting from the Furthermore, LWR parameters (a and b) and the “K” value of the length and weight measurements of the same fishes throughout fish have been reported to be influenced by many factors such their lives or from a sample of fish taken at a particular time as feeding intensity, availability of food, fish size, age, sex, sea- (Wootton, 1990). The values of a and b for the four species in son, stage of maturation, fullness of the gut, degree of muscular this study were within the limits reported by Froese (2006), development, the amount of reserved fat and life history although these parameters varied significantly among the (Bagenal and Tesch, 1978; Ujjania et al., 2012; Gupta and species. The estimated b value for S. bacaila was found to be Banerjee, 2015). None of the above - mentioned effective higher compared to the study of Ahamed et al. (2018) from the factors on LWRs and K in the studied fishes have been Payra River. In the present study, the calculated b value of the considered in the present study.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and estimated parameters of length-weight relationships (BW = a × TLb) for four fish species from the Payra River, southern Bangladesh, July 2018 to October 2018.

Regression TL (cm) BW (g) Species n parameters 95% CI of a 95% CI of b r2 Min Max Min Max a b M. pancalus 200 6.6 17.2 1.07 18.00 -2.425 3.078 -2.5315 to -2.3177 2.9724 to 3.1842 0.950 (Mastacembelidae)

L.guntea 167 5.7 9.7 1.31 7.84 -2.104 3.028 -2.2641 to -1.9435 2.8464 to 3.2090 0.882 (Cobitidae)

S. bacaila 300 5.1 11.3 0.85 9.39 -2.370 3.115 -2.4691 to -2.2703 3.0058 to 3.2248 0.923 (Cyprinidae)

M. vittatus 200 6.1 11.5 2.18 13.04 -2.023 2.957 -2.1847 to -1.8603 2.7762 to 3.1372 0.857 (Bagridae) n, sample size; TL, total length; BW, body weight; Min, minimum; Max, maximum; a and b, parameters of the length-weight relationship; CI, confidence interval; r2, coefficient of determination.

Newton Saha et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 230-234 (2019) 233

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and estimated parameters of length-length relationships for four fish species from the Payra River, southern Bangladesh, July 2018 to October 2018. Regression Species n Equation parameters 95% CI of a 95% CI of b r2 a b M. pancalus 200 TL=a+b.SL 0.040 0.987 0.0266 to 0.0540 0.9733 to 1.0010 0.991 (Mastacembelidae) L. guntea (Cobitidae) 167 TL=a+b.SL 0.136 0.929 0.1068 to 0.1644 0.8863 to 0.9573 0.948 S. bacaila (Cyprinidae) 300 TL=a+b.SL 0.125 0.943 0.1078 to 0.1422 0.9219 to 0.9635 0.968 M. vittatus (Bagridae) 200 TL=a+b.SL 0.134 0.970 0.1053 to 0.1633 0.9328 to 1.0068 0.939 n, sample size; a, intercept; b, slope; TL, total length; CI, confidence interval; r2, coefficient of determination.

Figure 2. Temporal trends in the K- values of fish samples examined.

Conclusion relationships of three small indigenous fishes from the Payra River, southern Bangladesh. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 34(3): 777-779, Based on the results, all the LWRs were highly significant (P < https://doi.org/10.1111/jai.13642 Alam, M.M., Rahman, M.T. and Parween, S. (2014). Morphometric characters and 0.05) and most of the coefficients of determination values were condition factors of five freshwater fishes from Pagla River of ≥ 0.857. The results further indicated that the LLRs were highly Bangladesh. International Journal of Aquatic Biology, 2(1):14-19, correlated (r2 ≥ 0.939; P < 0.05). The value of K was <1 for M. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijab.v2i1.18 Ali, M.Y. (1997). Small indigenous fish species culture in Bangladesh, Proceedings pancalus and S. bacaila showing no proper environmental of national workshop on small indigenous fish culture in Bangladesh, conditions of habitat for this two species in Payra River, where- IFADEP-SP 2, Dhaka, Bangladesh. as, K values of the rest of two species were >1 showing suitable Bagenal, T.B. and Tesch, F.W. (1978). Age and growth. In: T.B. Bagenal (ed.). conditions of this river for them. These results will be helpful for Methods of assessment of fish production in fresh waters, Oxford Blackwell Scientific Publication. pp. 101-136. stock assessment of these fishes in the Payra River and the Blackwell, B.G., Brown, M.L. and Willis, D.W. (2000). Relative weight (Wr) status surrounding ecosystem and also would be an important baseline and current use in fisheries assessment and management. Reviews in Fisheries for future studies. However, further and more detailed Science, 8:1-44. researches are necessary for future assessment. Dan-Kishiya, A.S. (2013). Length-weight relationship and condition factor of five fish species from a tropical water supply reservoir in Abuja, Nigeria. American Journal of Research Communication, 1(9): 175-187. Conflict of interest: The authors declare there are no conflicts Felts, R.A., Rajts, F. and Akhteruzzaman, M. (1996). Small indigenous fish species of interest. culture in Bangladesh. Technical brief. IFADEP Sub-project- 2. Development of Inland Fisheries. pp. 41.

Froese, R. (2006). Cube law, condition factor and weight-length relationships: Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under history, meta-analysis and recommendations. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, 22(4): 241–25, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0426.2006.00805.x Froese, R. and Pauly, D. (Eds), (2011). Fish Base 2011. World Wide Web electronic which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction publication. Retrieved from http://www.fishbase.org in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are Gupta, S. and Banerjee, S. (2015). Length-weight relationship of Mystus tengara credited. (Ham.-Buch., 1822), a freshwater catfish of Indian subcontinent. International Journal of Aquatic Biology, 3(2):114-118. Hossain, M.Y. (2010). Morphometric relationships of length-weight and length- REFERENCES length of four cyprinid small indigenous fish species from the Padma River (NW Bangladesh). Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 10: 131-134 Ahamed, F., Saha, N., Nishat, M.A., Biswas, M.K., Sultana, M., Khatun, M.S., Ahmed, Hossain, M.Y., Ohtomi, J., Ahmed, Z.F. (2009a). Morphometric, meristic character- Z.F., Hossain, M.Y. and Ohtomi, J. (2018). Length-weight and length-length istics and conservation of the threatened fish, Puntius sarana (Hamilton

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1822) (Cyprinidae) in the Ganges River, north western Bangladesh. Turkish Bangladesh: contribution to vitamin A, calcium and iron intakes. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 9: 223-225. Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 133: 4021–4026. Hossain, M.Y., Jasmine, S., Ibrahim, A.H M., Ahmed, Z.F., Rahman, M.M. and Seher, D. and Suleyman, C.I. (2012). Condition factors of seven cyprinid fish Ohtomi, J. (2009b). Length–weight and length–length relationships of 10 species from Çamligöze Dam Lake on central Anatolia, Turkey. African small fish species from the Ganges, Bangladesh. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(31): 4460-4464. 25(1): 117–119, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0426.2008.01168.x Sokal, R.R. and Rohlf, F.J. (1981). Biometry. 2nd ed. New York: W.H. Freeman and King, M. (2007). Fisheries biology, assessment and management. Second Edition. Company. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford: 1-381. Tesch, F.W. (1971). Age and growth. In W. E. Ricker (Ed.), Methods for assessment Moutopoulos, D.K. and Stergiou, K.I. (2002). Length-weight and length-length of fish production in fresh waters. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, pp. 99–130. relationships of fish species from Aegean Sea (Greece). Journal of Applied Ujjania, N.C., Kohli, M.P.S. and Sharma, L.L. (2012). Length-weight relationship and Ichthyology, 18: 200-203. condition factors of Indian major carps (Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus Narejo, N.T., Rahamatullah, S.M. and Rashid, M.M. (2003). Length-weight relation- mrigala) in Mahi Bajaj Sagar, India. Research Journal of Biology, 2(1): 30-36. ship and relative condition factor (Kn) of freshwater spiny eel, Mastacemba- Wootton, R.J. (1998). Ecology of teleost fishes. 2nd edition. Chapman and Hall. lus armatus (Lacepede) from Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Indian Journal of Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. 24. Fisheries, 50(1): 81-87. Zar, J.H. (1984). Biostatistical Analysis. 2nd Edn., Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Ross, N., Islam, M. and Thilsted, S.H. (2003). Small indigenous fish species in Cliffs, New Jersey, USA.

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 235-241 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402017

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Performance of locally discovered rice cultivar (Haridhan) in Bangladesh under urea sprays technology Ekramul Haque, Md. Rashedur Rahman* and Abdul Kader Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh - 2202, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 25 May 2019 The research work was conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Department of Revised received: 03 June 2019 Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the period from July to Accepted: 05 June 2019 November 2015 to evaluate the yield performance of BRRI dhan56 and a locally discovered

rice cultivar Haridhan under foliar and traditional application of urea. The experiment included

six treatments of urea application technique as T1=N0 (control), T2=N65%, T3=N50%+US (15%), Keywords T4=N50%+US (20%), T5=N60%+US (15%), T6=N100% (traditional method) and two rice varieties Crop characteristics viz. HYV rice cultivar BRRI dhan56 and locally discovered rice cultivar Haridhan. The experi- HYV of rice ment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications.

Locally discovered rice Foliar application of urea had significant effect on yield and yield components of BRRI dhan56 Urea spray and Haridhan. It has been found that the treatment N50%+US (20%) produced highest grain Yield contributing characters yield (6.14 t ha-1) which might be due to the highest number of total tillers hill-1 (15.03), effective tillers hill-1 (12.11), panicle length (26.21 cm) and grains panicle-1 (156.91) got from this treatment. From the result it can be concluded that both the varieties produced highest grain yield with 50% of the required urea applied to the soil and 20% of the required urea applied as foliar spray that can save an amount of 30% of recommended dose of urea in rice field of Bangladesh

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Haque, E., Rahman, M.R. and Kader, A. (2019). Performance of locally discovered rice cultivar (Haridhan) in Bangladesh under urea sprays technology. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 235-241, https:// dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402017 INTRODUCTION improved technology and proper management of fertilizers to achieve the goal of self-sufficiency in rice production. Use of Bangladesh is an agro based country where agriculture is the high yielding variety has been increased remarkably in recent single largest sector and the main of country economy (Sabnam, years and the country has almost reached a level of sufficiency 2013). Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most extensively cultivated in rice. Some reasons of higher production may be due to high cereal crop in Bangladesh. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is also the staple response to fertilizers especially nitrogenous fertilizers. The food for more than two millions of people in Africa and Latin importance of the role of nitrogenous fertilizer increasing rice America (Akter, 2017). In 2015-16, 475.64 million metric tons yield has been widely recognized (Singh and Chauhan, 2001). rice where consumed worldwide (Statistica, 2018). It provides However traditional method of urea application on the soil nearly 48% of rural employment, about two-third of total calorie leads to various losses in soil mainly due to leaching, run off, supply and about one-half of the total protein intakes of an volatilization and de nitrification. In such situation combination average person in the country (BBS, 2011). Bangladesh is a of urea spray on foliage and traditional application of urea (soil densely populated country and at present its population growth application) increase nitrogen use efficiency compared to rate is 1.37% (BBS, 2017). Rice crop area is decreasing day by conventionally applied prilled urea. Farmers of the country day due to high population pressure. Therefore, attempts should usually do not apply nitrogen in their fields properly and timely. be taken to increase the yield per unit area by applying It is estimated that only about 25% of the added nitrogen is

Ekramul Haque et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 235-241 (2019) 236 utilize by the crops and the rest 75% is lost due to leaching, its cultivation seems to be very little. The farmers are getting surface runoff, NH3 volatilization, decreased nitrification and bumper yield from Haridhan. other processes. Besides, at present the nitrogen fertilizer is very costly. So, it has become very expensive to apply sufficient amount BRRI dhan56 of nitrogen fertilizers. Under these circumstances, it is important Variety BRRI dhan56 was first evaluated by the Seed Certifica- to find out the effective method of application of urea fertilizer tion Agency (SCA) in 2010. Then it was released by the National that would give higher yield of crops and also reduce fertilizer cost. Seed Board (NSB) in 2011 as a drought tolerant variety. The Chemical fertilizer, if applied in excess amount, has a harmful cultivation of newly developed rice variety ‘BRRI dhan56’ in the effect on soil physical, chemical and biological properties. It current Aman season brought smile on the faces of the farmers inhibits growth and development of soil microorganism. There- in the country’s northern and south-western regions where fore, excessive use of N fertilizer is one of the major concerns in aridity used to lead to crop failure to their woes. This variety sustainable agriculture for its decreased N utilization efficiency have ushered a new era in rice cultivation during ‘Monga’ period by crops and increased N released to the environment, resulting in the drought prone areas to mitigate ‘Monga’. Researchers said atmosphere and water systems pollution (Zhu et al., 1997). In BRRI dhan 56 is a short-duration variety which is cultivated Bangladesh, N fertilizer input is as high as 265kg Nha-11yr-1 in during Aman season. It is also disease resistant variety, grain rice–rice cropping pattern (BBS, 2011). As foliar application type is medium bold and plant attains a height of about 115 cm. -1 reduces the use of excess chemical fertilizer, it will be beneficial The yield of this variety is about (4.5- 5.0 tha ) in normal -1 for soil environment. In many cases aerial spray of nutrients is condition and in drought condition at about is 3.0-3.5 tha . preferred and it gives quicker and better results than the soil application (Jamal et al., 2006). Foliar application of urea has a Preparation of the experimental land and raising of crop significant effect on yield (Moeini et al., 2006). Recently foliar The experimental land was first opened with a power tiller. The application of nutrients has become an important practice in the land was thoroughly preapred with the help of country plough production of crops while application of fertilizers to the soil and ladder. Weeds and stubble were removed from the field. The remains the basic method of feeding the majority of the crop bunds around individual plots were made for proper water man- plants. Moreover, in Bangladesh context it has been reported agement between the plots. The individual plots of each block that application of urea through foliar spray can reduce the were prepared thoroughly by spading and then levelled just requirement of urea fertilizer by 80% of soil application (AIS, before the specified date of transplanting. Thirty day old seedlings 2008). So fertilizer cost can be greatly reduced. Considering the were uprooted carefully from the nursery bed and transplanted in -1 above facts an attempt has been taken to evaluate comparative the individual plot on 18 July 5112 at the rate of 2-3 seedlings hill yield performance of BRRI dhan56 and locally discovered rice with a spacing of 25 cm × 15 cm. Various intercultural operations variety Haridhan under various methods of urea application and viz., irrigation, weeding, disease and pest management etc. were find out the optimum amount of urea fertilizer to be applied as done and when necessary to ensure and maintain the favourable foliar spray technique to obtain the highest grain yield. condition for normal plant growth and development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Layout of the experiment The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block Description of experimental site design (RCBD) with three replications. Individual plot size was 4m The experiment was conducted at Agronomy Field Laboratory × 2.5 m. There were 36 plots in the experiment. The experiment of Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the was superimposed in the Agronomy Field Laboratory, where period from July 2015 to Nov 2015. Geographically the experi- another student grew the same crop surrounding the experiment. mental site is located at 24.75° N latitude and 90.50°E longitude The field was fertilized with triple super phosphate, muriate of at an elevation of 18 m above the mean sea level under the Agro potash and gypsum @ 52, 82, 60 kg ha-1, respectively. The -ecological Zone of the Old Brahmaputra Floodplain (FAO and whole amount of triple super phosphate, muriate of potash and UNDP, 1988). gypsum was applied at final land preparation.

Characteristics of test variety Sampling, harvesting and processing The crop was harvested at full maturity. The date of harvesting Haridhan was confirmed when 90% of the grains became golden yellow Haridhan was used as the test variety in the study. It is one of the in color. Harvesting of BRRI dhan56 was done on 7 November important rice cultivars developed by a farmer Haripad Kapali. 2015 and Haridhan was 27 Nov 2015. Five hills (excluding It attains the height of 121.69 cm and grain yield reported by border hills) were selected randomly from each individual farmers is 6.08 t ha-1.The Department of Agricultural Extension plot and uprooted before harvesting for recording data. of the Government after examining the paddy has declared After sampling the whole plot was harvested. The harvested Haridhan as a profitable cultivar. It costs little to cultivate. crop of each plot was separately bundled, properly tagged and Moreover, compared to the profuse growth, the expenditure for then brought to the threshing floor. The harvested crops were

237 Ekramul Haque et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 235-241 (2019) threshed manually. The grains were cleaned and dried to a mois- method. So interaction effect of variety and foliar application of ture content of 14%. Straws were sun dried properly. Final grain urea was significant effect on plant height (Table 3). -1 -1 and straw yields plot were recorded and converted to t ha . Total tillers hill-1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan produced total tillers hill-1 (11.92) and (15.58) (Table 1). Variable effect of variety on number of Crop characteristics total tillers hill-1 was also reported by Nuruzzaman et al. (2000), Jaiswal and Singh (2001) and Hossain et al. (2007) who noticed Plant height that number of totals tillers hill-1 differed among the varieties. The difference of plant height between BRRI dhan56 (110.47cm) Number of total tillers hill-1 was significantly different among and Haridhan (121.69cm) might be due to genetic make-up varia- the varieties at transplanting dates up to harvesting. BRRI tion (Table 1). Islam et al. (2012) and Tayeb et al. (2013) observed dhan56 and Haridhan produced highest number of total tillers -1 such variation in plant height due to varietal differences. The high- hill in T4 treatment (when 20% urea was applied as foliar spray) est plant height (118.50cm) was obtained from T3 treatment when which was higher than 100% traditional application of urea. -1 15% urea was applied as foliar spray which was higher than T6 Number of total tillers hill was significantly influenced by foliar treatment (traditional method) (Table 2). The highest plant height application of urea (Table 2). The number of total tillers hill-1

114.73cm was obtained from V1T3 treatment which is higher than varied due to varietal differences of urea at different concentra- traditional application of urea and highest plant height 123.13cm tions exhibited significant difference in producing number of from traditional application of urea which has not significant dif- total tillers hill-1 (Kabir et al., 2004). Interaction effect of variety ference of the plant height 122.80cm found from V2T5 treatment and foliar application of urea was significant effect on total when 15% urea used for foliar spray and 60% urea for traditional tillers hill-1 (Table 3).

Table1. Effect of variety on yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan. Variety Plant height (cm) Total tiller hill-1 Panicle length (cm) BRRI dhan56 110.47b 11.92b 24.89b Haridhan 121.69a 15.58a 26.54a CV (%) 3.25 5.01 5.62 Level of sig. ** ** ** In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar lettersdiffer significantly as per DMRT; *= Significant at 5% **= Significant at 1% NS=Non-significant. Table 2. Effect of foliar spray of urea on the yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan. Treatment Plant height (cm) Total tiller hill-1 Panicle length (cm)

T1 112.17c 13.07b 25.29 T2 117.37ab 13.97b 25.55 T3 118.50a 13.57b 26.04 T4 115.07bc 15.03a 26.21 T5 117.15ab 13.40b 25.70 T6 116.23ab 13.47b 25.52 CV (%) 3.25 5.01 5.62 Level of sig. ** ** NS *= Significant at 5%, **= Significant at 1%, NS=Non significant; In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letters differ significantly as per DMRT. T1 = N0 (Control); T2 = N65%; T3 = N50% + US (15%); T4 = N50% + US (20%); T5 = N60% + US (15%); T6 = N100% (Traditional method). Table 3. Interaction effect of variety and foliar application of urea on the yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan. Interaction of variety and foliar application of urea Plant height Total tiller Panicle length

V1T1 104.13e 11.47c 24.23

V1T2 111.73cd 12.40c 24.67

V1T3 114.73bc 11.93c 26.35

V1T4 111.40cd 12.33c 24.69

V1T5 111.50cd 12.00c 24.68

V1T6 109.33d 11.40c 24.72

V2T1 120.20a 14.67b 26.34

V2T2 123.00a 15.53b 26.43

V2T3 122.27a 15.20b 25.73

V2T4 118.73ab 17.73a 27.72

V2T5 122.80a 14.80b 26.71

V2T6 123.13a 15.53b 26.31 CV (%) 3.25 5.01 5.62 Level of sig. * * NS *= Significant at 5% **= Significant at 1% NS=Non-significant; In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letters differ significantly as per DMRT. T1 = N0 (Control); T2 = N65%; T3 = 50% + US (15%); T4 = N50% + US (20%); T5 = N60% + US (15%); T6 = N100% (Traditional method); V1=BRRI dhan56; V2=Haridhan.

Ekramul Haque et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 235-241 (2019) 238

Table 4. Effect of variety on yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan. Effective Grain Weight of Grain yield Straw yield Biological Harvest Variety tiller hill-1 panicle-1 1000 seeds (g) (t/ha) (t/ha) yield (t/ha) index (%) BRRI dhan56 10.53 126.82 25.19 5.51 6.21 11.72 47.01 Haridhan 11.19 166.55 25.94 6.08 6.45 12.53 48.50 CV (%) 6.66 3.63 4.77 3.92 3.39 4.18 4.44 Level of sig. ** ** NS ** ** ** ** *= Significant at 5%, **= Significant at 1%, NS=Non significant.

Table 5. Effect of foliar spray of urea on the yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan. Effective Grain Weight of Grain yield Straw yield Biological Harvest Treatment tiller hill-1 panicle-1 1000 seeds (g) (t/ha) (t/ha) yield (t/ha) index (%)

T1 9.88c 131.79e 25.47 5.15c 5.82b 10.97c 46.90

T2 11.27ab 152.68b 25.62 5.91b 6.43a 12.34ab 47.87

T3 10.80bc 139.81d 25.42 5.82b 6.33a 12.15b 47.88

T4 12.11a 156.91a 26.22 6.14a 6.41a 12.54a 48.92

T5 10.60bc 148.33c 25.23 5.87b 6.53a 12.41ab 47.34

T6 10.51bc 150.58bc 25.43 5.89b 6.46a 12.35ab 47.63 CV (%) 6.66 3.63 4.77 3.92 3.39 4.18 4.44 Level of sig. ** ** NS ** ** ** NS *= Significant at 5% **= Significant at 1% NS=Non significant; In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letters differ significantly as per DMRT. T1 = N0 (Control); T2 = N65%; T3 = N50% + US (15%); T4 = N50% + US (20%); T5 = N60% + US (15%); T6 = N100% (Traditional method).

Table 6. Interaction effect of variety and foliar application of urea on the yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan. Weight Grain Straw Biological Interaction of variety and foliar Effective Grain / Harvest of 1000 yield yield yield application of urea tiller panicle index seeds (t/ha) (t/ha) (t/ha)

V1T1 9.47 116.20i 25.40 4.68f 5.57 10.25g 45.64 V1T2 10.80 127.70g 25.33 5.66cde 6.37 12.03def 47.04 V1T3 10.33 122.73h 24.80 5.70cde 6.19 11.89ef 47.92 V1T4 11.29 133.28f 26.20 5.84bcd 6.18 12.02def 48.62 V1T5 10.87 131.35fg 24.53 5.76cde 6.60 12.36cde 46.61 V1T6 10.42 129.65fg 24.87 5.45e 6.34 11.78f 46.23 V2T1 10.30 147.37e 25.53 5.63de 6.06 11.69f 48.16 V2T2 11.73 177.65a 25.90 6.16ab 6.49 12.64abc 48.69 V2T3 11.27 156.89d 26.03 5.93bcd 6.47 12.41cd 47.84 V2T4 12.93 180.53a 26.23 6.43a 6.63 13.06a 49.22 V2T5 10.33 165.32c 25.93 5.98bc 6.46 12.45bcd 48.07 V2T6 10.60 171.52b 26.00 6.33a 6.58 12.91ab 49.03 CV (%) 6.66 3.63 4.77 3.92 3.39 4.18 4.44 Level of sig. NS ** NS ** NS ** NS *= Significant at 5% **= Significant at 1% NS=Non significant; In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letters differ significantly as per DMRT. T1 = N0 (Control); T2 = N65%; T3 = N50% + US (15%); T4 = N50% + US (20%); T5 = N60% + US (15%); T6 = N100% (Traditional method); V1=BRRI dhan56; V2=Haridhan.

Panicle length (cm) BRRI dhan56 produced panicle length 24.89cm whereas showed that panicle length (cm) was not significantly affected Haridhan produced panicle length 26.54 cm (Table 1). The differ- by the foliar application of urea. Panicle length (24.72cm) was ence between the varieties might be due to genetic variation. obtained from BRRI dhan56 in T6 treatment and highest panicle

This result is in agreement with the findings of Ali et al. (2014); length (26.35cm) obtained from T3 treatment (when 15% urea Hossain et al. (2014); Shiyam et al. (2014); Sarker et al. (2013); used for spray). Highest panicle length (27.72cm) was obtained

Baset Mia and Shamsuddin (2011); Jeng et al. (2009) and Bakul from Haridhan in T4 treatment (when 20% urea used for spray) et al. (2009) . They also found variation in panicle length due to and T3 treatment produced lowest panicle length (25.73cm) the variation in genetic make-up of the varieties of rice. Highest when 15% urea used for spray. The result of the study is in panicle length (26.21cm) was found from T4 treatment when agreement with that of the finding of (Jamal, 2006) who also 20% urea was used as foliar spray and lowest panicle length observed insignificant influence of interaction of variety and

(25.29cm) was found from T1 treatment (control plot). Results foliar spray of urea on panicle length (Table 3).

239 Ekramul Haque et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 235-241 (2019)

Yield and yield contributing characters and harvest index Thousand grain weight Effective tillers hill-1 Thousand grains weight did not significantly vary due to varie- Higher number of effective tillers hill-1 (12.93) was found in Hari- ties (Table 4). BRRI dhan56 showed 1000–grain weight 25.19g dhan and BRRI dhan56 (11.29) (Table 4). The probable reasons of and Haridhan showed1000–grain weight 25.94g. Urea spray on difference in producing the number of effective tillers hill-1 was foliage did not show significant influence on thousand grain mainly genetic makeup of the variety. These findings corroborate weight in BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan (Table 5). Numerically the with that of BINA (1998), Om et al. (1998), Bhowmick and Nayak highest 1000-grains weight (26.20g) was found in BRRI dhan56 -1 (2000) who stated that number of effective tillers hill varied in T4 treatment (when 20% urea was applied as foliar spray) and with the varieties. Foliar spray of urea showed significant influ- lowest 1000-grains weight (25.40) was found from T1 treatment ence on the production of effective tillers hill-1 (Table 5). The (control plot). So there is no significant difference between highest number of effective tillers hill-1 (12.11) was obtained from them (Table 6).

T4 treatment when 20% urea was applied as foliar spray which was higher than T2 and T6 treatment when 65% and 100% urea Grain yield was used as traditional method. Interaction effect on variety from BRRI dhan56 produced 5.51tha-1 and Haridhan produced grain this study we found that foliar application has significant yield 6.08tha-1. The highest yield in Haridhan might be attribut- influence on effective tillers hill-1 (Table 6). ed to the production of maximum effective tillers m-2 and filled grains panicle-1. Ali et al. (2014); Shiyam et al. (2014); Uddin et al. Grains panicle-1 (2011) and Ashrafuzzaman et al. (2009) reported that the varie- The number of grains panicle-1 (126.82) in BRRI dhan56 was sta- ty which produced higher number of effective tillers hill-1 and tistically lower than Haridhan (166.55) (Table 4). The variation in higher number of grains panicle-1 showed higher grain yield ha-1. -1 filled grains production between varieties might be due to their The highest grain yield (6.14 t ha ) was obtained from T4 treat- genetic makeup. Uddin et al. (2011) reported the similar findings ment when 20% urea was applied as foliar spray which was with the present study where they found that the significant dif- higher than T2 and T6 treatment when 65% and 100% urea was ferences were found in filled grains panicle-1 while BRRI dhan44 applied as traditional method. Foliar application of urea might excelled significantly (97.67) and Lalchicon produced the lowest be the contribution of more number of effective tiller hill-1, one (63.00). The highest grain panicle-1 (156.91) was obtained grains panicle-1 and lowest number of sterile spikelets panicle-1. -1 from T4 treatment when 20% urea was applied as foliar spray The highest grain yield (5.84 tha ) was obtained from BRRI method which was higher than T2 and T6 treatment when 65% dhan56 in T4 treatment (when 20% urea was applied as foliar -1 and 100% urea was applied as traditional method). So significant spray) and lowest grain yield (5.45tha ) was recorded from T6 variation in grain yield was observed in BRRI dhan56 and treatment when 100% urea was applied as traditional method. -1 Haridhan due to the foliar application of urea (Table 5). The high- Highest grain yield (6.43tha ) was obtained from Haridhan in T4 est grain panicle-1 (133.28) and (180.53) was obtained from BRRI treatment (when 20% urea was applied as foliar spray) which dhan56 and Haridhan in T4 treatment which is higher than T2 and was higher than T6 treatment when 100% urea was applied as

T6 treatment. So interaction effect of variety and foliar applica- traditional method. Interaction effect of variety and foliar appli- tion of urea was significant effect on grains panicle-1 (Table 6). cation of urea has significant effect on grain yield (Table 6).

Table7. Effect of variety on yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan. Variety Non effective tiller hill-1 Sterile spikelets Panicle-1 BRRI dhan56 1.39 25.09 Haridhan 4.38 39.66 CV (%) 12.59 7.34 Level of sig. ** ** *= Significant at 5%, **= Significant at 1%, NS=Non-significant. Table 8. Effect of foliar spray of urea on the yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan. Treatment Non effective tiller hill-1 Sterile spikelets panicle-1

T1 3.18 40.65a T2 2.70 33.40b T3 2.77 31.16b

T4 2.92 32.40b T5 2.80 25.29c T6 2.96 31.33b CV (%) 12.59 7.34 Level of sig. NS ** *= Significant at 5%, **= Significant at 1%, NS=Non-significant. In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letters differ significantly as per DMRT. T1 = N0 (Control); T2 = N65%; T3 = N50% + US (15%); T4 = N50% + US (20%); T5 = N60% + US (15%); T6 = N100% (Traditional method).

Ekramul Haque et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 235-241 (2019) 240

Table 9. Interaction effect of variety and foliar application of urea on the yield and yield contributing characters of BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan.

Interaction of variety and foliar Non effective tiller hill-1 Sterile spikelets Panicle-1 application of urea

V1T1 2.00 35.86cd

V1T2 1.60 24.64ef

V1T3 1.60 24.45ef

V1T4 1.04 26.33e

V1T5 1.13 18.03g

V1T6 0.98 21.21fg

V2T1 4.37 45.43a

V2T2 3.80 42.17ab

V2T3 3.93 37.86bc

V2T4 4.80 38.47bc

V2T5 4.47 32.55d

V2T6 4.93 41.45ab CV (%) 12.59 7.34 Level of sig. NS ** *= Significant at 5% **= Significant at 1% NS=Non significant; In a column, figures with same letter or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letters differ significantly as per DMRT; T1 = N0 (Control); T2 = N65%;T3 = N50% + US (15%); T4 = N50% + US (20%); T5 = N60% + US (15%); T6 = N100% (Traditional method); V1=BRRI dhan56; V2=Haridhan.

Straw yield Variety was significantly influenced on straw yield (Table 4). The application of urea did not show any significant influence on variety BRRI dhan56 produced straw yield (6.21tha-1) and harvest index (Table 6). Haridhan produced straw yield (6.45tha-1). In straw yield significant variation was observed in BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan due Yield retarding characters to the foliar application of urea (Table 5).The highest straw yield -1 -1 (6.53tha ) was obtained from T5 treatment when 15% urea was Non-effective tillers hill applied as foliar spray which was significantly superior to that of Statistically the higher number of non-effective tillers hill-1 traditional method of urea application. The lowest straw yield (1.39) was found in BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan produced higher -1 -1 (5.82tha ) was obtained from T1 treatment (control plot). In number of non-effective tillers hill (4.38). The result shows straw yield significant variation was not observed in BRRI that variety had significant effect on non-effective tillers hill-1. dhan56 and Haridhan due to interaction of variety and foliar Foliage and traditional application of urea did not show signifi- application of urea (Table 6). cant influence in producing number of non-effective tillers hill-1 in BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan (Table 8).The lowest number of -1 Biological yield non-effective tillers hill (2.70) was found from T2 treatment Variation of biological yield among the varieties might be due to when 65% urea was applied as traditional method which was the genetic makeup of the studied varieties. Similar results were lower than T3, T4 and T5 treatment when 15% and 20% urea was found supported by Uddin et al. (2011) who reported that the applied as foliar spray. Interaction of variety and foliar applica- BRRI dhan44 produced higher biological yield than Lalchicon. tion of urea did not show significant influence in producing num- -1 -1 The highest biological yield (12.54tha ) was obtained from T4 ber of non-effective tillers hill in BRRI dhan56 and Haridhan treatment when 20% urea was applied as foliar spray which was (Table 9). significantly superior to that of T2 and T6 treatment. Biological yield was significantly influenced by interaction of variety and Sterile spikelet panicle-1 foliar application of urea (Table 6). The highest biological yield in The highest number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 (25.09) was BRRI dhan56 (12.36tha-1) and Haridhan (13.06tha-1) was obtained from BRRI dhan56 and (26.54) was obtained from obtained from T5 and T4 treatment which was higher than T6 Haridhan . So varietal effect present. The lowest number of -1 treatment when 100% urea was applied as traditional method. sterile spikelets panicle (25.29) was obtained from T5 treatment. The highest number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 (40.65)

Harvest index (%) was produced from T1 treatment (control plot). Lowest number Variety showed significant influence on harvest index (Table 4). of sterile spikelets panicle-1 (35.86) was obtained with the inter-

However, statistically BRRI dhan56 gave lower harvest index action of variety BRRI dhan56 and treatment T5. Lowest (47.01%) than Haridhan gave higher harvest index (48.50%). number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 (32.55) was obtained from

Foliar spray of urea did not show any significant influence on interaction of Haridhan and T5 treatment which was lower than harvest index (Table 5). Interaction effect of variety and foliar V2T2 treatment when 65% urea applied as traditional method.

241 Ekramul Haque et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 235-241 (2019)

Conclusion Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, pp. 34, 39. Bhowmick, N. and Nayak, R.L. (2000). Response of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa) varieties to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers during dry (boro) Foliar application of urea solution at different concentrations season in west Bengal. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 45(2): 323-326. had significant effect on yield and yield components BRRI BINA (Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture). (1998). Technical Report on dhan56 and Haridhan except number of non-effective tiller, Hybrid Rice Alok 6201. Div. Agron., Bangladesh Inst. Nuc. Agric., Mymensingh. pp. 1-3. panicle length, weight of 1000 seeds and harvest index. The FAO and UNDP (Food and Agricultural Organization and United Nations Develop- -1 result revealed that highest grain yield (6.14tha ) was obtained ment Program), (1988). Land Resources Appraisal of Bangladesh for Agricul- from foliar application of urea i.e. when 50% of recommended tural Development. Report 2. Agro-ecological Regions of Bangladesh FAO, dose of urea was applied as soil application and 20% was applied UNDP, Rome. pp. 116. Hossain, M.S., Sobahan, M.A., Alam, M.A., Ali, M.S. and Bhuiyan, M.S.H. (2007). as foliar. The lowest grain yield was obtained from the treat- Effect of organic manures and nitrogen levels on plant height and number of -1 ment with no urea application (N0). From the experiment it can tillers hill of transplant Aman rice. Journal of Subtropical Agriculture Research be concluded that the yield and yield contributing characters and Development, 5(3): 291-296 Hossain, M.M., Sultana, F. and Asadur Rahman, A.H.M. (2014). A comparative greatly influenced by urea foliar application method in rice crop. screening of hybrid, modern varieties and local rice cultivar for brown leaf This will help rice cultivating farmers to save at least an amount spot disease susceptibility and yield performance. Archives of Phytopathology of 20% recommended dose of urea fertilizer and can contribute and Plant Protection, 47(7): 795-802. to national economy of Bangladesh. Islam, M.S., Sarkar, M.A.R., Uddin, S. and Parvin, S. (2012). Yield of fine rice varieties as influenced by integrated management of poultry manure urea super granules and prilled urea. Journal of Environmental Science and Natural Re- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT sources, 5(1): 129-132. The authors greatly acknowledge the Ministry of Science and Jaiswal, V.P. and Singh, G.R. (2001). Performance of Urea Super Granules and Prilled Urea under different planting methods in irrigated rice (Oryza sativa). Technology (MoST-39.009.002.01.00.053.2014-2015/Bs-36) Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, 71(3): 187-189. Peoples Republic of Bangladesh for providing financial support Jamal, Z., Hamyadan, M., Ahmed, N. and Fayaz, M. (2006). Effect of soil and foliar to conduct the research work. application of different concentration of NPK and foliar application of NH4 on different parameters in wheat. Journal of Agronomy, 5(2): 25 1-256. Jeng, C.Z. and Xu, Y. (1989). Effect of sulphur deficient rice planting areas of Yun- Conflict of interests nam, China. Sulphur Agric. 13: 19-21. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regard- Kabir, M.E., Kabir, M.R., Jahan, M.S. and Das, G.G. (2004). Yield performance of ing the publication of this paper. three aromatic fine rice in a coastal medium high land. Asian Journal of Plant Science, 3 (5): 561-563

Moeini, M., Baghestani, M.A. and Mashadi, H.R. (2006). Possibility of foliar applica- Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under tion of urea and selective herbicides in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Applied the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, Entomology, 74(1): 49 -52. which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction Nuruzzaman, M., Yamamoto, Y., Nitta, Y., Yoshida, T. and Miyazaki, A. (2000). Varietal Differences in Tillering Ability of Fourteen Japonica and Indica Rice in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are Varieties. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 46(2): 381-391. credited. Om, H., Dhiman, S.D., Nandal, D.P. and Verma, S.L. (1998). Effect of method of nursery raising and nitrogen on growth and yield of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa). Indian Journal of Agronomy, 43(1), 68-70. REFERENCES Sabnam, F. (2013). Effect of prilled urea, urea super granule and NPK briquettes under continuous flooded condition on N use efficiency and yield of BR22 AIS (Agricultural Information Service). (2008). Krishi Dairy. Agril. Inform. Ser. rice. MS Thesis. Department of soil science, Faculty of Agriculture, Bangla- Khamarbari, Farmgate, Dhaka. Bangladesh. pp. 23. desh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. Akter, R. (2017). Performance of boro rice (BRRI dhan29) as affected by deep Sarker, A.K. (2012). Effect of Variety and Nitrogen Level on Yield and Yield Perfor- placement and foliar application of urea fertilizer. Research on Agriculture mance of transplanted Aman Rice. M.S Thesis in Agronomy, Bangladesh livestock and Fisheries, 5(2): 157-164. Agricultural University, Mymensingh. pp25. Ali, M.H. Rahman, M.A. and Ullah, M.J. (1990). Effect of plant population and nitro- Shiyam, J.O., Binang, W.B. and Ittah, M.A. (2014). Evaluation of growth and yield gen on yield and yield content of rapeseed (Brassica campestris). Indian attributes of some lowland Chinese hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties in Journal of Agricultural Science, 60(9): 627-630. the Coastal Humid Forest Zone of Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Ashrafuzzaman, M., Islam, M.R., Shahidullah, S.M. and Hanafi, M.M. (2009). Evalua- Veterinary Science, 7(2): 70-73. tion of six aromatic rice varieties for yield and yield contributing Characters. Singh, R.V. and Chauhan, S.P.S. (2001). Response of mustard to the levels and International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 11: 616-620. sources of nitrogen with and without zinc in relation to yield and water use Bakul, M.R.A., Akter, M.S., Islam, M.N., Chowdhury, M.M.A.A. and Amin, M.H.A. under dry land conditions. Bharatiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika. 6:1 (2009). Water stress effect on morphological characters and yield attributes Statistica, (2018). The statistical portal. Download from in some mutants T aman rice lines. Bangladesh Research Publication Journal, 3 http://www.statistica.com/statistics/255977/total-global-rice-consumption. (2): 934–944. Tayeb, A., Paul, S. K. and Samad, M. A. (2013). Performance of variety and spacing Baset Mia, M.A. and Shamsuddin, Z.H. (2011). Physio-morphological appraisal of on the yield and yield contributing characters of transplanted aman rice. aromatic fine rice (Oryza sativa L.) in relation to yield potential. International Journal of Agroforestry and Environment, 40 (4): 595-597. Journal of Botany, 7(3): 223–229. Uddin, M.J., Ahmed, S., Rashid, H.M., Hasan, M.A. and Asaduzzaman, M. (2011). BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). (2011). The Yearbook of Agricultural Statis- Effect of spacing on the yield and yield attributes of transplanted aman rice tics of Bangladesh. Statistics Div., Minis. Plan. Govt. peoples Repub., varieties in medium lowland ecosystem of Bangladesh. Journal of Agriculture Bangladesh, Dhaka.p.54. and Research, 49(4): 465–476. BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). (2017). Statistical pocket book of Zhu, Z.L., Wan, Q.X. and Fernery, J.R. (1997). Nitrogen in Soils of China. Kluwer Bangladesh. Bureau of Statistics, Statistics Division, Ministry of planning, Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Effect of different phosphorus levels on four cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp L.) varieties for grain and fodder yield in Upper East Region of Ghana Boakye Boateng Augustine* and Wilson Godfre Crop and Soil Science Department, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, PMB Knust, Kumasi – Ashanti, GHANA *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 24 May 2019 A field experiment was conducted to examine the effect of cowpea varieties and different Revised received: 01 June 2019 phosphorus levels on grain and fodder yield. Four cowpea varieties i.e. Asetenapa, Asomdwe, Accepted: 03 June 2019 Hewale and Videza with four different phosphorus levels of single superphosphate (SSP) were

used in the experiment. The experimental design was 4 × 4 factorial experiment laid in

randomized complete block with four replicates. The results showed that cowpea varieties Keywords and phosphorus levels significantly influenced number of nodules per plant, pod length, Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) number of pods per plant, fodder yield and grain yield. Phosphorus levels had no significant Fodder yield effect on stem girth, plant height and 100 seed weight. Asomdwe recorded the highest grain Grain yield yield of 1229kgha-1 while Videza and Asetenapa produced the highest fodder yield of 957kgha Phosphorus doses -1. Interactive effect between Videza and 30kgha-1 of SSP produced the highest fodder yield Soil characteristics while Asomdwe and 60kgha-1 of SSP was the treatment combination that produced the highest grain yield. Cowpea varieties and different phosphorus levels had effect on grain and fodder yield. Asomdwe would be recommended for commercial grain production because of the high grain yielding potential as observed in the study Asetenapa and Videza for fodder production to feed livestock.

Citation of this article: Augustine, B.B. and Godfre, W. (2019). Effect of different phosphorus levels on four cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp L.) varieties for grain and fodder yield in Upper East Region of Ghana. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 242-248, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402018

INTRODUCTION the world production, with Nigeria being the world‘s largest producer (45.76%), followed by Niger (15%) (Fatokun et al., Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp (L.) is an essential component 2012). Fodder from cowpea is also highly valued for livestock. It of the cropping systems in the drier regions of the tropics and of can be grown as a relay inter-crop with cereals or other crops in vital importance to the livelihood of millions of people in West mid, if maturing varieties were used (Elawad, 2000). and Central Africa. It provides nutritious grain and an inexpen- Farmers in legume production usually receive little mineral sive source of protein for both rural and urban consumers phosphorus fertilizer from the natural available soil phosphorus (Anyango et al., 2011). Cowpea is consumed in many forms with and other nutrients for nitrogen fixation and growth, and this young fresh leaves, immature green pods and green seeds used result to low yields (Singh et al, 2011 and Nkaa et al, 2014). as vegetables; dry seeds used in various food preparations Inadequate supply of phosphorus may result in nitrogen defi- including over 50 different dishes known (Quaye et al., 2009); ciency when legumes depend on symbiotic nitrogen (Tairo and

Boukar et al. (2011). The beans are nutritious and provide Ndakidemi, 2013) as a result of poor N2 fixation. Phosphorus (P) complementary proteins to cereals. The seeds of cowpea com- deficiency is the most frequent nutrient stress for growth and prise (20 - 24%) protein, 63.3% carbohydrates and 1.9% fat development of grain legumes including cowpea (Kamara et al., (Davis et al., 1991). Globally, it is grown on about 14.5 million 2008). Soil phosphorus is in the form of poorly soluble mineral hectares producing over 6.5 million metric tons of grain phosphates which is not readily available to plants (Marschner, (Fatokun et al., 2012). Africa alone accounts for about 83% of 2012).

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Phosphorus has been reported to enhance the formation of data collected included growth parameters, yield and yield lateral, fibrous and adventitious roots, which play an important components. role in N2 fixation, nutrient and water uptake (Rahman et al., 2008; Niu et al., 2012). It is one of the most important soil Growth parameters and yield measurements major nutrients for crop production especially legumes, it is rated the second to nitrogen in terms of its importance to crop Plant height performance (Halder and Panda, 2014). Phosphorus (P) is very Five plants in the two middle rows of each plot were randomly significant element to enhance the cowpea biomass and crop selected, identified with a tag and plant height taken at harvest yield because it stimulates growth, initiate nodulation as well as of each experiment. Height measurement was done from the influence the efficiency of rhizobium-Legume symbiosis ground level to the last terminal leaf. The average of five plants (Haruna and Usman, 2013). Therefore the requirement of P for was then calculated for the plant height. cowpea is quite higher than nitrogen in the form of single super phosphate or SUPA (Nkaa et al., 2014). The objective of the Stem girth study was to determine the effect of different Phosphorus Were also measured from five cowpea plants from each plot of fertilizer level on grain and fodder yield of four cowpea varieties each treatment using electronic venire calipers. The stem girth and effect of the four cowpea varieties on grain and fodder of each of the five cowpea plants were placed in the external yield. jaws of the calipers and the reading that was displaced on the LCD display recorded, the average was taken as the stem girth MATERIALS AND METHODS for plot.

About the experimental sites Number of nodules per plant and nodules dry weight The study was established on 15th July, 2017 in Bonia in the The number of nodules per plant was taken from the five select- Kessena – Nankana Municipality in the Upper East Region of ed and tagged plants within the two middle rows. The roots of Ghana, located on latitude 10.87° N and longitude 1.13° west at the plant were thoroughly washed to expose the nodules and a 194 m above sea level. The climate is warm, semi-arid with sharp blade was used to cut through the nodules. Viable nodules mono-modal with the average annual rainfall amount of about were counted, that is nodules with pinkish coloration and had 1000 mm which falls mostly between May and September. This the ability to fix nitrogen were counted and the average taken as is then followed by seven months of dry season, which is charac- the number of nodules per plant. terized by the dry harmattan winds with high risk of uncon- trolled bushfires resulting in the loss of vegetative cover of the Pod length vertisol soil. The pod length of five cowpea pod were taken from each plot and measured using a ruler and the average length of the five Experimental design and treatment pods taken as pod length. The experimental sites were ploughed and ridged and sprayed with herbicides (roundup and stomp) having active ingredients Number of pods and grain yield glyphosate and pendimethalin respectively. The experimental Pod harvest from five cowpea plants were counted and the was laid out in factorial design arranged in randomized average taken as the number of pods per plant. The pods in the complete block design with four replications. The replicates two middle rows of each treatment were harvested and were made up of 16 plots each measuring 4m × 2.4m with 4 thrashed the seeds weighed for grain yield of each treatment. rows per plot, each row had a length of 4m, plot width of 2.4m, one meter between plots, 60 cm spacing between rows and 20 100 seed weight cm within rows with one meter between plots. The treatments 100 seeds from cowpea plants in the middle rows of each plot of used for the experiment were four single superphosphate ferti- each treatment from respective net plots were weighed for 100 lizer levels in kgha-1; 0, 30, 60, 90 and four cowpea varieties; seeds weight. Asetenapa, Asomdwe, Hewale and Videza. Three seeds were sown per hill and later thinned to two plants per hill two weeks Fodder yield after sowing; refilling was done two weeks after planting and The fodder from each of the five plants from each treatment was weeding done by hoeing and hand pulling three weeks and five sun dried from each net plot, bulked and weighed then extrapo- weeks after planting. Single Superphosphate (SSP) fertilizer at lated as the fodder yield for treatment. the rates indicated in the treatment was uniformly applied on the plots three days before planting. Composite soil samples at a Statistical analysis depth of 0 – 15 cm were taken diagonally across the field before The data collected were subjected to statistical analysis using planting and soil sample analyzed for pH, organic matter, Genstat discovery edition 12 (2012). The means of the various Organic carbon, total N, available P and exchangeable K. treatments were separated using the least significant difference Harvesting was done on the two middle rows of each plot and (LSD) at 5 % probability level.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cowpea varieties for plant height. This observation in the study is contrary to Magani and Kuchinda (2009) who attributed Characteristics of the experimental soil differences in plant height to the genetic effect of individual The soils were slightly acidic, loamy sand with low available P, varieties. Karikari et al. (2015), El Naim (2012) and Abduselam total N, exchangeable potassium and very low organic matter (2018) reported varietal differences among cowpea and (Table 1). sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) for plant height. 60kgha-1 of SSP produced the highest plant height of 46.14 cm Plant height, stem girth and pod length even though it was not significantly different from 0kgha-1 The effects of cowpea varieties and different phosphorus levels which recorded the lowest plant height of 45.16 cm. The lack of on plant height, stem girth and pod length have been shown in significant difference of phosphorus levels on plant height as Table 2. The cowpea varieties and the different phosphorus witnessed in the study is contrary to Ayodele and Oso (2014) levels had little or no influence on plant height and stem girth as who reported significant increase of plant height of cowpea observed in the study, however a significant varietal influence when P was applied with basal N+K. Halder and Panda (2014) on pod length was observed with no effect of the different phos- also observed a significant effect of different phosphorus levels phorus levels on pod length. Asomdwe produced the highest on plant height in a groundnut. Nkaa et al. (2014) also observed plant height of 46.61 cm while Videza produced the lowest plant that plant height of cowpea and number of leaves per plant was height of 45.44 cm. The little or lack of significant difference significantly enhanced by phosphorus application. There was a between the cowpea varieties for plant height and stem girth lack of interactive effect between the cowpea varieties and the could be attributed to the lack of varietal effect between the different phosphorus levels on plant height and stem girth. Table 1. Soil characteristics of experimental site. Soil parameter Value Texture class loamy sand pH 5.59 Organic matter (g/kg) 66 Organic carbon (g/kg) 3 Total N (g/kg) 114 Available P (mg/kg) 9.68 Exchangeable K (cmolc/kg) 0.14

Table 2. Effect of cowpea variety and different phosphorus levels on plant height, stem girth and pod length.

Plant height (cm) Stem girth (mm) Pod length (cm) Variety V1 =Asetenapa 46.46 39.31 8.91 V2 = Asomdwe 46.61 38.49 10.83 V3 = Hewale 46.14 38.46 9.64 V4 = Videza 45.44 39.88 11.29 LSD (0.05) NS NS 0.52 P levels (kg/ha) P1 = 0 45.16 38.52 10.39 P2 = 30 46.01 38.75 10.28 P3 = 60 46.14 40.35 10.11 P4 = 90 45.44 38.50 9.99 LSD (0.05) NS NS NS Variety × P levels V1 × P1 46.65 38.85 9.2 V2 × P1 43.95 40.05 10.95 V3 × P1 45.9 35.75 9.9 V4 × P1 44.13 39.45 11.53 V1 × P2 47.18 40.35 8.7 V2 × P2 44.9 39.60 10.4 V3 × P2 45.78 37.35 9.85 V4 × P2 46.2 37.70 11.78 V1 × P3 45.5 38.90 8.85 V2 × P3 47.75 36.05 10.98 V3 × P3 45.73 44.50 9.5 V4 × P3 44.75 41.95 11.13 V1 × P4 46.5 39.15 8.9 V2 × P4 49.83 38.25 11.0 V3 × P4 47.18 36.20 9.33 V4 × P4 46.7 40.40 10.73 LSD(0.05) NS 5.64 1.04 C.V (%) 1.7 10.2 3.0 NS – not significant, LSD– Least Significant Difference, CV– coefficient of variation.

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Table 3. Effects of cowpea varieties and different phosphorus levels on nodules per plant, nodules dry weight and pods per plant. Nodules per plant Nodules dry weight Pods per plant Variety

V1 = Asetenapa 67.16 36.45 66.4

V2 = Asomdwe 74.47 39.53 69.7

V3 = Hewale 76.59 35.85 52.3

V4 = Videza 76.93 40.81 60.0 LSD (0.05) 7.41 2.68 5.94 P levels (kg/ha)

P1 = 0 76.89 36.7 54.64

P2 = 30 86.23 36.58 60.96

P3 = 60 75.71 39.23 65.61

P4 = 90 56.33 40.14 67.23 LSD (0.05) 7.41 2.68 5.94 Variety × P levels

V1 × P1 72.5 36.65 54.3

V2 × P1 78.0 38.29 59.8

V3 × P1 66.4 33.98 50.3

V4 × P1 51.8 38.88 54.3

V1 × P2 78.5 37.3 66.1

V2 × P2 83.0 35.85 70.2

V3 × P2 79.6 32.55 50.2

V4 × P2 56.8 40.63 57.4

V1 × P3 79.4 36.35 72.4

V2 × P3 91.3 41.13 73.3

V3 × P3 79 37.8 54.1

V4 × P3 58.7 41.63 62.7

V1 × P4 77.2 36.5 73.0

V2 × P4 92.6 42.85 75.7

V3 × P4 79.8 39.08 54.5

V4 × P4 58.1 42.13 65.8 LSD (0.05) 14.82 5.36 11.87 C.V (%) 4.5 1.9 3.7 Videza was the cowpea variety that produced the longest pod and number of pods per plant. Asomdwe produced the highest length and was statistically different from Asetenapa, the variety nodule per plant from the results with a mean 86.2 compared with the shortest pod length. The varietal differences observed with Videza which produced the least nodules per plant with a between the cowpea for pod length in the study could be mean of 56.3. The varietal difference observed between the attributed to genotypic variation between varieties used for the cowpea varieties used in the study could be attributed to genetic study. This observation is in agreement with (Belay et al., 2017) difference in the varieties interacting with the native rhizobia in who reported varietal difference for pod length in a study of forming effective and viable nodules. This finding agrees with agronomic performance evaluation of cowpea varieties. Also the Ayodele and Oso (2014) and Karikari et al. (2015) who reported lack or little effect of the different phosphorus levels on pod varietal difference in nodules per plant in cowpea. The effect of length as observed in the study is contrary to Karikari et al. the phosphorus levels on number of nodules per plant was statis- (2015) who reported a significant effect of different phosphorus tically significant between the different phosphorus levels for on the pod length of cowpea. Lakew (2019) also reported a number of nodules per plant. 90 kgha-1 of phosphorus produced positive influence of phosphorus levels on pod length in his study the highest nodules per plant with a mean of 76.93 while 0 kgha-1 growth and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars as produced the lowest nodules per plant with a mean of 67.16. The influenced by rates of phosphorus. A significant interactive results of this study are in agreement with (Agboola and effect between cowpea varieties and phosphorus levels were Obigbesan, 1977) who indicated the effect of phosphorus on the observed for pod length. This shows that with Videza and 30kgha number of nodules per plant. The finding also is in support of -1 phosphorus interaction produced the highest pod length with a Rahman et al. (2008) and Niu et al. (2012) that phosphorus mean 11.77 while Asetenapa and 30kgha-1 phosphorus interac- enhances the formation of lateral, fibrous and adventitious tion produced least pod length with a mean of 8.7. roots, which play an important role in nodule formation, N2 fixation, and nutrient and water uptake. A significant interactive Nodules per plant, nodules dry weight and pods per plant effect between the varieties and the different phosphorus levels The effect of cowpea varieties and different phosphorus levels on nodules per plant as was observed from the studies. on number of nodules per plant, nodules dry weight and number Interaction between Asomdwe and 90 kgha-1 phosphorus of pods per plant are shown in Table 3. Varietal differences were produced the highest nodules per plant (92.6) while Videza and 0 observed in the number of nodules per plant, nodules dry weight kgha-1 interaction produced the least nodules per plant (51.8).

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Videza was the variety with the highest nodules dry weight with varieties as observed in the study could be attributed genetic a mean of 40.81g while Asetenapa produced the lowest nodules difference between the varieties. This observation consent to dry weight (36.45g). Phosphorus levels also had significant influ- (Singh and Tarawali, 1997) who reveals significant differences ence on nodules dry weight. 90kgha-1 phosphorus produced the among cowpea varieties for both grain and fodder yields of highest nodules dry weight (40.14g) while 30kgha-1 phosphorus promising medium-maturing cowpea varieties. Singh et al. produced the least nodule dry weight (36.58g). The finding of (2002) also reported significant fodder yield between selected this study is in conformity with (Nkaa et al., 2014) who reported breeding lines under intercropping and sole cropping averaged that increasing phosphorus levels increase number and size of over two crosses. Also, (Relwani et al., 1970) reported significant nodules. difference between cowpea varieties for fodder yield in a study Asomdwe produce the most number of pods per plant (69.7) varietal trial on cowpea (Vigna sinensis) for fodder production. while Hewale was the variety with least number of pods per plant A significant influence of phosphorus levels on fodder yield (52.3). The difference in the number of pods per plant as observed were observed in the study as shown in Table 4. There was as between the varieties in the study may be as a result of genetic increase in the fodder yield as the phosphorus levels increase. difference in partitioning photosynthesis into pods development. 90kgha-1 produced the highest fodder yield (915.4kgha-1) while This finding agrees with Masenya (2016), who recorded signifi- 0 kgha-1 produced the least fodder yield (784.5kgha-1). The find- cant varietal effect on number of pods per plant in evaluation of ing in this study is collaborated by (Sandhu et al., 1976) who in a introduced cowpea lines. The finding is also collaborated by study observed a significant increase in fodder quantity and works of Shambharkar et al. (2006); Onat et al. (2016); Dapaah quality when 25kg P2O5 were applied. Singh et al. (2011) also et al. (2014) and Sharma et al. (2013) who reported varietal effect reported a significant cowpea stover yield when 60kg P2O5 were for number of pods per plant in groundnut. A significant influence applied. A significant interactive effect between the cowpea between 90kgha-1 of phosphorus 30kgha-1 and 0kgha-1 were varieties and phosphorus levels on fodder yield. Videza when observed for number of pods per plant. 90kgha-1 phosphorus applied with 30kgha-1 and 60kgha-1 of single superphosphate levels produced the highest number of pods per plant (67.2) with produced the highest fodder yield (1010.4kgha-1) while 0kgha-1 producing the lowest number of pods per plant (54.6). Asomdwe with 0kgha-1 of SSP produced the least fodder yield of The significant difference in phosphorus levels on number of pods 638kgha-1. per plant as observed in the study is collaborated by Owolade et A significant varietal variation on grain yield was observed al. (2006) and Olaleye et al. (2011). between the cowpea varieties used in the study as shown in A significant interactive effect was also witnessed between the Table 4. Asomdwe was the cowpea variety from the study that cowpea varieties and the different phosphorus levels for partitioned most of it’s assimilates into grain production and nodules dry weight and number of pods per plant. The interac- produced the highest grain yield (1229kgha-1) while Videza pro- tion between Asomdwe and 90kgha-1 phosphorus levels duced the least grain yield (1083kgha-1). The varietal variation produced the largest number of pods per plant (75.68) while as as observed in the study could be attributed to genotypic the interaction of Hewale and 30kgha-1 phosphorus levels variation in phosphorus use efficiency among the cowpea varie- produced smallest number of pods per plant (50.18). ties used in the study. This also shows that the different cowpea varieties inherently have different means of mobilizing 100 seed weight, fodder yield and grain yield phosphorus and other growth resources for grain production. The effects of varietal difference and different phosphorus lev- This observation is in agreement with Singh and Tarawali els on 100 seed weight, fodder and grain yield as presented in (1997), Singh et al. (2002), Adjei-Nsiah et al. (2008) and Timko et Table 4. A lack of significant different was observed between al. (2007) who all reported significant varietal influence of grain the cowpea varieties and the different phosphorus levels on 100 yield. seed weight. Videza produced the highest 100 seed weight A significant effect of the phosphorus levels on grain yield were (59.42g) while Asomdwe produced the least 100 seed weight also observed in the study. 90kgha-1 produced the highest grain (58.24g). The absence of significant varietal and phosphorus yield (1201kgha-1) while 0kgha-1 produced the lowest grain yield levels differences in the study is contrary to (Henshaw, 2008) of (1138kgha-1). The increase in grain yield by the 90kgha-1 who observed significant varietal variations in 100 seed weights might be as a result of the overall improvement in growth and of cowpea cultivars. Shahid et al. (2009) reported significant yield attributing traits such as number of pods per plant, which influence of phosphorus levels and inoculation on 1000 seed also showed an increasing trend as a result of P application. This weight of soybean which was contrary to what was observed in finding in consistent with (Nkaa et al., 2014), Haruna and Usman the study. Singh et al. (2011) also reported a significant effect of (2013) and Ayodele and Oso (2014) who all reported a positive phosphorus levels on 100 seed weight of cowpea varieties in the influence of phosphorus application on grain yield. The interac- Sudan Savanna of Nigeria. tion effect on grain yield between cowpea varieties and the There was a significant varietal variation between the cowpea phosphorus levels also witnessed a significant difference. varieties for fodder yield. Videza produced the highest fodder Asetenapa and 60kgha-1 interaction produced the highest grain yield (957kgha-1) while Asomdwe produced the lowest fodder yield with a mean of 1273kgha-1 while Videza and 90kgha-1 yield (737.6kgha-1). The difference in fodder yield between the produced the least grain yield of 1069kgha-1.

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Table 4. Effect of cowpea variety and different phosphorus levels on 100 seed weight, fodder and grain yield. 100 seed weight (g) Fodder yield (kg/ha) Grain yield (kg/ha) Variety V1 = Asetenapa 56.69 957 1222 V2 = Asomdwe 58.24 737.6 1229 V3 = Hewale 58.69 849.6 1144 V4 = Videza 59.42 957 1083 LSD (0.05) NS 67.31 35.33 P levels (kg/ha) P1 = 0 58.78 784.5 1138 P2 = 30 58.52 885.4 1158 P3 = 60 60.15 888.7 1180 P4 = 90 55.6 915.4 1201 LSD (0.05) NS 67.31 35.33 Variety × P levels V1 × P1 65.6 843.8 1180 V2 × P1 63.0 638.0 1209 V3 × P1 52.2 760.4 1090 V4 × P1 54.3 895.8 1091 V1 × P2 57.7 929.7 1210 V2 × P2 56.3 724.0 1194 V3 × P2 58.2 877.6 1136 V4 × P2 61.9 1010.4 1098 V1 × P3 62.1 979.2 1273 V2 × P3 56.7 773.4 1264 V3 × P3 68.2 878.4 1172 V4 × P3 53.6 1010.4 1093 V1 × P4 52.3 966.1 1224 V2 × P4 58.8 815.1 1250 V3 × P4 54.4 862.0 1177 V4 × P4 56.9 911.5 1069 LSD (0.05) 12.49 134.6 70.66 C.V (%) 4.6 1.0 1.2 NS – not significant, LSD– Least Significant Difference, CV– coefficient of variation.

Conclusion REFERENCES

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 249-255 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402019

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Long-term fertilization effect on yield and land productivity of rice-wheat cropping system of Bangladesh Fahamida Akter1, 2, Md. Mizanur Rahman1 and Md. Ashraful Alam1* 1Faculty of Graduate Studies, Department of Soil Science, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur- 1706, BANGLADESH 2Plant Breeding Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur-1701, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 30 May 2019 A factorial study was carried out at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural Revised received: 03 June 2019 University to determine the effect of long term fertilization on yield performance of T. aman Accepted: 04 June 2019 rice and wheat. The experimental plot received different organic manures for the last 26 years

(1988-2014). The organic manure cowdung, compost, green manure and rice straw were

applied at the rate of 25, 25, 7.5 and 1.5 t ha-1, respectively in a yearly sequence. Three levels Keywords of nitrogen viz., 0, 75 and 100 kg ha-1for rice and 0, 80 and 120 kg ha-1 for wheat were applied. Fertilization Application of nitrogen fertilizer along with organic manure significantly increased yield of rice Land productivity index and wheat .The highest rice grain yield was found in 2014 under the N75 and no manure treat-

Sustainable yield index ment, which was 6.48 t ha-1 whereas grain yield of wheat was found maximum in 2008 from Yield -1 the interaction of N120 and rice straw application where yield was recorded 5.25 t ha . In rice- wheat cropping sequence, the plots that received no nitrogen, LPI value was less than 2 (0.80) in the observed years. When the plots were treated with nitrogen fertilizer showed LPI values > 2 in 2008, 2009, 2012 and 2013, which indicates the trend of higher productivity of land due to long term fertilization. The maximum sustainable yield index was found in rice (0.69)> wheat (0.40) with 100 kg ha-1 and 120 kg ha-1 N treatment respectively. So, Long term fertilization strategy can be effective way to improve the yield, land productivity and sustainable yield index of rice and wheat through rescheduling the rates of organic and inorganic fertilizers that ensure balanced supply of plant nutrients.

©2019 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Akter, F., Rahman, M.M. and Alam, M.A. (2019). Long-term fertilization effect on yield and land productivity of rice-wheat cropping system of Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 249-255, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402019 INTRODUCTION 2012). The demand for production of rice will endure rising in the near future due to shrinkage of cultivable land and over Rice is the staple food grain in Bangladesh and covers about population growth (Alam et al., 2019b). The productivity of rice- 80% of the total cropped area accounting for over 90% of total wheat system in Bangladesh is declining year after year. One of grain production of Bangladesh. Wheat is the second most the main constraints to rice and wheat production is low organic important food grain and is commonly grown after rice. Over matter content and low indigenous nutrient supply (Biswas and 85% of the total wheat area of the country is preceded by trans- Sharma, 2008). Modern varieties give higher crop yields but planted monsoon rice grown from July to December (Saunders, respond to more nutrients than local varieties because of higher 1991). It is the most important predominant cropping system in amount of potential biomass production. On an average, the Bangladesh which played a significant role in the sustainable farmers of Bangladesh use 190 kg nutrients ( 149 kg N, 16 kg P, food security. But, in recent findings, there has been clear evi- 18 kg K and others 7 kg) ha-1 yr-1, while the estimated removal is dence of declining trends of rice and wheat yield (Chauhan et al., around 280-350 kg/ha/yr. (Islam, 2008). The cumulative

Fahamida Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 249-255 (2019) 250 negative nutrient balance over the years resulted in the fertility organic matter and N in soils is necessary to escalate soil fertility degradation of land. Consequently, soils are degrading day by management practices and increase crop productivity, which day, losing their health and potentiality for crop production may ensure food security and play a vital role in climate change (Khan et al., 2008). mitigation (Alam et al., 2019a). Soil is an essential non-renewable resource with potentially Studies by Bhandari et al. (2002) attributed the productivity of rapid degradation rates and extremely slow formation and the rice-wheat system is reduced due to declining SOM, regeneration processes (Van-Camp et al., 2004). Most of the decreased soil fertility, occurrence of nutrient imbalances, and cultivable lands are degraded day by day due to indiscriminate inappropriate fertilizer practices. Previous research considered use of agro-chemicals, excessive and deep tillage, luxury that the continued use of mineral fertilizers may result in decline irrigation, intensive cropping with high yielding varieties, little of soil productivity. In most long-term experiments, a combina- or no use of organic materials and improper soil management tion of mineral fertilizers and organic manure has generally practices (Lal, 2008). Soil organic matter (SOM) content in given the best crop yield and soil quality (Wang et al., 2004; Bangladesh is not only poor but it is declining gradually which is Chalk et al., 2003). Therefore, present investigation was under- the number one key to soil fertility and productivity. taken to observe the performance of the integrated use of Rice-wheat cropping system is the most adopted and vital crop- organic manure and chemical fertilizer to assess the yield and ping system for achieving food security of Asia (Ray and Gupta, land productivity in a rice-wheat cropping system. To achieve 2001; Singh et al., 2007) and sustainability of this system is very this goal an experiment was initiated in 1988 to study the effect important. Intensive cropping of rice-wheat system with no of long term manuring along with three doses of nitrogen on soil return of crop residues and other organic materials results in properties and yield of T. aman rice and wheat. The present loss of soil organic matter and may have some adverse deleteri- study utilized the yield data generated during 2007 to 2014 ous effect on soil fertility as well as production provided utmost from the Long-Term Experiment (LTE). care is not taken and thus the system is not sustainable (Samui et al., 1998; Singh et al., 2007). As the optimum soil physical envi- MATERIALS AND METHODS ronment for the puddled rice and upland wheat differs substantially, cropping sequence that includes both the crops requires Description of study site special management practices like manuring to become sustain- The current study is a part of long-term manuring experiment able (Islam, 1994; Singh et al., 2007). The necessary removal of that started in July, 1988 with T. aman rice-wheat cropping organic material in the form of harvested crop is compensated sequence at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural for by growing green manure crops or by amending with University. Data used in the study for the period of 2007-2014, compost. Long-term experiments play an important role in while as per design and treatments, the experiment was conduct- understanding the complex interaction involving plants, soils, ed for one year only (2013-2014). The experimental farm is locat- climate and management practices and their effects on crop ed in the center of the Agro-ecological Zone (AEZ) of Madhupur productivity. In fact, agricultural scientists have recognized the Tract (AEZ-28) at about 24.23° North Latitude and 90.08° East long-term sites as invaluable tools in the study of agro- Longitude having a mean elevation of 8.4m above mean sea level ecosystem dynamics. To improve or to sustain the productivity and about 40 km north of Dhaka. The climate of the location is of rice-wheat system in Bangladesh, Bhuiyan et al. (1993) tropical monsoon. The land selected for the long-term experiment recommended the long-term evaluation of the use of organic had been a virgin land where no crop was grown before. The soil manure or green manure for maintaining soil fertility. It is now belongs to Salna series representing the Shallow Red Brown essential to increase organic matter content through periodic Terrace and is classifed as Inceptisols according to USDA Taxono- addition of organic matter along with the application of inorgan- my (Brammer, 1978). The soil is characterized by heavy clays ic fertilizer for maintaining productivity to achieve maximum within 50 cm from the surface and is acidic in nature. Some basic and stabilized crop yield in the country. A comprehensive break- chemical properties of the soil, prior to setting the Long term through and capturing knowledge on the transformation of soil experiment, are presented in the Table 1.

Table 1. Chemical properties of initial soil (0-15 cm) of the long-term experimental plot (Islam, 2003).

Parameters 1988 2003

pH 5.60 5.88

Organic carbon (%) 0.42 0.30

Total nitrogen (%) 0.03 0.05

251 Fahamida Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 249-255 (2019)

Experimental design and wheat were calculated using the equation provided by The experimental design of the study was in a factorial random- Singh et al. (1990). ized complete block design with two replications and plot size was 12m × 7m. The factorial experiment included five different SYI = (y-s)/Ymax organic materials treatments (application of cow-dung (CD) @ 25 t/ha, compost @ 25 t/ha, green ipil-ipil leaves @ 7.5 t/ha, rice Where, y = estimated average yield; s = standard deviation of straw (RS) @ 1.5 t/ha, no manure application) and three nitrogen yield across years; Ymax = maximum observed yield treatments (For rice 0, 75 and 100 kg N/ha and for wheat 0, 80 SYI nearness to 1 implies the closeness to an ideal condition that and 120 kg N/ha ). The high yielding rice variety BRRI dhan39 can sustain maximum crop yields over year. and wheat variety BARI Gom 24 (prodip) were used as the test crops. Seeds were collected from Bangladesh Agricultural Statistical analysis Development Corporation (BADC). One week after proper Data were statistically analyzed using STATISTICS-10.0 paddling the field, twenty-five-days old seedlings of BRRI software. ANOVA and univariate analyses were performed to dhan39 were transplanted maintaining a spacing of 25 cm × 20 test all parameters. Treatment means were separated by least cm and wheat seeds were directly sown in 18th November 2013 significant difference (LSD). Different graphs were prepared in continuous lines having the line to line distance of 20 cm. Fer- using Microsoft Excel (Office 2007). tilizer doses of P and K were applied as triple super phosphate (TSP)and muriate of potash (MoP) at the rate of 44.05 and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 66.67 kg ha-1) The whole amount of TSP, MoP and gypsum was applied during final land preparation. Urea was applied in three Yield of rice as influenced by long-term manuring and nitrogen equal splits at final land preparation, 15 days after transplanting fertilization in different years (DAT) and 5-7 days before panicle initiation stage. During T. The effect of manure and N fertilizer application on rice yield is Aman 2013, irrigations were given to the rice plots to maintain presented in (Table 2). Manure and crop residues application did standing water for almost all the time except maturity. Six not show significant effect on rice yield except in 2012. Yields irrigations were given on 5 Days after sowing ( DAS), 11DAS, under different manure and residues treated plot ranged from 21DAS, 29DAS, 40DAS and 50DAS during wheat season (Rabi 3.2 to 4.88 t ha-1. In 2007, the plots that received no nitrogen 2014). After irrigation the soil was made loosen. Weeding and fertilizer yielded 2.10 t ha-1, which was increased to 4.82 and -1 thinning were also done simultaneously at that time. At maturi- 4.87 t ha grain in N75 and N100 treatments, respectively. It was th ty BRRI dhan39 was harvested in 28 September 2013 and found that rice yield significantly increased under N75 and N100 BARI Gom 24 was harvested in 20th March 2014. treatments over the control in all years since 2007 to 2014. However, there were insignificant differences found in rice

Land Productivity Index (LPI) yields between N75 and N100 treatments. Except the year 2007 The yield data of rice and wheat for the year of 2007 to 2013 and 2011, the yield of rice progressively increased from 2008 were collected from the records of previous study. and onwards (Table 2). The highest grain yield (6.23 t ha-1) was

Land productivity index of rice and wheat were determined found in 2014 under the N75 treatment, which was insignificant- which were calculated using the following equation ly higher over the yield found in N100 treatment. (Ranamukhaarachchi et al., 2005). The interaction of nitrogen fertilizer and manure application was found significant (Table 2). The treatment that received no nitrogen and no manure or crop residues provided the lower yield of rice. The highest rice grain yield was found in 2014 -1 under the N75 and no manure treatment, which was 6.48 t ha . Where, Yob = observed/actual yield of the ith crop (rice and However, this yield was insignificantly varied with the yields wheat); Yavg = average yield of the ith crop (rice and wheat); i = found under the interaction of N75 with different manures and the component crop grown in the cropping systems in a year; N100 with different manure and residues. In IPNS, the integrated n = number of crops grown in the cropping systems in a year use of chemical fertilizer and organic manure enhanced growth Although, the LPI offers the opportunity to use the potential and yield contributing characters of wheat and T. Aman rice in crop yield to examine the contribution of cropping systems ef- the wheat–rice cropping systems reported by Haque et al. fect on yield gaps, as they reflect with the average productivity (2018). in the farming area. The LPI value of 2 was used as the standard value for determining the productivity of cropping systems Yield of wheat as influenced by long-term manuring and containing two crops grown per year in sequence. nitrogen fertilization in different years Long-term application of nitrogen fertilizer and manures exert- Sustainable Yield Index (SYI) ed significant role on grain yield of wheat (Table 3). Nitrogen Sustainable yield index of rice and wheat were analyzed to application provided significantly higher yields over the control determine the yield sustainability of rice and wheat. SYI of rice treatment where no nitrogen was applied. Grain yield of wheat

Fahamida Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 249-255 (2019) 252

Table 2. Yield of rice as influenced by long-term manuring and nitrogen fertilization in different years. Treatments Rice yield t ha-1) in different years Nitrogen (kg ha-1) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 0 2.10b 2.11b 2.13b 2.23b 2.17b 2.23b 2.17b 2.24b 75 4.82a 4.51a 4.53a 4.95a 3.77a 4.89a 4.46a 6.23a 100 4.87a 4.76a 4.59a 4.85a 3.87a 4.86a 4.55a 5.97a SE(±) 0.12 0.15 0.21 0.19 0.09 0.09 0.26 0.20 Manure (t ha-1) 0 3.85 3.73 3.78 4.05 3.18 3.81b 3.63 4.87 CD (25) 4.05 3.88 3.80 3.93 3.29 4.08a 3.67 4.75 CP (25) 3.94 3.88 3.71 3.91 3.40 3.94ab 4.00 4.84 GM (7.5) 3.91 3.86 3.64 4.13 3.20 4.02ab 3.57 4.80 RS (1.5) 3.90 3.63 3.81 4.02 3.28 4.11a 3.77 4.80 SE(±) 0.15 0.19 0.27 0.25 0.12 0.11 0.34 0.25 Nitrogen × Manure Nitrogen Manure

(kg ha-1) (t ha-1) 0 0 2.01b 2.03d 2.08b 2.03b 2.04c 2.04d 2.03b 2.01b 0 CD (25) 2.23b 2.13d 2.18b 2.18b 2.09c 2.13d 2.13b 2.18b 0 CP (25) 2.10b 2.20d 2.13b 2.23b 2.16c 2.23d 2.23b 2.25b 0 GM (7.5) 2.04b 2.08d 2.15b 2.28b 2.23c 2.43d 2.33b 2.48b 0 RS (1.5) 2.13b 2.13d 2.13b 2.43b 2.33c 2.43d 2.33b 2.48b 75 0 4.53a 4.17bc 4.19a 5.13a 3.69ab 4.78bc 4.65a 6.48a 75 CD (25) 5.03a 4.75abc 4.97a 4.75a 3.81ab 5.23a 4.42a 6.30a 75 CP (25) 4.78a 4.63abc 4.75a 4.63a 4.03a 4.73bc 4.71a 5.98a 75 GM (7.5) 5.00a 4.94a 4.09a 5.13a 3.56b 4.90abc 4.09a 6.03a 75 RS (1.5) 4.75a 4.06c 4.63a 5.13a 3.75ab 4.80bc 4.43a 6.38a 100 0 5.00a 5.00a 5.06a 5.00a 3.82ab 4.60c 4.21a 6.13a 100 CD (25) 4.90a 4.75abc 4.25a 4.88a 3.97ab 4.90abc 4.46a 5.78a 100 CP (25) 4.94a 4.81ab 4.25a 4.88a 4.00a 4.88abc 5.06a 6.30a 100 GM (7.5) 4.69a 4.56abc 4.69a 5.00a 3.81ab 4.83abc 4.48a 6.08a 100 RS (1.5) 4.81a 4.69abc 4.69a 4.50a 3.75ab 5.10ab 4.56a 5.55a SE(±) 0.26 0.33 0.47 0.43 0.20 0.19 0.58 0.44 CV (%) 6.71 8.81 12.55 10.68 6.13 4.76 15.65 9.17 -1 -1 -1 -1 M0 = No manure, CD = cowdung @ 25 t ha , CP = Compost @ 25 t ha , GM = Green manure @ 7.5 t ha , RS = Rice straw @ 1.5 t ha , N0 = No nitrogen, -1 -1 N75 = 75 kg N ha , N100 = 100 kg N ha . Means followed by same letter (s) in a column do not differ significantly at 5% by LSD.

Table 3. Yield of wheat as influenced by long-term manuring and nitrogen fertilization in different years. Treatments Wheat yield (t ha-1) in different years Nitrogen (kg ha-1) 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 0 1.24c 1.29b 0.59c 0.83b 1.00b 1.38c 80 4.33b 3.94a 2.49b 2.73a 2.88a 3.15b 120 4.99a 4.30a 3.20a 2.75a 3.13a 3.89a SE(±) 0.22 0.30 0.12 0.18 0.27 0.06 Manure (t ha-1) 0 3.43 2.90 2.14 1.92 2.35 2.31d CD (25) 3.28 3.31 2.02 2.03 2.24 2.52c CP (25) 3.52 3.49 2.24 2.14 2.68 2.67c GM (7.5) 3.73 2.88 2.12 2.24 2.11 3.04b RS (1.5) 3.63 3.30 1.94 2.19 2.31 3.50a SE(±) 0.28 0.39 0.15 0.23 0.35 0.07 Nitrogen × Manure Nitrogen Manure

(kg ha-1) (t ha-1) 0 0 1.30c 1.25d 0.78d 0.88b 0.88cd 0.90i 0 CD (25) 1.50c 1.19d 0.63d 0.94b 0.81cd 1.03hi 0 CP (25) 1.05c 2.19cd 0.59d 0.72b 1.94bc 1.18h 0 GM (7.5) 1.58c 0.90d 0.53d 0.94b 0.63d 1.58g 0 RS (1.5) 0.75c 0.94d 0.41d 0.67b 0.75cd 2.20f 80 0 4.25ab 3.81ab 2.44c 2.50a 3.00ab 2.75e 80 CD (25) 3.50b 4.50ab 2.38c 2.53a 2.89ab 3.16d 80 CP (25) 4.38ab 4.03ab 3.06ab 2.97a 2.91ab 3.23d 80 GM (7.5) 4.63a 3.06bc 2.50bc 2.91a 2.88ab 3.29d 80 RS (1.5) 4.88a 4.28ab 2.06c 2.75a 2.75ab 3.34cd 120 0 4.75a 3.63abc 3.19a 2.38a 3.19ab 3.28d 120 CD (25) 4.85a 4.25ab 3.06ab 2.63a 3.03ab 3.36cd 120 CP (25) 5.13a 4.25ab 3.06ab 2.72a 3.19ab 3.60c 120 GM (7.5) 4.98a 4.69a 3.33a 2.88a 2.83ab 4.25b 120 RS (1.5) 5.25a 4.69a 3.35a 3.13a 3.43a 4.95a SE(±) 0.49 0.68 0.27 0.39 0.60 0.13 CV (%) 13.87 21.31 12.75 18.77 25.70 4.48 -1 -1 -1 -1 M0 = No manure, CD = cowdung @ 25 t ha , CP = Compost @ 25 t ha , GM = Green manure @ 7.5 t ha , RS = Rice straw @ 1.5 t ha , N0 = No nitrogen, -1 -1 N80 = 80 kg N ha , N120 = 120 kg N ha . Means followed by same letter (s) in a column do not differ significantly at 5% by LSD.

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was found significantly different between the N80 and N120 The LPI value < 2 revealed that there is scope to increase yield treatments in 2008, 2010 and 2013, while statistically similar of both rice and wheat through adoption of different modern yield was observed in 2009, 2011 and 2012. Manure application soil and crop management practices. showed significant effect on wheat yield only in 2013 where rice Similar trend of results were observed in case of manure straw application provided the highest yield which was 3.5 t ha-1 application (Figure 2). However in all cases of manure (Table 3). The interaction effect of nitrogen fertilizer and application the observed LPI values were much lower than manure application was found significant in producing grain theoritical LPI values of double crops cropping pattern. yield of wheat, where no nitrogen and no manure gave the low- Therefore, there is also ample scope to increase the est yield. In most of the cases nitrogen application at the rate of productivity of rice and wheat following different soil and crop 80 and 120 kg ha-1 with or without different manures did not management options. Rates of manure and residue application show significant differences in wheat yield except in the year may need to refix to supply required amount of essential 2013. The highest grain yield of wheat was found in 2008 from nutrients to crop plants. It also need to be confirmed that

the interaction of N120 and rice straw application where yield manures and residues are well composted before application to was recorded 5.25 t ha-1. Combined applications of organic and plots. chemical fertilizers are more effective than sole application of organic or chemical fertilizers for sustainable Wheat and soil Sustainable Yield Index (SYI) of rice and wheat productivity enhancement (Chekolle, 2017). Effect of long-term application of nitrogen and manure on sus- Land productivity index (LPI) of rice and wheat tainable yield Index (SYI) of rice and wheat

Since the types of crop yields were different, land productivity In case of rice, without application of nitrogen (N0), the SYI of

index (LPI) was developed to use a common basis for comparing rice was 0.42, which increased to 0.63 with N75 and 0.69 with

cropping systems having different crops. When assuming the N100 treatments, respectively (Figure 3). The maximum sustain- LPI of a single crop is one, two-crop cropping sequence will have able yield index (0.69) was found when 100 kg ha-1 nitrogen was theoretically a LPI of two. If the calculated LPI exceeds the theo- applied. SYI near to one implies that the closeness to an ideal retical LPI, the cropping system is considered to be biologically condition that can sustain maximum crop yields over years, productive. while deviation from one indicates the losses of sustainability (Singh et al., 1990). In case of wheat similar trend of result was Effect of long-term application of nitrogen and manure on land observed (Figure 3). At zero nitrogen application SYI value for Productivity index (LPI) of rice and wheat wheat was found 0.18, while at 80 and 120 kg N/ha SYI values Long-term application of nitrogen produced greater significant were 0.38 and 0.39, respectively. It can be observed that SYI of role on the productivity of rice and wheat (Figure 1). In rice- rice was much higher than that of wheat. Nayak et al. (2012) also wheat cropping sequence, the plots that received no nitrogen, found that rice showed higher SYI value than wheat by conduct- LPI value was less than 2 (0.80) in the observed years. When the ing experiment in indo Gangetic plains of India. plots were treated with nitrogen fertilizer showed LPI values > 2 Long-term application of manure has positive effects on the in 2008, 2009, 2012 and 2013, which indicated the higher sustainability of rice and wheat (Figure 4). In case of rice, cow productivity when compared to long-term mean productivity. dung amended plots gave the maximum sustainable yield index Although LPI values were slightly low in 2010 and 2011, they (0.60) followed by RS and CP treated plots and the lowest SYI were also very close to two and would be economically sound. was found in the control treatment. In case of wheat, the highest SYI value (0.33) was obtained in the plots that received cow dung. Compost, green manure and rice straw applied plots showed slightly lower SYI value than that of cow dung applied plot. But all the SYI value of wheat was very low compared to standard SYI value. Effect of manure application on the yield of wheat was found unsustainable. Sustainability of grain yield of wheat must be achieved following improved management activities. SYI for wheat in both nitrogen and manure treatments were found very low compared to the standard SYI 1.0, and therefore there is ample scope to increase wheat yield. The rates of nitrogen fertilizer along with other micro and macro nutrients need to compute based on soil test nutrient values. Balanced fertilization should be ensured supplying either inorganic fertilizer or in combination of inorganic and organic ferti- Figure 1. Effect of long-term application of different manure on LPI of rice lizers to get higher grain yield of wheat. Application of organic and wheat (Vertical bars indicates standard errors). manures can be helpful in obtaining the sustainability of crop production was noted by Muhmood et al. (2015).

Fahamida Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 249-255 (2019) 254 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors impressively acknowledge Department of Soil Science, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur-1706, Bangladesh for the financial (Grant No-BSMRAU/DSSC/2013) support to conduct this research.

Conflict of interest The authors declare there are no conflicts of interest.

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, Figure 2. Effect of long-term application of nitrogen fertilizer on LPI of rice and wheat (Vertical bars indicates standard errors). which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are credited.

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 4(2): 256-260 (2019) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402020

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Comparative analysis of potency of Azole derivatives to target ASL and GPI proteins responsible for pathogenesis of Candida albicans using in silico approach Preeti Raperia, Narender Chaudhry and Rashmi Mittal* Department of Biotechnology, Maharishi Markendeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana - 133203 (Haryana), INDIA *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 01 June 2019 Candida albicans, a dimorphic fungus which is commensal organism of human gut flora, but due Revised received: 06 June 2019 to overgrowth or immune-compromised conditions become pathogenic causing vulvovaginal Accepted: 08 June 2019 candidiasis infection which is most common in females. The present study was conducted to

determine an effective treatment strategy by making a comparative analysis of potency of

azole derivatives such as itraconazole, fluconazole and ketoconazole to target ASL and GPI Keywords proteins responsible for pathogenesis of C. albicans using in silico approach. By comparing ALS Gibbs free energy, it becomes clear that itraconazole possess more potency in comparison to Fluconazole fluconazole and ketoconazole to target ALS and GPI macromolecule. The present study clearly

Itraconazole indicated that itraconazole can overcome complications of pathogenesis induced by C. albicans GPI inside the host thereby acting as a major drug of interest in comparison to other azole deriva- Ketoconazole tives to treat vulvovaginal candidiasis. In conclusion, itraconazole exhibits better potential Vulvovaginal candidiasis than fluconazole and ketoconazole to target GPI and ALS. This clearly reveals the potency of itracaonazole to target C. albicans, but more research is needed to be carried out to determine the mechanistic approach involved in exhibiting this effect.

Citation of this article: Raperia, P., Chaudhry, N. and Mittal, R. (2019). Comparative analysis of potency of Azole derivatives to target ASL and GPI proteins responsible for pathogenesis of Candida albicans using in silico approach. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(2): 256-260, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.0402020

INTRODUCTION required, these proteins are glycoproteins required by microorganism or fungus in order to cause infection. Pathogenesis is a biological mechanism that causes the diseased The glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linked cell surface glyco- state. It describes the origin of adhesion, invasion, development proteins are the proteins which are responsible for adhesion in and virulence of the disease (Arora et al., 2016). The vulvovagi- C. albicans (Kaur et al., 2016). Among all these genes, ALS3 was nal candidiasis occurs due to the fungal infection caused by found to play an important role in adhesion as it is found to be Candida albicans. For the study of infectious disease, microbial upregulated during infection in case of C. albicans. Potency of adhesion plays an important role which implies the interaction fluconazole, Itraconazole and ketoconazole needs to be evaluat- of the host tissue with the microorganism which is pathogenic in ed to target GPI and ALS. Furthermore, target site those nature. In order to cause infection, microorganism has to first residues which are specifically getting targeted by them also adhere to cell surface of the host organism which require some needs to be checked to determine the amino acid residues kind of specific protein or receptors named integrin for their which facilitates the attachment of C. albicans to the host and attachment to the cell surface. In order to cause infection, micro which can be efficiently targeted by azole derivatives -organisms have to 1st adhered to the cell surfaces of the host (Rustchenko-Bulgac et al., 1991). Binding potency of various cell wall which require some kind of specific proteins or recep- drugs to these macromolecules needs to be evaluated. A tors (Pérez-Martín et al., 1999; Raperia et al., 2017). In a process comparison between their binding affinities also needs to be of adhesion to the host tissue special type of proteins are carried out to reveal that amongst these three metabolites

Preeti Raperia et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 256-260 (2019) 257 which can be proposed as a strong drug candidate for the future of ALS and GPI were obtained from RCSB protein database. against C. albicans (Ankitha et al., 2017). Keeping in view, the Ligands were docked to the receptor chosen for the study by mechanistic approach of Candida albicans causing vulvovaginitis, using Autodock tool of Autodock 4.2.6 package. Grid map of the present study was conducted, in order to identify the potent 40×40×40 grid point with 0.375 Å spacing were generated receptor-ligand interaction through bio-informatics approach using Autogrid program. According to Lamarckian Genetic so that a better understanding to the pathogenesis and hence Algorithm (LGA) with maximum 250000 energy, binding the solution of the disease could be gained. efficiency of ligands to various receptors was determined (Trott and Olson, 2010; Mittal et al., 2018; Ferreira et al., 2015 and MATERIALS AND METHODS Morris et al., 2009).

Identification of proteins responsible for adhesion, invasion RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and biofilm formation of C. albicans In order to cause infection, micro-organisms have to 1st adhered Identification of proteins responsible for adhesion, invasion to the cell surfaces of the host cell wall which require some kind and biofilm formation of C. albicans of specific proteins or receptors. The genes responsible for Akhtar et al. (2012) in their clinical trial study mentioned that adherence were identified from literature surveys. After the itraconazole is more effective for the treatment of vulvovaginal identification of target, their protein structure was fetched from candidiasis in comparison to fluconazole but they couldn’t explain RCSB protein database. Their complex structures, single chains the mechanistic approach exhibited by itraconazole in exhibiting were prepared by using Chimera software and were made ready this effect (Akhtar et al., 2012). In this phase of study we identified to check their interaction with the drugs chosen for the study by that glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linked cell surface glyco- using molecular docking approach. proteins are the proteins which are responsible for adhesion in C. albicans, they are encoded by 8 sets of Agglutinin like sequences Preparation of 3D structures of ligands (fluconazole, genes (ALS) which are: ALS1, ALS2, ALS3, ALS4, ALS5, ALS6, ALS7 ketoconazole and Itraconazole) and ALS9. Among all these genes, ALS3 was found to play an 3D structure of fluconazole, ketoconazole and Itraconazole important role in adhesion as it is found to be upregulated during were prepared by using Frog server from canonical smile infection in case of C. albicans. ALS3 is most commonly seen in oral obtained from Pubchem with Pubchem Id 3365, 456201 and and vaginal epithelial cell infection. In order to provide a perma- 55283, respectively. nent cure from the disease, adhesion of C. albicans to the host needs to be controlled. Potency of fluconazole, Itraconazole and Determining the potency of fluconazole, ketoconazole and ketoconazole needs to be evaluated to target GPI and ALS. To Itraconazole to target receptors by using molecular docking carry out in silico study different chains using Chimera software study were prepared: ALS complex (Figure 1A), Chain A (Figure 1B), To assess the potency of fluconazole, ketoconazole and Itracon- Chain B (Figure 1C), Chain C (Figure 1D) and Chain D (Figure 1E) azole to target ALS and GPI proteins. Virtual docking study was and GPI complex (Figure 2A), Chain A (Figure 2B), Chain B (Figure carried out at their respective catalytic domains. 3D structure 2C), Chain C (Figure 2D) and Chain D (Figure 2E).

Figure 1. 3-D complex structure of ALS protein (A), chain A (B), chain B (C), Figure 2. 3-D complex structure of GPI protein (A), chain A (B), chain B (C), chain C (D) and chain D (E). chain C (D) and chain D (E).

258 Preeti Raperia et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 256-260 (2019)

Preparation of 3D structures of ligands (fluconazole, ketocona- Itracaonazole was found to exhibit highest potency to target zole and Itraconazole) ALS and GPI, binding affinity was found to be higher than Canonical smiles were fetched from PubChem. 3D structures of ketoconazole and fluconazole. ligands were prepared by using canonical smiles from FROG server. 3D structures were downloaded. Single isomeric struc- Assessment of potency of fluconazole, Itraconazole and tures were prepared from complex structures by using Chimera. ketoconazole to target ALS Chemistry of ligands was studied, to check location of different Molecular docking study was carried out to determine potency atoms. Structures of fluconazole (Figure 3A), fluconazole isomer of fluconazole, Itraconazole and ketoconazole to target ALS. It (Figure 3B), Itraconazole (Figure 3C), Itraconazole isomer was observed that ALS macromolecule forms the binding site (Figure 3D), ketoconazole (Figure 3E) and ketoconazole isomer with fluconazole comprises of SER124, THR122, PHE183, (Figure 3F) were prepared by using Chimera software. VAL184 residues and displays binding affinity of – 5.0 Kcal/mol (Figure 4A) on the other hand when binding affinity of Itracona- Determination of the potency of fluconazole, ketoconazole zole with ALs macromolecule was assessed it was observed that and Itraconazole to target receptors by using molecular dock- Itraconazole exhibits binding affinity of – 7.1 Kcal/mol at site ing study comprises of THR62, PHE60, SER124, GLY123 residues (Figure In order to assess the potential of various azole derivatives 4B). When binding affinity of ketoconazole with ALS macromol- namely fluconazole, Itraconazole and ketoconazole; molecular ecule was assessed it was observed that ketoconazole exhibits docking study was carried out at the catalytic domain of ALS and binding affinity of - 6.0 Kcal/mol at site comprises of SER124, GPI proteins. Fluconazole, Itraconazole and ketoconazole were MET59, PHE60, GLY304 residues (Figure 4C). By comparing docked with the respective chain of ALS and GPI and it was Gibbs free energy of binding of all three molecules, it becomes found that Itraconazole exhibits highest potential to target ALS clear that Itraconazole possess more potency in comparison to and GPI. Binding with all the chains respectively exhibits equiva- fluconazole and ketoconazole to target ALS macromolecule. lent binding affinity to and same affinity of fluconazole, Itracon- Chain A, B, C and D were docked separately with fluconazole, azole and ketoconazole to target all the chains with equal poten- Itraconazole and ketoconazole but the binding affinity as tial. When a comparison was made among the different chains of revealed from Gibbs free energy level shows that all three ALs and GPI, it was observed that all these three chemical compounds exhibited equivalent binding affinity at different moieties are targeting these receptors with equal potency. chains but with different binding sites.

Figure 3. Fluconazole (A), fluconazole isomer (B), itraconazole (C), Figure 4. Docked structure of ALS with fluconazole (A), itraconazole (B) and itraconazole isomer (D), ketoconazole (E) and ketoconazole isomer (F). ketoconazole (C).

Preeti Raperia et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 4(2): 256-260 (2019) 259 Assessment of potency of fluconazole, Itraconazole and ketoconazole to target GPIs In a process of adhesion to the host tissue special type of proteins are required, these proteins are glycoproteins required by microorganism in order to cause infection. The glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linked cell surface glycoproteins are the proteins which are responsible for adhesion of C. albicans to the host which further plays a prominent role in enhancing complexity of the disease. In order to evaluate potency of fluconazole, Itraconazole and ketoconazole to target GPI virtual docking study was carried out individually at all the 4 different chains of GPI. It was observed that GPI macromolecule forms the binding site with fluconazole comprises of VAL115, ASP158, VAL162, ILE275 residues and displays binding affinity of – 5.3 Kcal/mol (Figure 5A) on the other hand when binding affinity of Itraconazole with GPI macromolecule was assessed it was observed that Itraconazole exhibits binding affinity of – 7.5 Kcal/mol at site comprises of GLN349, LEU487, VAL162, ALA189 residues (Figure 5B). When binding affinity of ketoconazole with GPI macromolecule was assessed it was observed that ketoconazole exhibits binding affinity of -6.5 Kcal/mol at site comprises of GLU353, LYS548, ALA496, LYS357 residues (Figure 5C). By comparing Gibbs free energy of binding of all three molecules, it becomes clear that Itraconazole possess more potency in comparison to fluconazole and ketoconazole to target ALS macromolecule. Chain A, B, C and D were docked separately with fluconazole, Itraconazole and ketoconazole but the binding affinity as revealed from Gibbs free energy level shows that all three compounds exhibited equivalent binding affinity at different chains but with different binding sites and amongst all the three different moieties Itraconazole exhibits better potential than fluconazole and ketoconazole to target Figure 5. Docked structure of GPIs with fluconazole (A), itraconazole (B) GPI (Spacek and Buchta, 2005). This clearly reveals that more and ketoconazole (C). research needs to be carried out on Itracaonazole to further elucidate its potency to target C. albicans.

Conclusion

Vulvovaginal candidiasis has become a major havoc as currently ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 70-80% of women are affected from it. Overgrowth of The authors gratefully acknowledge the Department of C. albicans is considered to be a major causative agent of disease. Biotechnology, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be Azole derivatives are considered to be potential drug of interest University), Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India for provide against it but the infection rate is increasing rapidly. Lack of necessary facilities to accomplish the work. identification of molecular pathways involved in complicating the disease further reduces the chances of providing an Conflicts of interest effective treatment strategy. The present study has identified The author(s) declare that there no any conflicts of interest the molecular target involved in enhancing the disease by regarding publication of this manuscript. inducing pathogenesis along with an effective therapeutic approach against it. Itraconazole can efficiently target GPIs and Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under ALS which predominantly contributes to event of pathogenesis the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, even better than fluconazole and ketoconazole. Researchers which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction need to focus more on the molecular targets and the best suited in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are approach to fight against the disease. credited.

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Original papers (Regular papers) should report the results of original research. The material should not have been published previously elsewhere, except in a preliminary form. Reviews should cover a part of the subject of active current interest. They may be submitted or invited.  A Short communication is a concise, but complete, description of a limited investigation, which will not be  included in a later paper.  Short communications should be as completely documented, both by reference to the literature and description of the experimental procedures employed, as a regular paper. They should not occupy more than 6 printed pages (about 12 manuscript pages, including figures, etc.).  Letter to the Editor: correspondence.

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The manuscripts must be written in good English (American or British usage is accepted, mixture of these should be avoided).

 Ethics in publishing

For information on Ethics in publishing and Ethical guidelines for journal publication read the guidelines.

 Conflict of interest

All authors are requested to disclose any actual or potential conflict of interest including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the submitted work that could inappro- priately influence, or be perceived to influence, their work.

 Copyright

Upon acceptance of an article, authors will be asked to complete a 'Journal Publishing Agreement' (for more information on this and copyright. An e-mail will be sent to the corresponding author confirming receipt of the manuscript together with a 'Journal Publishing Agreement' form or a link to the online version of this agreement.

 Submission

The research papers/reviews/short communications can be submitted for its forthcoming issues. The research papers can be submitted any time preferably online at www.aesacademy.org or via email to [email protected] or [email protected]. All correspondence, including notification of the Editor's decision and requests for revision, will take place by e-mail. All submissions must be accompanied by a cover letter detailing what you are submitting.

 Referees

Authors are required to identify four persons who are qualified to serve as reviewers. Authors are requested not to suggest reviewers with whom they have a personal or professional relationship, especially if that relationship would

prevent the reviewer from having an unbiased opinion of the work of the authors. A working e-mail address for each reviewer is essential for rapid review in the event that reviewer is selected from those that are identified by the authors. You may also select reviewers you do not want to review your manuscript, but please state your reason for doing so.

 Article structure

Title of the manuscript: The title of the manuscript should be short, specific and informative. The author(s) name and their full address with the name of the department, institute, city, pin code, state and country. Complete addresses of corresponding author along with E-mail id must be provided on the title page and the name of corresponding author must be indicated by star (*) in the names of authors. Abstract: Abstract (not to exceed 250 words) should be written with the aim, major findings (numerical values) and a conclusion statement including novelty of the work. Keywords: At least three to five keywords must be added at the end of abstract. Keywords must not be included in the title of the manuscript. Introduction: Clearly write the introduction of research problem, objectives of the work and provide an adequate background, avoiding a detailed literature survey or a summary of the results and significance of the study in the introduction section. Materials and Methods: Materials and methods should be written clearly and systematically. Standard methods used in the study should be mentioned. Provide sufficient detail to allow the work to be reproduced. Methods already published should be indicated by a reference: only relevant modifications should be described. Results and Discussion: Results should be clear and concise and should be presented either in the tables and figures. Repetition of results should be avoided. Results should be discussed with input of current references and should explore the significance of the results of the work, not repeat them. A combined Results and Discussion section is often appropriate. Avoid extensive and old citations and discussion of published literature. Conclusions: The main conclusions of the study may be presented in a short conclusions section followed by Results and Discussion section. Conclusion should be written in view of the major findings of the study. Do not use non-standard or case-specific abbreviations in the Conclusions. Citations should be avoided in the conclusion section. Acknowledgements: Funding agency that provided financial support for the conduct of the research : and/or preparation of the manuscript and to briefly describe the role of the sponsor(s), if any, in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication should be acknowledged. Grant number/file number must be mentioned for a funding agency. Abbreviations: Abbreviations should be defined in the text where they are used first. Tables: Tables should not be excessively large. All the tables should be cited consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text. Place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript lowercase letters. Carefully use the tables and ensure that the data presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article. Table caption for each table must be provided. Figures: Colour or grayscale figure with high resolution must be provided. In case of graphs well defined axis should be preferred. Figure caption for each figure must be provided. References: All the references should be cited both in the text and reference section of the manuscript and vice versa. Citation in the text section  For single author: The author's name (without initials, unless there is ambiguity) and the year of publication, Example: (Chopra, 2015).  For two authors: Both authors' names and the year of publication, Example: (Kumar and Chopra, 2015).  For three or more authors: First author's name followed by 'et al.' and the year of publication, Example: (Kumar et al., 2015). Groups of references: should be listed chronologically of their publication year. More than one reference from the same author(s) in the same year must be identified by the letters 'a', 'b', 'c', etc., placed after the year of publication. , Example: (Kumar and Chopra, 2014a; 2014b; 2014c).

III

Citation in reference section Reference to a journal publication  For single author: Kumar, V. (2014). Fertigation response of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Okra) with sugar mill effluent in two different seasons. International Journal of Agricultural Science Research, 3(9): 164-180.  For two authors: Kumar, V. and Chopra, A.K. (2014). Ferti-irrigational impact of sugar mill effluent on agronomical characteristics of Phaseolus vulgaris (L.) in two seasons. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186: 7877– 7892. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-014-3974-4  For three or more authors: A.K., Srivastava, S., Kumar, V. and Pathak C. (2013). Agro-potentiality of distillery effluent on soil and agronomical characteristics of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Okra). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185: 6635-6644. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-012-3052-8

Reference to a book publication  Mettam, G.R., Adams, L.B. (2009). How to prepare an electronic version of your article, in: Jones, B.S.,  Smith, R.Z. (Eds.), Introduction to the Electronic Age. E-Publishing Inc., New York, pp. 281–304.

Reference to a book chapter  Kumar, V. and Chopra, A.K. (2013). Contamination of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with textile effluent at Haridwar (Uttarakhand). Climate Change Effects on Agriculture and Economy, Biotech Books, New Delhi, 73-80.

Reference to an online documentation  The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering. (2004). Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertaintie. pp, 20-22. Retrieved August, 18 2006 from www.nanotec.org.uk/finalreport.htm

 Submission checklist

The following list will be useful during the final checking of an article prior to sending it to the journal for review. Please consult this Guide for Authors for further details of any item. Ensure that the following items are present:

 One author has been designated as the corresponding author with contact details:  E-mail address  Full postal address  All necessary files have been uploaded, and contain:  Keywords  All figure captions  All tables (including title, description, footnotes)  Further considerations  Manuscript has been 'spell-checked' and 'grammar-checked'  References are in the correct format for this journal  All references mentioned in the Reference list are cited in the text, and vice versa  Permission has been obtained for use of copyrighted material from other sources (including the internet)

 Submission and publication

There is no publication charge for publication of manuscripts in Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science. As all the articles will be published with DOI number, and the Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy is a not for profit society registered under the societies registration Act XXI of 1860 (E) and do not getting any funding from any sources thus, only a reasonable DOI services charges will be borne by the authors. The author shall submit their manuscript via e-mail or through the online submission portal (http://www.aesacademy.org/). The submitted

manuscript will be acknowledged and a manuscript number is allotted, then the manuscript will be sent for review by the potential reviewer(s). On completion of the review process and depending on the quality of manuscript, the authors will be informed of the decision after which he/she may be invited to revise the manuscript and to make changes/ corrections, if any. After submission of the revised manuscript it will be checked for the changes made by the author(s). After that, if the manuscript is accepted, an acceptance letter will be send to the corresponding author. The decision of Editor-in-Chief would be final for the acceptance of manuscript for publication in the journal. A galley proof will be sent to the corresponding author who should be returned within five days of receipt, by e-mail. However, on non-receipt of the proof, the papers will be published on the recommendation of Editor-in-Chief to avoid any delay in publication. A secured pdf (e-print) file of the published research paper/review article would be provided free of cost by e-mail to the members of Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy.

 Proofs

Galley proofs of the accepted manuscript will be sent to the corresponding author and should be returned within five days of receipt by e-mail. However, on non-receipt of the proof, the care would be taken by the publisher to get the papers corrected and published at the earliest possible. As part of our Go Green initiative, AESA has decided to publish the journal online. This will help us to fulfill our environmental commitment to care of our mother earth for ourselves and generations to come. There will be nominal charges to cover publication and administrative costs. A secured e-print (pdf file) of the published research paper/review article would be provided free of cost by e-mail to the members of Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy. Authors will be able to access the manuscript published in the journal after free registration on the website of the journal.

 Other contributions

The book reviews/announcements of forthcoming seminars/conferences and their reports/ book reviews/letters to the editors would also be considered by the Editors for publication.

*Fellow of the Academy (FAESA): The life members of the academy will be considered for the fellow of the academy. The payments would be accepted preferably online /or through Bank transfer.

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Instructions: 1. All fields are necessary. 2. A copy of this completely filled form should be sent by registered/speed post to the address: Dr. Vinod Kumar (President), Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy 86, Gurubaksh Vihar (East) Kankhal Haridwar-249408, Uttarakhand, India or via email to [email protected] . 3. Do not staple the form with demand draft or any other document. Membership/Subscription Information

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Publication Agreement and Copyright Transfer Form Manuscript ID: AAES/______(to be allotted by publisher only) Title of Manuscript : ______*Name of Authors : 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______

1. I the undersigned corresponding author, agree to the following on behalf of myself and my co-authors (the Authors) that I, have read and followed the publication ethics and best practice guidelines of the Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science. 2. The Authors are the sole author(s) of the Article and have full authority to enter into this agreement and in granting rights to AGRO-ENVIRON MEDIA are not in breach of any other obligation. 3. The content of the manuscript is original and not any part of it is not under consideration by any other journal. It has not been published previously (except as an abstract or as part of a published lecture or academic thesis). 4. Nothing in the Article is obscene, defamatory, and libelous, violates any right of privacy or publicity, infringes any intellectual property rights (including without limitation copyright, patent, database or trademark rights) or any other human, personal or other rights of any person or entity or is otherwise unlawful. If however the Article includes material from other sources the Authors warrant they have obtained the necessary rights from the owners of the copyright to publish all such material. 5. The accuracy of content given to the journal, in particular the names of co-authors present and correctly spelled, and that ad-dresses and affiliations are up to date. I ensure that all the co-authors have agreed to all of the contents. I will notify all the authors when the Manuscript is accepted. I am answerable to all the enquiries on behalf of all the co-authors. 6. I am solely responsible for maintaining proper communication with the journal and between co-authors, before and after publication. I ensure that all authors have seen and approved the final version of the paper and all are aware about the submission of the paper. I agree to grant complete rights of my work to the journal from the moment when the Manuscript is accepted for publication. 7. The authors of Manuscript have no commercial associations (e.g., consultancies, stock ownership, equity interests, patent licensing arrangements, etc.) that might pose a conflict of interest in connection with the submitted Manuscript, except as dis-closed on a separate attachment. All funding sources supporting the work and all institutional or corporate affiliations of mine/ours are acknowledged in a footnote. 8. I agree that all the matter like accepted/rejected Manuscript inclusive of Figures/Photographs etc. is kept for one year only and after that the matter may be destroyed with the decision of Editor-in-Chief. 9. Open Access of the article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, pro-vided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. 10. I agree that no responsibility is assumed by the Journal, its staff or members of the advisory/ editorial board for any injury and / or damaged to persons or property as the matter of Products legal responsibility, ignore or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products instruction , advertisements or ideas contained in the publication by the journal.

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Note : Please sign and submit the scanned copy of this form along with gallery proof of the manuscript. *Include individual author’s names only not any publisher.

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Archives of of Archives Science Environmental and Agriculture

An International International An Journal

Volume Volume

Issue Issue

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Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

www.aesacademy.org

2019 Year