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Great Plains Quarterly Great Plains Studies, Center for

Winter 1983

Diplomatic Racism Canadian Government And Black Migration From Oklahoma, 1905-1912

R. Bruce Shepard Administrative Analyst for the government of Saskatchewan

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Shepard, R. Bruce, "Diplomatic Racism Canadian Government And Black Migration From Oklahoma, 1905-1912" (1983). Great Plains Quarterly. 1738. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/1738

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. DIPLOMATIC RACISM CANADIAN GOVERNMENT AND BLACK MIGRATION FROM OKLAHOMA, 1905"1912

R. BRUCE SHEPARD

From the turn of the century until World War the Oklahoma and Indian Territories, and I, hundreds of thousands of American farmers began leaving for western at the time migrated to western Canada.1 Not all of them these "Twin Territories" began preparing for were welcomed. Between 1905 and 1912, statehood in 1907. more than one thousand black men, women, The immediate cause of the migration was and children joined the trek. 2 They came racist legislation that Oklahoma aimed at blacks mainly from Oklahoma, and they settled in living in the state. Immediately after statehood Saskatchewan and Alberta. While their numbers was achieved in 1907, segregation legislation were small in comparison to the total American was passed that confined blacks to separate migration, the appearance of these black settlers schools, railroad cars, and seating on street aroused bitter race prejudice among western cars. The very first bill introduced in the new Canadians, many of whom demanded that the state House of Representatives was a "Jim Canadian government stop more blacks from Crow" measure, while in the state Senate it was coming. How the government went about this only the fourth. In 1910, the blacks' rights task is the subject of this article. were again cut back when their right to vote who were these black immigrants? They was taken away. Black Oklahomans reacted were ex-slaves and the descendants of former immediately to these laws by challenging them slaves who had moved westward from the in the courts and organizing protests. Some older Southern states following Reconstruc­ even turned to violence.4 Nothing worked, tion.3 These people settled in what were then however, and many began looking for a way out of Oklahoma. Segregation and disfranchisement were the key factors that sent the blacks toward Canada. An administrative analyst for the government of Saskatchewan, R. Bruce Shepard has a Jeff Edwards of Amber Valley, Alberta, claimed special interest in agricultural and immigra­ that he first became interested in western tion history. His articles have appeared in Canada when Oklahoma began its segregation Material History Bulletin, Canadian Native policies. The blacks who went north to eastern Law Bulletin, and other Canadian journals. Canada were fleeing slavery, he said; "We in

5 6 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983

Amber Valley are here because we fled some­ to one out of every two by 1900.8 In any thing almost as hard to bear-'Jim Crowism'." case, it takes only one literate person to read a One black emigrant group reached St. Paul, paper to a group of illiterates, and once word· of , in and said they had a movement starts, it spreads easily. Further­ been driven from Oklahoma by the theft of more, to take one example, the black Boley their property and the denial of their right to Progress, in which Canadian advertisements vote. They also said that there were five thou­ appeared, was distributed throughout the sand more blacks ready to follow them. These South in an effort to attract blacks to that sentiments were echoed by one member of a town. Therefore, blacks in other states could group of black Oklahomans who tried to enter have known of Canada's desire for settlers.9 Canada in British Columbia. Only two were The question then is not why only several admitted, and one was reported in Vancouver hundred blacks trekked to western Canada, as stating, "The people of Oklahoma treat us but what stopped several thousand from fol­ like dogs. We are not allowed to vote and we lowing them? The answer lies in the actions of are not admitted to any of the theatres or the government of Canada. public places. They won't even let us ride the In 1910 the Democratic party of Oklahoma street cars in some of the towns." When asked began a campaign to disfranchise the state's why they chose Canada, he answered, "We black citizens. This sent many more blacks heard about the free lands here and also that toward the Canadian border. Frank Oliver, the everyone had the right to vote and was a free Canadian minister of the interior, and thus the man."S man responsible for immigration, became so The black migrants learned about Canada by concerned with the developing black exodus reading their local newspapers. Before World that he sent his inspector of War I the government of Canada advertised agencies on a five-day trip to Oklahoma. The extensively in American newspapers, attempt­ minister received a letter on the issue in Sep­ ing to lure farmers to the Canadian plains. tember 1910.10 Even though the Canadian government did not Following this visit, the Canadian govern­ issue special promotional material for blacks, as ment took steps to try to halt the migration. it did for other American ethnocultural groups, It contacted its agent in Kansas City, who was advertisements for Canadian land filled black closest to the scene, and suggested that he con­ Oklahoma newspapers. The Canadian govern­ tact the postmasters of the towns stamped on ment appears to have contracted through a inquiries, asking whether the person writing press service· and may not have checked the end was black or white. The idea was that if the products too closely in its haste to attract agent could find out which writers were black, settlers. 6 he would not send immigration literature to These advertisements cast doubt on the argu­ them. Some of the postmastersl replies show ment that black farmers had no way of becom­ the state of race relations in Oklahoma at ing informed about Canada because they were the time; one from Keystone used the term poorly educated and often illiterate and that, "Nigger," while another from Hominy read, therefore, Canada was never especially attrac­ "black as hell." The border points of Emerson, tive to them. 7 In fact, the opposite was true­ Manitoba, and Portal, Saskatchewan, were also Canada was very attractive to the blacks, and alerted, and the agents told to examine any they could easily learn about it. blacks carefully, since the American agents Extensive advertising about Canadian settle­ were no longer issuing settlers' certificates to ment appeared in the black Oklahoma press. them. While it is true that Afro-Americans had a high When several black families appeared in Ed­ illiteracy rate, that rate had fallen from 1865, monton late in , Frank Oliver when only one in twenty could read and write, wanted to know who had let them in and DIPLOMATIC RACISM 7 whether they had been medically examined. On launched a vigorous and successful petition 5 , the minister got his answer. campaign in that city. They also contacted This group had gone from Oklahoma to Van­ other similar agencies, and by the end of May couver, on Canada's West Coast, and then up 1911, boards of trade across western Canada to Edmonton. The government immigration had all joined the Edmontonians in denouncing officers in Vancouver were then given the same the black immigration. Several chapters of the instructions as those at the other border cross­ United Farmers of Alberta also went on record ings. The Edmonton agent also got a telegram as favoring an end to the migration.14 This on 5 January, telling him to take action if he widespread public reponse was echoed in the could discover any reason for deporting any House of Commons in Ottawa. On 3 April of the immigrants and suggesting that he call 1911, William Thoburn, the Conservative mem­ in the city health officer if he suspected any ber for the Ontario riding of Lanark North, would not meet the physical qualifications.ll asked the minister of the interior whether the Clearly, the Canadian immigration authori­ government was prepared to stop the develop­ ties believed they could stop the influx by ing black influx and whether it would not be depriving the blacks of information. This preferable "to preserve for the sons of Canada, proved to be haphazard at best, so they tried the lands they propose to give to niggers?,,15 to use vigorous medical examinations at the While Ottawa tried to find a solution to its border as a deterrent. They even went so far dilemma, events in Oklahoma were forcing as to try to bribe the medical authorities. more blacks to try to escape. In 1911, their In the spring of 1911, the American consul­ condition was only too clear, especially after general in Winnipeg, John E. Jones, had to help an ugly lynching in May of that year. A black a group of his black countrymen enter Canada. mother and son, arrested for murdering a J ones later determined that the commissioner deputy sheriff, were taken from the Okemah of immigration for western Canada had offered jail, dragged to a railway bridge south of the the medical inspector a fee for every potential town, and hanged. Blacks were predictably black immigrant he turned away.12 To his horror-struck by the event. According to one credit, the doctor does not appear to have black journal, pictures of the crime were being taken the money. In any case, tough medical openly sold. It did not attempt to conceal its inspections were rendered ineffective when anguish when it cried: obviously healthy black men, women, and Oh! where is that christian spirit we hear so children presented themselves. In March 1911, much about a large group led by one Henry Sneed, bound -What will the good citizens do to apprehend for northern Alberta, shattered the medical these mobs examination idea because of their good physi­ -Wait, we shall see-Comment is unnecessary. cal condition. This fact, plus their numbers, Such a crime is simply Hell on Earth. No attracted considerable publicity.13 The pub­ excuse can be set forth to justify the act.16 licity, in turn, provoked comment and revealed Western Canada was still an escape from western Canadians' deep feelings on the subject these horrors, for despite their concern with of black immigration. black immigration, the Canadian government White western Canadians reacted overwhelm­ had not removed its advertisements from black ingly against the black settlers. Sneed's group Oklahoma newspapers. Throughout 1911, the aroused negative comments from newspapers qualities of the northern prairies continued to across the prairies. The Edmonton chapter of be described in glowing terms. The Canadian the Independent Order Daughters of the Em­ authorities were well aware of the continued pire, a women's patriotic group, petitioned the interest of black Oklahomans. On 14 March minister of the interior in Ottawa to keep the 1911, the secretary of the Department of the blacks out. The Edmonton Board of Trade Interior, L. M. Fortier, wrote to W. W. Cory, 8 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983 deputy minister of the department, arguing undesirable by Canada. The resolutions of the that, "if we are to prevent a large influx of boards of trade in Edmonton and other western these people during the next six months, some Canadian communities were noted, as was the steps will have to be taken at once. ,,17 argument that blacks could not adapt to the Another measure of the continued black climate. This, the article suggested, was only a interest in moving to Canada was the commen­ polite way of saying that the blacks were not tary this issue stirred in the black Oklahoma welcome. The Canadian government was ob­ press. Little of it was favorable, however, since viously feeling the pressure of public opinion, black editors felt that their people should stay and it could be forced to pass restrictive immi­ where they were and face their problems. The gration regulations. The journal's argument Clearview Patriarch, for example, understood concluded by noting that the American federal that it had cost more than five thousand dol­ authorities were also in a delicate position, "in lars to transport one large party north, and view of the fact that although the federal argued that such a sum, if added to another, government does not protect the Negro from could operate a huge business that would be a disfranchisement at the hands of the Southerns, "credit to the race." It also did not believe it does hold him entitled to the same rights as that the best results could be obtained by the white man under foreign treaties and con­ moving so often. Another black journal was ventions. ,,19 even more emphatic. After noting that many Black Oklahomans continued to be informed blacks had come to Oklahoma in its early days, of Canada's reception of their brethren. The overcome crises, built themselves homes and Muskogee Baptist Informer carried an item on farms, and now had a place where they could 8 about a resolution of the Calgary ~aise their heads, it argued that these same Board of Trade against black immigration.20 people were now selling everything they had But there was a more personal source of infor­ without due consideration. Conditions in Okla­ mation, albeit somewhat biased, for blacks homa were improving, it urged.18 interested in going to Canada or for those who Reports on the agitatit>n against the black were headed north. Sometime in April or May immigration into western Canada obviously 1911, the Canadian government sent the first buttressed the black editors' arguments, and of its agents to Oklahoma to report on the they were noted and commented upon. In a black situation and take action against their front-page editorial in its 13 issue, migrating to Canada. The government had the Clearview. Patriarch reprinted an entire finally found a way to stop, and not merely editorial from the Edmonton Journal of 27 frustrate, the black trek.21 March that recognized the existence of anti­ Sending an agent to Oklahoma was part of black prejudice in western Canada. The black a Canadian government plan to stop the black newspaper then argued that the Canadian item immigration. The strategy was revealed to John proved that, wherever he went, the black man J ones, the United States consul in Winnipeg, had to face a problem. Not quite a month later, by Bruce Walker, the Canadian commissioner the black Oklahoma Guide of Guthrie carried of immigration in that city, in a confidential a front-page item from an unidentified New meeting held on 22 . During the York newspaper headlined, "Protest against meeting Walker stated that an order-in-council Immigration-Race Prejudice Caused by Col­ would be passed shortly that would bar blacks ored People in Canada." This piece noted the from entering Canada.22 In the meantime, the increase in antiblack feeling in Alberta and Canadian government was doing all that it Saskatchewan due to the rise in black immi­ could to persuade blacks not to go to western gration from Oklahoma, and observed that, for Canada. The agent in Oklahoma, Walker stated, the first time since they began moving north, a was pointing out to blacks the trouble they class of American citizens was being deemed would have with the Canadian climate and the DIPLOMATIC RACISM 9 prejudice that was emerging in western Canada letter from the Reverend H. H. Edmond of against their entry. Walker also told Jones that Oklahoma City. Edmond contacted the superin­ his agent was suggesting to black Oklahomans tendent of immigration to get information that they were the innocent victims of a scheme, about Canada before advising his congregation engineered by a major railroad company oper­ on whether to leave. He was having second ating in Oklahoma, to get their land for less thoughts since Speers contacted him and told than it was worth by telling them to go to him not to leave, but he wanted to know for Canada. certain what the weather and the country were Walker also revealed to Jones that he had like. The superintendent replied to Edmond's hired a black physician from the United States queries with a letter arguing that for climatic and had sent him to investigate the existing reasons he and his black followers should not black settlements in western Canada. Once the come.25 black doctor had completed his report, it would Speers was in during the last week be sent to Ottawa. In the meantime, the usual in May, but his interest still lay further south. medical inspection of .immigrants would be On 24 May he addressed virtually identical dropped for blacks, Walker indicated, since it letters to Jones in Muskogee and to a Reverend was his intention to bar them completely. 23 Hernagin in Oklahoma City, obviously follow­ The agent sent to Oklahoma was C. W. ing up his earlier contacts. In his letters, Speers Speers. He contacted W. J. White, the inspector referred to Booker T. Washington's teachings of United States agencies in Ottawa, on 8 May and stated, and again on 17 May to describe his visits to Surely with a degree of confidence they Muskogee, Tulsa, Oklahoma City, and Wellston, (black Oklahomans) can let their buckets Oklahoma. He described the blacks' poor down and draw from their own resources housing and generally inferior conditions, and in the midst of their own congenial sur­ argued that "Jim Crow" segregation and dis­ roundings. franchisement were the "great source" of their Why should your people be driven hither problems. He had been able to discuss the emi­ and thither, through oppressive and despotic gration issue with several black preachers and measures to climates and conditions wholly believed that this was the area with the best unsuitable? Why cannot they dwell in peace potential for stopping the flow. Dr. S. S. Jones, enjoying every privilege of full citizenship in president of the Oklahoma Conference of Black the country and under conditions best suited Baptists and editor of the Baptist Informer, to themselves? I feel assured that your advice to the had readily agreed with Speers's assessment of colored people will not only benefit them, the situation and had promised to use his influ­ but reflect credit upon yourself.26 ence to stop the blacks from leaving. Several of his colleagues had joined him in this vow. On 31 May, Speers, now in Ottawa, wrote Jones was as good as his word, for he publi­ to W. D. Scott regarding other matters relating cized his meeting with Speers and the other to black immigration. Speers said he had ob­ black ministers in his newspaper. Speers was served the agents of American railroads oper­ correct, the preacher argued; black people ating in Oklahoma, trying to increase traffic should stay in Oklahoma and fight for their by encouraging blacks to go to Canada. He had rights. Jones also wrote to W. D. Scott to in­ spoken to railroad officials when he was in form him that he felt the blacks should not Kansas City, and they had promised to stop enter Canada because of the harsh climate, and the soliciting. He had also spoken to D. B. he gave the Canadian official permission to use Hanna, third vice-president of the Canadian his letter in any way he saw fit. 24 Northern Railway, when he was in Toronto, The Immigration Branch became aware of and Hanna had promised to use his influence on Speers's success on 15 May when it received a the southern companies. Speers then suggested 10 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983 that William Whyte, second vice-president of homa is as obscure as how much he was being the Canadian Pacific Railway, should also be paid, but beginning on 24 June 1911, he sent asked to use his influences, "as there IS a daily reports to Chicago. In his first report, strong international courtesy between the sent from Muskogee, Miller said he had inter­ railway companies. I feel assured that this viewed a Reverend Perkins of the Second Bap­ would have a very good effect," he said. tist Church and had convinced him to keep his Speers's apparent success with the black congregation in Oklahoma. In the next day's clergymen and his continual reference to report, he said he had spoken to large audiences Booker T. Washington's ideas may have been at the First and Second Baptist churches and the basis for a suggestion by W. H. Rogers, now thought that he had managed to change a the Canadian agent in Kansas City. In a letter number of minds. He also said he had arranged to an unnamed superior in Ottawa, Rogers to have his address printed in Reverend Jones's argued that the only way to stop the blacks was Muskogee Baptist Informer, but that the by striking the fear of death into them. He pro­ clergyman-publisher wanted to be paid for the posed that evidence on blacks dying in cold service. climates be collected and sent to Booker T. Miller's first two reports were a blueprint Washington, who believed that blacks should for his activities over the next month. He would stay in the South. "I feel sure his influence enter a town or city, contact the black clergy­ would be material advantage to us in this men and anyone he heard was interested in matter," Rogers said. While there is no evidence going to Canada, arrange to speak in the that this proposal was ever acted upon, it did churches or at some large gathering, and have reflect a fertile mind for schemes to stop the his speech reprinted in the local black news­ black movement, and this was not Rogers's paper, if there was one. He did not waste any only proposal. In an earlier letter to W. D. time, either, for he crisscrossed eastern Okla­ Scott, the Kansas City agent had said that he homa rather quickly. On 26 June he reported was very pleased with Speers's work and recom­ from Okmulgee that he had spoken to several mended that he continue it. Rogers said he felt black clergymen who promised to help stop the that Speers's approach was the most effective flow. On 27 June he was reporting from Weleet­ way of dealing with the problem, but if that ka, having stopped at Bryant and Henryetta agent were unable to return to Oklahoma, a "en route." He had not found any blacks in Reverend J. B. Puckett could be used. "This either of the latter places, but many in Weleetka man," Rogers said, "would not cost the Depart­ seemed interested in going north, and he called ment nearly as much as that colored man from a meeting for the next night. "It is quite an Chicago.,,27 easy matter to get the people here," he said, "That colored man from Chicago" was Dr. "as they are all anxious to hear about Canada." G. W. Miller, the American black medical On 28 June Miller described the meeting at doctor who had been hired to tour the black weleetka and once again claimed to have con­ settlements in western Canada. Apparently vinced many not to head north. He began his satisfied with his report, the Canadian govern­ talk by "describing minutely" what happened ment employed Miller as its second agent to to him when he entered Canada, a snow storm be sent to Oklahoma to try to stop the black he had witnessed, and the early and late frosts migration. Miller was clearly the more effective he had encountered. He found that these agent because he was black and was thus more descriptions were new to the people. His aim, readily accepted. In addition, he had profes­ he said, was not only to discourage the north­ sional medical qualifications and could there­ ward migration, but to get the blacks to see how fore buttress the idea that blacks would be thankful they should be to live in Oklahoma, affected by Canada's climate. with its bountiful soil and good climate.28 Exactly when the doctor arrived in Okla- Miller was modest in describing his talks. An DIPLOMATIC RACISM 11 article he wrote for the Guthrie Oklahoma five miles to find a doctor, whereas they had Guide has survived, and it is possible to gain an medical help at their door where they were. insight into his discussions. Miller began with a Above all, there was the intense Canadian running commentary on what blacks could cold-snow fell waist deep, and the ground expect when reaching Canada and then singled froze to a depth of from six to ten feet. They out specific areas that they would be interested had all been born and raised in the South; in. He said he felt it was his solemn duty to his "it will cost your life to live one winter in race to make them aware of the conditions he Canada," Miller argued. found when he traveled in western Canada and Miller then turned his attention to specific of the plight of those who had already headed areas such as food, clothing, the soil, crops, north without question or investigation. He the seasons, water, and shelter, but his over­ could not understand why people would sacri­ whelmingly negative tone did not change. They fice what they had spent their lives acquiring, would find that food would cost twice as much to go to a country "that is desolate, frigid, in Canada as it did in Oklahoma, he said, and unsettled, unknown and to which they are because of the climate, they would find they climatically unfamiliar and financially unfit." ate more. Their farms would not keep up with The blacks' problems began at the interna­ their demands, and they would end up buying tional boundary. A government inspector food imported from the United States. They would meet them, Miller said, and examine could not get many of the foods they would their luggage. Then the entire family would be want, and if it was true that man lived to eat, subject to a thorough medical examination, then many of them would surely die. If they "where your wife and daughter are stripped of did not starve, then they would freeze to death their clothes before your very eyes and examined or die of consumption or pneumonia because by a board of men. What man of you would they lacked the proper clothing. After spending desire his family undressed and humiliated in all of their money to be transported to their such a manner," he asked. Their livestock was new homes, they would find that they did not also examined, but since this commonly took have funds for the necessary warm clothing and thirty days, the extra expense was a real furs. burden. And all of this took place, he said, even The soil in western Canada was not what before they were allowed to enter the "so­ they had been led to believe, Miller continued. called promised land." It was a sand-based light sod, and anyone with Nor should the blacks think they had es­ farming experience would know that nothing caped racial prejudice by entering Canada, for profitable would grow in it. Their homesteads wherever there were two distinct races, hostility would be covered with timber and bush, which appeared. Yet there were those who would was hard to clear, and in every open area grew disregard his warnings, who would rush off and a vegetable called muskeg. They would need to waste their life's savings in one season, reduce know scientific farming to raise crops in Canada, their families to poverty, and do it all in a land for they would have to deal with a killing frost where the winters were long and cold, and the in June and another one in August. Further­ summer, "but a dim memory of morning." more, there were only two seasons in Canada: They should stay where they were, Miller ar­ winter and summer, and the winters were so gued, where they had friends, happiness, and long that they would start to think summer bountiful harvests. Besides, their children had would never come. The only houses to guard to go to school, and there were none in the against the climate were log cabins, which they Canadian woods. If they wanted to go to a would have to build themselves. They would city or to church, they would have to travel have to HII the cracks with mud, but when it great distances. rained the mud would fall out and the cold They would also have to go at least seventy- wind would blow in. As if all this were not bad 12 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983 enough, the only water they could get was a "The Canadian Boom is rapidly dying out, as mixture of alkali that would injure their stom­ the unfavourable reports relative to Canada achs and make them ill. 29 seem to have spread over the entire state. Miller carried his message from weleetka Everywhere I go, people say they have hea~d of to Clearview, Oklahoma, and on 29 June he me and the unfavourable report of Canada. ,,30 reported from the latter town that many blacks Miller was substantially correct, and for all there were planning to leave for Canada. He intents and purposes the black migration from spoke to a large gathering and arranged to have Oklahoma to western Canada faded as 1911 his address published in a local black newspaper. progressed. Miller had done his work well. On 30 June he was in Boley speaking to a Miller's success at dissuading the black Okla­ number of prominent blacks and was informed homans from migrating was not immediately that a local movement was under way to try apparent. Even as he traveled through the to stop the movement northward. Guthrie was state, his employers looked for other ways of his next stop, and in that town he spoke to stopping the trek. One solution was simply to several black ministers. They arranged for him bar the blacks from entering the country. The to speak to a large audience by announcing the Calgary Herald had earlier suggested this meeting in all of the town's black churches. method. Its Ottawa correspondent had noted At the gathering Miller's statements were that a section of the Immigration Act of 1910 challenged by relatives of settlers already in gave the Canadian government the power, with Canada who had written that they were doing an order-in-council, to exclude for a period, or well. Miller left, however, "satisfied that they permanently, any race thought unsuitable to were convinced that such is not the case." Canada's climate. The problem with this ap­ From 4 July until 8 July he was in Oklahoma proach, however, was that it could discourage City, speaking with families who had expressed white Americans from heading north. Indeed, an interest in moving to Canada. He again dis­ an official of the Canadian Pacific Railway played confidence in having dissuaded them, Colonization Department in Chicago had but he was not having quite the same success written to Frank Oliver on 28 April to com­ with black newspapers. Apparently some edi­ plain that newspaper reports citing this argu­ tors were reluctant to print his article, perhaps ment had already prevented some whites from because Miller did not wish to pay for the migrating. This did not stop the minister of the publicity. interior, and on 31 May 1911 he sent a recom­ From 9 July until IIJulyhe was in Watonga, mendation to the cabinet for an order-in-council speaking at churches and interviewing families barring blacks from entering Canada for a who were thinking of leaving. He reported his period of one year. 31 usual success but found that some families The federal cabinet did not pass the order-in­ were so poor that they did not have the means council immediately. There were several argu­ to leave in any case. Back in Oklahoma City on ments against such a drastic mo~e. It could cause 12 July, he spoke to a few more potential stormy diplomatic relations with the United migrants. There he found that some had already States when the reciprocity question was still heard unfavorable reports, as a former black in the air; and every vote was needed for the settler had returned from Canada spreading upcoming Canadian election, so why alienate "cold winter" stories. From Oklahoma City he the black voters of Nova Scotia and southern proceeded to Bristow, spending two days there Ontario? In addition, the fear of scaring off convincing nine families not to leave. From 15 white American immigrants was undoubtedly to 17 July he was in Sapulpa and again found a powerful argument against the move. that a returning settler with an unfavorable re­ On 12 , the cabinet in fact port had preceeded him. In his last report, passed an order-in-council barring blacks from dated Sapulpa, Oklahoma, 17 July, Miller said, entering Canada. It stated, DIPLOMATIC RACISM 13

For a period of one year from and after the settlers already in the country. The Canadian date hereof the landing in Canada shall be officials' apprehension about these people was and the same is prohibited of any immi­ expressed in a reply to a query from John grants belonging to the Negro race, which Foster, United States consul in Otta~a, regard­ race is deemed unsuitable to the climate and ing one visiting black who had been turned requirements of Canada. 32 back at the border. Foster was told that Canada This order-in-council was never acted upon, was concerned that these people were, in fact, however. It was repealed on 5 October of the trying to settle in Canada, but were entering same year on the pretext that the minister of "under the guise of tourists or visitors. ,,34 the interior had not been present at the August The unfavorable press reports, the critical meeting.33 The fact that it was passed indicates commentary of black editors and preachers, how serious Canada was about keeping the and the activities of C. W. Speers and especially northern plains white. Dr. G. W. Miller stopped black Oklahomans The chronology of events involving the from moving to western Canada. It was clear order-in-council also suggests that it was a that they were not wanted and would en­ "pocket" order, to be used if Dr. Miller failed counter trouble if they tried to enter, and in his mission to oklahoma. The idea was given the expense and other difficulties of the originally suggested in May, when the physician journey, they put the thought out of their was touring black settlements in western Cana­ minds. da. It was passed in August when he was in In the decades following the American Civil Oklahoma, and it was repealed in October when War, many black Americans headed westward his success in stopping the migration was be­ hoping to find peace and land of their own. coming clear. One destination was the future state of Okla­ Several months later, in , homa, and before it reached statehood, thou­ Canadian immigration officials again became sands of blacks had migrated to it. White concerned with the black immigration issue. Americans had also been attracted, and they Word spread that the blacks were still restless brought their racism with them. White Okla­ and again looking to Canada as a possible home. homans succeeded in segregating their black Government officials recommended that an neighbors shortly after statehood was achieved. agent be stationed in Oklahoma City or Musko­ In 1910, they also took away the blacks' right gee to handle the problem, and once more it to vote. Canada was advertising homestead was argued that legislation barring the blacks lands in its western provinces in black and be passed. W. J. White, the inspector of United white Oklahoma newspapers at this time, and States agencies, was in Ottawa on 22 February a number of black Oklahomans took advantage 1912, writing letters to American railroads of the opportunity. While hundreds headed (the Soo, the Rock Island, the Missouri, Kansas, north, thousands watched with anticipation. and , the Frisco, and the Union Pacific The Canadians' reaction to the black migra­ lines), asking them not to encourage blacks to tion indicated that they believed many of the emigrate from the southern United States to .same stereotypes and myths about blacks as Canada. He told these railroads that he was also did the white Americans. While western Cana­ contacting the Great Northern, Northern Paci­ dians did not resort to violence to halt the fic, and Santa Fe lines on the matter, although black migration, they did urge their government no record of this correspondence is in the mes to develop policies to stop the blacks. Although of the Immigration Branch. The fears of a re­ covert and deceptive, this effort was in itself a newed black migration never materialized, how­ form of violence, for it condemned other black ever, and the only concern that Canada had Oklahomans to continue to face racist violence regarding blacks in 1912 was a number of in that state. The Canadian government reacted friends and relatives who were trying to visit to a sea of petitions, resolutions, and editorials, 14 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983 all aimed at keeping western Canada white. The their being ex-slaves and the descendants of government began a campaign of diplomatic former slaves who had moved westward after racism. Discriminating against blacks through Reconstruction. medical examinations and depriving potential 4. R. B. Shepard, "Black Migration As A black settlers of immigration material were Response to Repression: The Background Factors and Migration of Oklahoma Blacks to haphazard methods, however, and Canada Western Canada, 1905-1912, As A Case Study" eventually sent two agents to Oklahoma to dis­ (M.A. thesis, University of Saskatchewan, suade blacks from migrating. Their work was Saskatoon, 1976), pp. 48,50, and 77. highly successful, and by the fall of 1911, the 5. Stewart Grow, "The Blacks of Amber black migration from Oklahoma to western Valley: Negro Pioneering in Northern Alberta," Canada was coming to an end. Canadian Ethnic Studies 6 (1974): 17-38; Ina Bruns, "Kind Hearts and Gentle People," NOTES Montreal Family Herald, 25 June 1959; Oke­ mah (Oklahoma) Ledger, 23 March 1911; 1. Estimates vary greatly, some citing figures Calgary Herald, 22 April 1911. of more than one million American settlers. 6. Harold Troper, Only Farmers Need Ap­ See Marcus Hansen and John B. Brebner, The ply: Official Canadian Government Encourage­ Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples ment of Immigration from the United States, (Toronto: Ryerson Press, and New Haven, 1896-1911 (Toronto: Griffin House, 1972), Conn.: Yale University Press, 1940), p. 220; p. 124. Troper has argued that the Canadian Paul Sharp, "The American Farmer and the government did not advertise for black settlers. 'Last Best West,'" Agricultural History 21 Technically, this is true; however, such adver­ (April 1947): 65-75; Paul Sharp, The Agrarian tisements did appear in the black Oklahoma Revolt in Western Canada: A Survey Showing press, including the Boley Beacon, 20 February American Parallels (St. Paul: University of Min­ 1908 and 19 March 1908; Clearview Patriarch, nesota Press, 1948; reprint, New York: Octagon 2 March 1911 and 18 May 1911; Muskogee Books, 1971), p. 1; Paul Sharp, "When Our Cimeter, 8 , 4 , West Moved North," American Historical Re­ and 2 ; Boley Progress, 16 view 55 Uanuary 1950): 286-300; Karel Denis March 1905, 12 October 1905, 18 January Bicha, "The American Farmer and the Cana­ 1906,11 , and 13 . dian West, 1896-1914: A Revised View," 7. Troper, Only Farmers Need Apply, p. Agricultural History 38 Uanuary 1964): 43- 123. 46; idem, The American Farmer and the Cana­ 8. Lerone Bennett, Jr., Before the May­ dian West, 1896-1914 (Lawrence, Kans.: flower: A History of the Negro in America, Coronado Press, 1968), pp. 114 and 140. 1619-1964, rev. ed. (Baltimore: Penguin 2. The exact number of black immigrants is Books, 1964), p. 240; United States, Four­ not known. The 1921 Census of Canada, how­ teenth Census of the United States, 1920, vol. ever, showed 1,444 blacks in Alberta and 3, Population, p. 814. Saskatchewan in that year. Canada, Census of 9. Boley (Oklahoma) Progress, 24 August Canada, 1921, vol. 1, Population, p. 355. 1905. 3. There is a debate among certain Canadian 10. W. J. White to Frank Oliver, 13 Septem­ historians regarding the possible Indian ancestry ber 1910, Immigration Files, RG 76, vols. of some of the black migrants to Canada. This 192-93, HIe 72552, part 1 (microHIm), Public debate is too involved for recapitulation here, Archives of Canada. and the bibliography too extensive for citation. 11. L. M. Fortier toJ. S. Crawford, 8 Novem­ My own view is that substantial, convincing ber 1910; Keystone, Oklahoma, to Ottawa, documentary evidence does not exist to sup­ On tario, 11 N ovemb er 1910, and Hominy, port the view that the migrants were partly of Oklahoma, to Ottawa, Ontario, 20 December Indian ancestry. In fact, the surviving home­ 1910;J. L. Doupe to J. S. Crawford, 30 Decem­ stead applications that the black immigrants ber 1910; telegram from W. J. White to J. HIed with the government of Canada point to Bruce Walker, 30 December 1910; telegram DIPLOMATIC RACISM 15 from W. J. Webster to W. J. White, 5 January by a federal or a provincial cabinet under the 1911; telegram from W.J. White to J. L. Doupe, authority of the governor-general or a provin­ 5 January 1911; telegram from W. D. Scott to ciallieutenant governor. W. J. Webster, 5 January 1911, Immigration 23. John E. Jones, consul-general, Winni­ Files, RG 76, vols. 192-93, file 72552, part 2 peg, Manitoba, to the secretary of state, 22 May (microfilm), Public Archives of Canada. 1911, Department of State Decimal Files, 12. Robin Winks, The Blacks in Canada 1910-1929, RG 59, Box 8868, no. 842.511/7, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, National Archives, Washington, D.C. 1971), pp. 310-11. 24. C. W. Speers to W. J. White, 8 May 1911 13. Shepard, "Black Migration As A Re­ and 17 May 1911; newspaper clipping, Baptist sponse to Repression," pp. 97-102. Informer (Muskogee, Oklahoma), no date; 14. Ibid., pp. 102-3, and 110. Reverend S. S. Jones to W. D. Scott, 20 May 15. Canada, House of Commons, Parlia­ 1911, Immigration Files, RG 76, vols. 192-93, mentary Debates, 3 April 1911, 6523-28; file 72552, part 4 (microfilm), Public Archives Ernest J. Chambers, ed., The Canadian Par­ of Canada. liamentary Guide, 1910 ( Ottawa: Mortimer, 25. Reverend H. H. Edmond to W. D. Scott, 1910), p. 168. Also see Winks, Blacks in Can­ 15 May 1911; W. D. Scott to Reverend H. H. ada, pp. 306-7. Edmond, 19 May 1911, Immigration Files, 16. William E. Bittle and Gilbert Geis, The RG 76, vols. 192-93, file 72552, part 4 (micro­ Longest Way Home: Chief Alfred C. Sam's film), Public Archives of Canada. Back-To-Africa Movement (: Wayne 26. C. W. Speers to Reverend S. S. Jones, 24 State University Press, 1964), pp. 55-56; May 1911; C. W. Speers to Reverend Hernagin, Okemah (Oklahoma) Ledger, 25 May 1911, 1 24 May 1911, Immigration Files, RG 76, vols. June 1911, and 8 June 1911; Clearview (Okla­ 192-93, file 72552, part 4 (microfilm), Public homa) Patriarch, 1 June 1911. Archives of Canada. 17. For examples of the Canadian adver­ 27. C. W. Speers to W. D. Sq)tt, 21 May tisements, see the Boley (Oklahoma) Progress, 1911; W. H. Rogers to an unidentified party, 4 2 March 1911, and the Clearview (Oklahoma) June 1911; W. H. Rogers to W. D. Scott, 25 Patriarch, 13 April 1911. Both of these jour­ May 1911, Immigration Files, RG 76, vols. nals carried such material until well into 1912. 192-93, file 72552, part 4 (microfilm), Public L. M. Fortier to W. W. Cory, 14 March 1911, Archives of Canada. There is a certain irony in Immigration Files, RG 76, vols. 192-93, file Rogers's proposal, since blacks have lived in 72552, part 4 (microfilm), Public Archives of Canada since 1628; Winks, Blacks in Canada, Canada. p. ix. 18. Clearview (Oklahoma) Patriarch, 23 28. Dr. G. W. Miller to an unidentified party March 1911; Oklahoma Guide (Guthrie), 11 in Chicago, 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28 June 1911, May 1911. Immigration Files, RG 76, vols. 192-93, file 19. Clearview (Oklahoma) Patriarch, 13 72552, part 4 (microfilm), Public Archives of April 1911; oklahoma Guide (Guthrie), 11 May Canada. An exhaustive search of the budgets of 1911. the Department of the Interior and the auditor­ 20. BaptistInformer (Muskogee, Oklahoma), general's reports in the Canadian Sessional 8 June 1911, Immigration Files, RG 76, vols. Papers for 1911 and 1912 failed to reveal Mill­ 192-93, file 72552, part 4 (microfilm), Public er's salary. Archives of Canada. 29. Oklahoma Guide (Guthrie), 6 July 21. Winks, Blacks in Canada, p. 306. Winks 1911. argues that the Canadian government success­ 30. Daily letters, Dr. G. W. Miller to an un­ fully frustrated attempts by black immigrant identified party, 29 June-17 , Immi­ groups to reinforce their numbers. By sending gration Files, RG 76, vols. 192-93, file 72552, agents to Oklahoma to try to stop the flow, the part 4 (microfilm), Public Archives of Canada. government was actively trying to check, not 31. Calgary Herald, 17 April 1911; Canada, just frustrate, the black migration. Statutes of Canada, 9-10, Edward VII, chap. 22. An order-in-council is a regulation passed 27, An Act Respecting Immigration, 4 May 16 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, WINTER 1983

1910, sec. 38, sub. sec. "c"; Poynter Standly ary 1912; W.J. White to W. W. Cory, 16 to Frank Oliver, 28 April 1911, and an order­ ; W.J. White to the Soo, the in-council recommendation from Frank Oliver Rock Island, the Missouri, Kansas and Texas, to the governor-general, 31 May 1911, Immigra­ the Frisco and Union Pacific lines, 22 February tion Files, RG 76, vols. 192-93, me 72552, 1912; James Veal, Junkins, Alberta, to W. D. part 3 (micromm), Public Archives of Canada. Scott, 13 ; J. C. Johnson, Wewoka, 32. Order-in-Council no. 1324, 12 August Oklahoma, to the secretary of state, Washing­ 1911, Orders-in-Council, RG 2/1, vol. 269, ton, D.C., 25 , received by Canadian Public Archives of Canada. officials 9 ; John Foster to W. D. 33. Order-in-Council no. 2378, 5 October Scott, 8 July 1912; W. D. Scott to John Foster, 1911, Orders-in-Council, RG 2/1, vol. 772, 11 July 1912, Immigration Files, RG 76, vols. Public Archives of Canada. 192-93, me 72552, part 4 (micromm), Public 34. W. H. Rogers to W. D. Scott, 15 Febru- Archives of Canada.