The Contributions of Blacks in Akron: 1825-1975

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. The Contributione of Blacks in Akron, 1825-1975

A Doctoral Diesertation Presented to The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Cuctor of Philosophy

shirla Robinson McClain - June, 1975

A697991

, . .._.~ . -_ The Contributions of Blacks

in Akron: 1825-1975

Shirla Robinson HcClain

Dissertation Approved : Accepted:

/A.adA J 7- 4dL Dean df the College

UY bean of the Graduate Schoor ACXNCWLEDGHENTS

To undertake the writirg of a historical account of Akron's Negro residents has entailed the cooperation and assistance of many people. The writer has been 1) entrusted with personal records which provided many of the materials from which to write; 2) extended the courtesy and time to conduct interviews; 3) furnished leads to varied sources of data; 4) granted encouragement through letters supporting the need for the research; and 5) assisted through diverse accommodations. To simply mention the names of those who have aided the writer cannot possibly convey the measure in which they have assisted, but can only humbly acknowledge their part in documenting Akron's black history. Since tune and space restrict elaborate expressions of gratitude, the writer is limited simply to expressing heartfelt thanks to the following persons: Alex Adams, Rev. Harold Ashby; Archie Berry; Sheila Berry: William Blake, Eskuno Bracken: Rev. I. T. Bradley; Amanda BraZeltOn; Pmbrose Brazelton; Charles Bridges; Altha C. Brown; Edith Brown; Edward v. Brown; Raymond R. Brown; Rev. G. Lincoln Caddell; Geraldine Cahill: nary chapman: Martin 0. Chapman; Rollin Clayton; James Clucus; James Craig; Albert J. Dillehay; Marion Dixsont Ben Dominic; Elinor Dunbar, Robert N.Dunbar; mry Eagle; Georgia Edwards; William Ellison; Opie Evans;

Albert Fitzpatrick: Atty. Artee Fleming! Amos Formant Rev. Ronald Fowler; William Fowler, Sr.; Aerieal Fuller; Thaddeus Garrett, Jr.: Leon Gordie; Rev. Donald Grant; Brenda Eerbert; Gussie Holmes; Mary Holmes; Frances LaRue Howard1 Katie Jackson; Joel Johnson; Marion Johnsont Tom Jones1 Gwendolyn Jordan; John Kaiser: Carolyn Lancaster; Atty. mer Lancaster; Ednah Lewis; Rev. Stanley Lynton; nargaret McClain: William McMillan: George c. Miller, Edith Delaney Mitchell; Barbara Ford Montgomery: Bert Montgomery;

Bertha -re, Spurgeon Moore, Sr.2 Rev. Eugene E. Morgan1 nattie Mundy. Frances Murphey; Curtice Myers! Cleo

Myricks; Dr. Lionel A. Newsom; Vernon L. mom: Beatrice

O'Rourke; Conrad C. Ott; Atty. Edwin L. Parms: Dale Perry; Eerman POole; John H. Rebenack: Dr. Gus T. Ridge11 Manzie Ridgill; Faith Robinson; Dr. Haynes E. Robinson, Jr.8

Dr. Luther Robinson; Marcella Robinson, Dr. Eldridge Sharpp; Laurita Sharpp; Frances Shepard; Barbara slack, Jesse Smith; Mary Hogan Smith, Rollin Smith; Sadie Smith;

Norma Spencer; Thomas J. Spencer; Leonard Stevens; Mattie

Stevens; James Stewart; John Suddieth, Lloyd P. Terrell; Virginia Threatt; William M. Threatt, Jr.; Dr. Edgar Toppin; Rev. William C. Upshaw; Rayfield Wade; William V. iv ,

Wallace, Jr.1 Helzola Weeks; Atty. James R. Williams; David WilSOn; Dr. Lu D. Wimsr and Jessica Woods. The writer is especially appreciative of the guidance, support, and encouragement extended to her by the dissertation committee chairman, Dr. - Walter E. ms, and for the direction of the committee members, Dr. Bernard Esporite, Dr. Judith Noble, Dr. Frederick Schultz, and Dr. George W. Knepper. The conscientious efforts, personal concern, and efficiency of the typist, Wanda Abruzzino, provided the writer with abiding moral support and has been very deeply appreciated. The depth of gratitude extended to the writer's

family can never be fully measured, for they have undergone the 'behind the scenes. experiences that have demanded from them patience, love, and understanding. Thus, the writer is particularly thankful to her children--

Kelli and Scott--for sharing their mother's time with so many others, and is most especially grateful to her husband, Henry, who did everything in his power to provide the writer with the "staying power" necessary to complete the task at hand.

V I

.. .. J TABLE OF CONTENTS CBAPTER PAGE 1 . INTRODUCTION ...... 1 The Problem ...... 1 Statement of the problem ...... 1 Significance and purpose of the study ...... 1 Delimitations of the study ...... 10 Review of the Literature ...... 17 Academic aspects of black history instruction ...... 18 A black history of Cleveland. Ohio ...... 28 Histories of Akron. Ohio ...... 30 Review of available sources of recorda relevant to the inquiry ...... 35 Methodologies and Strategies...... 39 General Organization of the Study ...... 41 Summary ...... 42 I1 . AKRON'S BLACK RESIDENTS 1825-1899 ...... 43 Background Information ...... 44 National movements in response to slavery .. 45 Early white settlers in Ohio ...... 55 Akron'a Early Black Settlers...... 64

\ CHAPTER PAGE General infornation on Akron's black pioneers ...... 65 Akron's involvement in national movements regarding slavery ...... 69 Civil War Years Through Reconstruction ...... 87 Akron's black civil war veterans ...... 81 Early steps toward unification and independence ...... 95 Post-Reconstruction Years to 1899 ...... 101 Economic opportunities ...... 101 Black organizations to further black progress ...... 103 sunrmary ...... 110 I11 . CHANGES IN RACIAL COMPOSITIONS AND RACIAL ATTITUDES: 1900-1919 ...... 111 The First Decade: 1900-1909 ...... 112 Civic concerns an3 political efforts ...... 112 Self-help in Akron's black community ...... 117 Early individual endeavors in Akron's black hstory ...... 130 The Second Decade 1910-1919 ...... 133 Mounting racial hostility ...... : 134 Promotion of black consciousness and black culture ...... 145 . vii .

CHAPTER PAGE Minimal advancements despite oppreaeion .... 153 Summary ...... 166 N . PACIAL OPPRESSION AMONG AKRON'S BUCK .SIDENTS ...... 171 The Third Decade: 1920-1929 ...... 171 Political ad civic involvement of black residents ...... 171 Economic conditions of Akron's black residents ...... 176 The black social environment ...... 185 The Depression Years ...... 213 General conditions among Akron's black citizens ...... 214 Individual gains: academics. athletics. and aesthetic accomplishments ...... 220 Diversified black organizations...... 229 Summary ...... 243 V . ADVANCEMENTS THROUGH EMPLOYMENT. CIVIC PRIDE. AND EDUCATION 1940-1959 ...... 249 A Decade of Hope: 1940-1949 ...... 249 Advancement through unity ...... 249 Individual accompllshments ...... 262 A Decade of Change . 1950-1959 ...... 281 Background information ...... 281 viii CIUSTER PAGE Black progress ...... 282 Individual accomplishments ...... 293 Smumry...... 305 VI . LOCAL RESPONSES TO NATIONAL ISSUES . 1960-1975 ...... 308 A Depiction of America-The National Scene ... 308 Local Responses to the Civil Rights Movement ...... 311 Black Akronites protest ...... 311 Fighting poverty in Akron ...... 313 Black pride in Akron ...... 332 Gains - Individual and Organized ...... 336 Fields of specialization ...... 337 VI1 . SUMUARX. CONCLUSIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 397 summary ...... 397 Conclusions ...... 405 Recommendations ...... 416 CLRSSIFIED BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 420 APPENDICES ...... 445 Appendix 1 ...... 446 Appendix 2 ...... 462 Appendix 3 ...... 468 Appendix 4 ...... 478 Appendix 5 ...... 487

ix CMP!?ER I

INTRODUCTION

The Problem

Statement of the Problem

To date no historical study of the settlement, social development, and educational experiences of black residents in Akron, Ohio has been conducted. Therefore, the topic upon which research is being undertaken is the development of a general history of Akron's black residents from the founding of the city in 1825 to the preeent tbe.

Significance and hrrpose of the Study The importance of studying local black history is based on the same rationale as that which created the incorporation of Negro history into schools throughout the nation. In addition, there are some specific advantages for both educators and students who are educated in local black history. Ergo, in the present section of this paper the writer will focus on8 1) a presentation of background information relevant to the type of black history in textbooks prior to the 1960s; 2) the rationale for its present 2

inclusion, and 3) the particular advantages of a local black history.

Background information The inclusion of information on black history in American textbooks prior to 1950 met with very slow and vary limited progress. Host of the mention of black history in texts focused upon the fact that slavery existed in the United States; sugqested that the Civil War vas fought to set slaves free: and presented some token biographical sketches of Negroes of distinction--Booker T. Naashington and George Washington Carver.' The presentations of black history in American texts were characterized by distortions, degradations, or omissions. Kane's research into minority treatment in texthooks revealed that, in 1949, the American Council on Education's study of teaching materials reached the following conclusions 1) the black American's position in contemporary society was largely ignored: 2) most references to blacks were prior to 1876 and perpetuated - the stereotypes of a childlike, inferior group of people: 3) scientific data on man and race were lacking, and 4) illustrations showing blacks in American life were even more inadequate than the written material in the

'Jack Abramowitz, "Textbooks and Negro History," Social Education 33 (March 1969) 306. 3 texts.' Other studies have yielded sunilar findings.'

Rationale for the inclusion of black history in schools For the past decade, however, the picture has changed. Recent literature is replete with articles that aupport the need for a comprehensive, balanced, and accurate treatment of black history in the curriculum and textbooks throughout the nation's schools. Although the history of Negroes has been the sublect of several note- wxthy works prior to the 1960s, the civil rights movement precipitated the incorporation of more accurate, representative Negro history into American social studies and history courses. Abramowitz commented in this regard. Needless to say, these changes have not occurred because of any blinding light of revelation striking the publishers as if they were latter day Pauls on the road to Damascus. They are rather the happy result of the coming together in tune and place of the "revolution' of our times and the painstaking research of the past three decades of such outstanding scholars, black and white, as W. E. B. DuBois, Carter G. Woodson, Ralph Bunche, Herbert Aptheker, E. Franklin Frazier, John Hope Franklin, August Meier, L. D. Reddick, and others. * Various perspectives from which to view the Ameri- can racial past have collectively formed the rationale for

'Michael B. Kane, Minorities in Textbooks (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, Inc., lm), p. 77. 'James A. Banks, Teaching the Black Experience (Belmont: Fearon Publishers, 1970) , PP. 4-7. 'Abramowitr, .Textbooks,. p. 306 4 including Negro history in the curriculum. Amonq a

-I diverse set of reasons. three social reasons have been predominantr 1) the enhancement of the black student's self-concept8 2) the enlightenment of the vhite student in order to develop his understanding of Negroes, and 3) the promotion of improved race relations. Professional educators and educators in related fields can be effective agents of change in these directions if they are dedicated to assisting students gain an understanding of black history. The need to develop a sense of pride and dignity vithin black Americans has been viewed as a necessary goal in order to undo the lingering damage that has been done to the black mn's self-esteem since he arrived in America in bondage. For generations, the needless feelings of inferiority have etricken the lives of countless blacks vho have become victims of "wasted potential.' Recent books and media programs have focused on the posltive aspects of the black man's contributions and thus have attempted to heighten his self-image. Hare has summarized this perspective The cry for courses in black history and culture has arisen in a new black push for an invigorated collective ego-identity or group self-respect and self- direction. The quest for black consciousness and nationhood, in the absence of a territorlal and political autonomy, must inevitably rest, as would any idea of nation or peoplehood, on a common sense of history and/or culture. This sense of pastness, or 5

collective destiny, in turn is viewed as a spring- bard to a new collective future.l Be has stated further that . . . the teaching of black history and culture not only should seek to save black history and culture and all that is good therein, it should involve or integrate the student into his community, augmenting his functioning in the community and, indirectly in society and the wrld at large.'

Black history enables white students--as well as blacks-to gain new insights into their past by providing them with information previously omitted from their scboling. Thus they are rendered less .educationally disadvantaged: Little has been written about white students' aelf-concepts in relation to black history, but Hare has cited Aarrison's remarks that the white student also gains a healthier self-image set against a more realistic image of the black race: that if it is wrong to deny the Negro a record of his past, it is equally wrong to cheat the white student who . . . is resentful when he realizes that he's only half educated in American history and half prepared for the American future.'

Although the struggle that blacks have had to

'Nathan Hare, *The Teaching of Black History and Culture in the Secondary Schools," Social Education 33 (April 1969) :385. 'Ibid., p. 387. 'Ibid., p. 385, citing Charles H. Harrison, "Black History and the Schools," Education News, 21 October 1968, reprinted in Ebony, December 1968. 6 endure in the face of oppression has always been known to blacks, whites have been unaware of what it is like to be a minority member of a .democratic. society. Harlan has pOinted out some essentially important reasons for studying black history as follows- . . . it behooves us to study more closely than we have the Negro institutions built up behind the segregation wall--the family, church, business, mutual-aid, and even the low-life institutions like the numbers racket and the 'pushers." On the "brighter" side of the coin, we need to study and include in our teaching about the Negro experience in America also his rich cultural contributions to America through the spiritual, jazz, the dance, and a rich Southern rural Negro folklore which has distinct African roots. The capacity of Negroes to survive in this socieFis wrth studr [italics mine] .a

Briefly stated,

The American Negro has been deprived of his heritage, his history, and his heroes. Equally tragic, the white American has been deprivETZFknowledge about, -and understanding of, the Negro race and its past.' The study of black history--for the improvement of the blacks' self-concepts and for the enrichment of the white students' understanding of Negroes--may also close the information gap necessary to communicate and thereby foster improved race relations. Viewed as such, this third benefit of black history is a hopeful consequence of the first two and together they form the stated rationale

'Louis R. Harlan, "Tell It Like It was suggestions on Black History," Social Education 33 (April 1969) :393. "How to Integrate Your District's Curriculum,' School Management 12 (August 1968):20. ~ H for studying black history in our nation's schools.

Advantages of local black history - All of the foregoing reasons which focus upon studying black history on a national level are also valid arguments for the inclusion and study of a local black history. It may even be argued that a local black history is even wre important than a general history of black Amsricans b-ause a local history would have several diati.net advantages. First of all, a written documented account of the historical contributions of local black citizens is pre- served in writing and thereby becomes a permanent link to a past that is within the student's own enviroment. Second, a written history becomes a valuable resource of information for the use of educators. Thus, it provides educators with new material from which to build lessons, makes them knowledgeable of black organi- xations and resource persons, and allows educators to be creative agents in the transmission of knowledge. Third, if educators prudently utilize a witten record of a local black history, a student should compre- hend the knowledge that fills the void that previously existed. Hopefully it will have the effects upon a black student which Fenton envisioned, .He should be proud of what people like him [italics mine] have done in the past - 8 and are doing in the present.." It is the writer's opinion that a local black history can go one step further. A local black history should make a black child proud of what people like him bave done in the past and are doing in the present presence. Students can identify with and be influenced by persons who reside in the community, and they can relate to events which have occurred in their surroundings once they are aware of their local history. Fenton has asserted that a child can sometimes develop a more constructive self-mage if he is made aware that people with whom he can identify have contributed constructively to the society of which he himself is a part.ll Banks concurred, suggesting that .We validate our identity through the evaluations of those who are influential in our lives:" Fourth, a local black history (or any local history) helps to educate a student as to what history really is-- not a dull, monotonous textbook treatment of isolated facts and dates (as frequently taught)--but a living testimony of an account of the problemd and solutions of

"Edwin Fenton, Trispus Attucks Is Not Enough: The Social Studies and Black Americans," Social Education 33 (April 1969) .397. "Ibid., p. 398.

"James A. Banks, "Relevant Social Studies for Black Pupils," Social Education 33 (January 1969) 69. 9 a collection of yesterdays and yesteryears. Other reasons for the significance of a local black history, as it relates to professional educators and others who educate, include the following: 1. Educators, aa well as students, gain a mare balanced view of their local history

2. Educators gain new insights into the accom- pliahents of local Negroes 3. Educators and those in related fields become cognizant of the educational programs of blacks that exist outside of the school setting and within the black community One final justification for the koportance of researching and writing a local black history--specifically Akron's black history--is viewed by the writer as a possible response to some particular conclusions and recornendations of the Report of the Akron Commission on civil Disorders regarding education in Akron. Among the conmission's conclusions were these 1. Segregation does exist in the city of Akron and de facto segregation exists in the schools

2. Racial isolation in the schools, whatever it8 origins, inflicts harm upon both black and white students and the entire social structure

3. As an American citizen the black student is 10 entitled to a first-class education. This expectation is precisely the one which white students have but are more likely to have fulfilled 4. The responsibility for equal, integrated, quality educational opportunity must be shared by the entire community; business leaders, professional people, clergymen, civic groups, and fraternal organizations as well an school officials, and this responsibility is not fully accepted at the present time The Comission's recommendation that the writer considers most relevant to the selected topic is that A requirement for educational excellence in our schools is a continuing revision of the curriculum to make it relevant [italics mine1 to all classes and races of people served by the schools." Letters from civic leaders, black and white, who are .educators' in the broad sense of the word reflect their educational concerns and give testimony to the need €or a local black history."

Delimitations of the Study This study is restricted to a historical search at the local level, limited geographically to the area surrounding Akron, Ohio and limited further to the years from

"Akron Commission on Civil Disorders. .The Report of the Akron Commission on Civil Disorders,. Akron, Ohio, 1969, pp. 29-31. (Huneographed) I*The letters are included in appendix 1. 11 the city's founding to the present. The focus of the atudy will be upon blacks who currently reside in or nearby Akron and blacks who have resided in the city of Akron at some period in their life.

An investigation into the effects of racial dis- crhination on Negroes, per se, will not be analyzed statistically in this study, nor will this study utilize a survey questionnaire-response technique. Readers who are interested in studying an analysis of the effects of racial discrimination and segregation in Akron are advised by the Akron Branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to peruse and act upon the following reports: 1. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, March 1968

2. [Report of the1 Akron Commission on civil DIE- orders, April 1969

3. The Justice Department's "Report to Mayor John S. Ballard on Police-Community Relations,. January- March 1967 4. Little Hoover Commission Report, April 1974

5. Proposal for Upgrading Akron Inner City Schools, February 1963'' Ergo, the writer is prunarily concerned in this study with ascertaining the positive contributions of Akron's Negro population toward the development of the

"Akron Branch of the NAACP, 'Freedom Fund Dinner Souvenir Program," Akron, Ohio, 1974. 12 city for tw reasons. First, the contributions of Akron's black Americans is an area of visible neglect--being most visible through its .invisibility. in the city's local history books. The second reason for the emphasis on Negroes' positive contributions to the city's growth can best be explained in the wrds of Charles Wesley: The history of a minority group has a distinct influence on group morale. It is an incentive to aspira- tion, ambition. and achievement, for after all, the history of a group is its good name, its reputation, its character, built over a span of years. Knowledge of this record cannot fail to inspire successive generations of young per;le, and to stmulate a worthy pride in an honorable inheritance." This paper will not investigate, in depth, any one aspect of any field other than history. More explicitly, this study will not be a study focusing solely on a given area, e.g., the literature, art, music, language, religion, politics, economics, or education of Negro Akronites. Each of these areas will be mentioned generally as each relates to the general history of Akron's Negro residents.

Clarification of key terms and concepts

FOX the purposes of this study, specific key terms and concepts will be limited to the meanings as defined herein:

''RUSSell H. Davis. Black Americans in Cleveland (Washington, D.C. The Associated Publishers, 13721, p. 1. 13

Education

According to Schultr, education refers to a process that goes on society, not apart from it tandl is more than schooling. Cases of .education" are always taken to be cases of learning generally approved behaviors, habits, beliefs, or forms of knowledge."

Educational setting Schultz defined an educational setting as any formal (school) or informal (nonschool) situation in which at least one person is engaged in the activities of .teaching' one or more other persons in such a manner that the criteria for valid cases of .education. are being met.l'

Educationally disadvantaged The writer uses the term educationally disadvantaged in place of culturally disadvantaged, culturally deprived, or underprivileged. Whereas all people possess a culture, the term educationally disadvantaged more accurately describes those who are at a disadvantage in the educational system because of social and economic deprivation.

"Frederick M. Schultz, Social Philosophical Foundations of Education (Dubuque- Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1974), pp. 6, 16. "Ibid., p. 13. I4

Mucator s size education is not confined to schooling, the term educators includes not only teachers, but also incorporates Schultz's concept of 'many ethnically, racially, or religiously different sorts of people, social processes, and social institutions:"

External analysis Welter has used the term to refer to an approach to the examination of ideas wherein idea6 are pursued in their relationship to events."

External criticiw Van Dalen has stated that external criticism is concerned with establishing the tune, place, and authorship of the document and restoring the original form and language employed by the author."

Internal analysis

A term used by Welter to refer to an approach to the investigation of ideas " . . . as ideas apart from

"Ibid., p. 14.

"Rush Welter, "The History of Ideas in America: An Essay in Redefinition," in American Studies, ed. Robert Herideth (Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1968). p. 237.

"Deobold B. Van Dalen, Understanding Educational Research (New York McGraw Hi11 Book Co., 1966), p. 184. 15 questions of their social origin or their social influence.gll

Internal criticism Internal criticism was defined by Van Dalen as being concerned with ascertaining the meaning and trust- worthiness of the data within the document." aegrocs In this study the term Negroes is used synonymously with blacks, Afro-Americans, colored, or black Americans to mean American citizens who are members of the black race.

Official records Van mlen has used the term official records to include: legislative, judicial, or executive documents prepared by federal, state, or local governments, such as constitutions, laws, charters, court proceedings and decieions, tax lists, and vital statistics; the data pre- served by churches, such as baptismal, marriage, financial, and board meeting records: the information compiled by federal and state education departments, special commis- sions, professAona1 organizations, school boards, or administrative authorities, such as the minutes of

'*Welter, .The History of Ideas," p. 237.

"Van Dalen, Understanding Research, p. 184. .- .-* - - ." 16

meetings, reports of committees, administrative orders or directives, school surveys, annual reports, budgets, courses of study, class schedules, salary lists, attendance records, health records, safety and accident reports, and athletic records.”

Oral tradition Van Dalen has used the term oral tradition to describe myths, folktales, family stories, dances, games, ceremonies, and reminiscences by eyewitnesses to events and recordings.”

Personal records

Van Dalen has suggested that diaries, autobiog- raphies, letters, wills, deeds, contracts, lectures, notes and original drafts of speeches, articles, and books constituted personal records.”

Pictorial records Photographs, movies, microfilms, drawings, paintings, and Sculpture were considered by Van Dalen as pictorial records. ’

Printed materials

Printed materials are those materials such as

“Xbid., p. 180. “Ibid. “Ibid. ”Ibid. 17 printed programs, newspaper advertisements, and advertise- - ments in souvenir programs.

Published wterials

Published materials are viewed as pamphlets, leaflets, black newspapers, directories, books, periodicals, journals, local and out-of-town newspapers.

Relics The writer uses the term relics to mean buildings, objects, statues, plaques, and awards which impart information about the past. schooling Schooling is used in this study to mean education that takes place exclusively in a formal school system, public or private.

Review of the Literature The importance of the study has been documented extensively in the first segment of this research. The concern in the review of literature is to provide the reader with information relevant to the selected topic. Thus, in this portion of the paper the writer will examine: 1) academic aspects of black history instruction!

2) the content of the black history of Cleveland, Ohio; 3) the content of local histories of Akron, Ohio; and 4) available records pertinent to a local blackhistory 18 of Akron, Ohio. , Acadwic Aspects of Black History Instruction Teachers' attitudes Since the "why" black history should be taught--the social importance of black history--has been discussed, attention will be turned to the educational aspects of the problem: instructors, content and methodology. In short, the .who,. .what,. and 'how' will be reviewed. It is the writer's opinion that the educator is the key element in the education of any person. It is an accepted fact that the principal educator in the traditional, formal school setting is the teacher. Conse- quently, the greater portion of the educational process is within the teacher's domain.

Instruction in black history, being an area of national concern since the advent of the 19608, has met with varying degrees of success in terms of establishing the importance of the subject and instructional methodology. Less is known, however, about the teacher's atti-

tudes and adherence toward teaching black history. As Guenther has pointed out . . . while *how-to. and .need to. articles are plentiful, they have been based primarily upon descriptions of individual programs or suggestions for programs rather than upon research into existing programs. It has been assumed that teachers are more likely - 19

to initiate Negro history programs if they teach in the urban area and if they have Negro students in their classes. The degree to which they believe thclr community to be concerned with Neqro history might also influence their decision to beoin n pKOgrJm

'litalics minel. These intuitive~ ~ ~ asaunotiona~_._._...- .have.- . - .not__ - Len validat&, leastwise not on a large scale."

In recent years, a mssouri study was designed to address the above assumptions. Uany aspects of the problem were researched and included: 1) the relationship betveen Negro history programs and the number of Negro atudents; 2) the relationship between Negro history programs and the type of community, 3) the relationship between Negro history programs and the teacher's perception of community concern; 4) the relationship between the type of community and the teacher's perception of community concern; and 5) the relationship between the teacher's perception of his community's concern and the number of Negro students in his class(es) . In that study the following conclusions were based upon the research findings: 1. Despite a legislative resolution, mandates by Uissouri State Department of Education, emphasis in current social studies literature, and obvious in]ustices done to the Negro in American history, there were many teachers who had not initiated any form of a Negro history

"John E. Guenther, .The Existence of Negro History Programs as Related to Community Concern for Negro History and Negro Enrollment,. The Negro Educational Review 22 (January 1971) :45. 70 program 1. Negro history programs occurred in urban schools, with black students in class, and where teachers felt their community was concerned with Negro history 3. Because many teachers had not responded to the need for Negro history, advocates of Negro history must develop some strategy to make teachers in nonurban, unconcerned white communities aware of the objectives to be gained from initiating a Negro history program *( The importance of the teacher cannot be overstated. Several educators have recently analyzed black history instruction in order to assess what the academic objectives of black history should be. Although opinions of bducators differ as to what academic skills should be developed, most educators are in accord on the importance of the teacher as the key person in maximizing the successful instruction leading toward the development of those skills.

In a recent article, Banks addressed the issue of teacher's attitudes as being the critical focus in teaching black history, and he cited support from Cuban. The teacher's attitude toward the black child, his perception of black history and culture, and his expectations for the child are more mportant than the materials and methods that he uses As Cuban insight- fully notes: "Less attention should be paid to additional books and courses . . . and more to the

"Ibid., p. 51. craftsman who will use the tools. Preachers of Black history know that the person is far more mportant than the material he uses:IP Elsewhere, Cuban has remarked that, . . . the caliber of the teacher determines the success or failure of ethnic content:'l

Those educators who have examined the materials of instruction in black history have noted the obvious faults of textbook treatment of Negroes. Abramowitz, who has conducted enlightenrng research into textbook treatment of Aeqroes,has implied that given improved text materials, the responsibility for utilizing such materials still lies with the teacher. Be asserted: Textbooks still have a long way to go, but it is very possible that we have failed to face up to the fact that putting material into textbooks is no guarantee that it oing to get through to the pupils in the classroom.is 19

Bare vied the teacher's role as one which must be based upon both philosophical direction and commitment. Xis comments concerning the teacher's philosophy stated that, . . . the teacher of black history and culture must also have a vision or picture of the kind of black history and culture black people want to build in

"Banks, 'Relevant Sccial Studies,. p. 69, citing Larry Cuban, .Black History, Negro History, and White Polk,. Saturday Review, 21 September 1968, p. 65. "Larry Cutan, 'Ethnic Content and White Instruc- tion,' Phi Delta Kappan 53 (January 1972) 273.

"Abramowitz, 'Textbooks," p. 307. 22

America and the kind of society they wish to help America become in relation to themselves." Ha cited Sloan's comments in regard to the teacher's sense of commitment to teaching Negro history:

Teacher Irving Sloan in an AFT booklet reviewing U S. history text's treatment of Negroes, had this to say. Only when we have teachers--as distinguished from texts-who are well versed in integrated history will our secondary students gain both facts and perspectives about the Negro in the history of our national past. This will come only as a result of specialized courses for teachers on the colleae level and a 1 ~~~~~~~ heightened sense of comitment by teachers about the importance of the subject.'' It is the writer's opinion that Sloan's comments regardlng secondary students is also applicable at the elementary level. Finally. it has been stated that, *Ultimately teachers, not textbooks, must strike racism from the heart of the nation's curriculum.." While the above literature has been directed at teachers per se, it is essential to note that what has been said about teachers is appropriate to all "educators" if any effective positive changes are to occur.

Academic goals and purposes Recognizing that regardless of the subject matter area there are academic needs to be met, literature

"Hare, .The Teaching of Black History," p. 387. "Ibid., p. 388.

"WOW to Integrate,. p. 22. 23 relevant to the specific academic skills to be acquired in learning black history were explored. Most of the literature focused on the importance of acquiring critical inquiry skills. In reference to recent attempts at curricular and instructional reforms in general, Cuban has remarked that the accumulation of factual knowledge has been secondary, as primary emphasis has been placed upon students' developing the skills of comprehension, analysis, and evalua- tion. Although he asserted that the social sciences, and history in particular, have been most resistant to changes, he acknowledged that,

As tardy and slow as changes have been, still some significant strides have been undertaken to introduce and sustain programs where children learn the skills of inquiry and apply them to new information." Banks refined this broad goal of skillful critical inquiry and specified that the goal of Black history should be to help students develop the ability to make reflective decisions so that they can resolve personal problems and, through social action, influence public policy and develop a sense of political efficacy 57

In addition, he perceived the acquisition of the skills of historical inquiry as one approach to helping students gain an understanding of history and being able to

"Cuban, 'Ethnic Content,. p. 272.

"James A. Banks, ed., Teaching Ethnic Studies (Washington, D.C.. National Council for Social Studies, 1973), p. 152. generalize about the nature of history. He suggested

further that throughout such an analysis, students should learn to recognize writers' biases, gaps in information, and difficulties that historians encounter in recording data from the past." Banks has suggested that in addition to developing critical insights into the Mture of histiography, black pupils need to learn to use critical inquiry skills to realistically appraise the social conditions which engulf their lives, e.9.. the real reasons why they are poor, full of self-hate, and possess hostility that sometunes explodes in ghetto streets.'' Through skillful instruction in critical analysis of controversial issues, Fenton believed that teachers were leas apt to impose their values on students, and more likely to help each student to define his personal values clearly. Iie asserted that, otherwise, lacking such a personal philosophy, the individual has no recourse except his motions vhen he must make up his mind about a controversial public issue." Although Fenton expected that the goals for black students of social studies were similar to those for

"Banks, Teaching the Black Experience, pp. 49-55.

"Banks, 'Relevant Social Studies," p. 68. "Penton, .Crispus Attucks," p. 398. students of any other race, he suggested that the peculiar position of blacks in America required a different set of priorities than those of suburban whites. Ergo, he out- lined five sets of goals for black Americans based on the past and present: 1) the development of a positive self- concept; 2) the growth of a set of attitudes conducive to learning: 3) the developnent of a clearly articulated democratic value system: 4) the growth of skills required for learning: and 5) the development of inquiry skills, particularly at the high cognitive levels."

KirrMn acknowledged the fact that a well-developed sense of personal pride and a knowledge of one's background was essential, but he felt they were not enough for Afro-American children. He noted that, .The student must be a well-rounded individual, whose academic abilities complement his cultural and social development."" nethodology and black history instruction General curriculum reform in social studies and history is underway as the preceding segment of this paper has indicated. But until curriculum reform is undertaken on a national level by dedicated teachers who are committed to including black history in their course of

"Ibid., pp. 397-98. "Joseph M. Kirman, Wear Sir. . . ,* Social Edu- cation 33 (Hay 1969). p 502. study, meaningful reform cannot occur. Inherent in this reform are changes in methodology related to the use of

textbooks. Whereas Fenton has advocated encouraging teachers to depart from traditional textbooks," Abramo- wit2 has pointed out problems related to both teachers and texts. Re addressed the problem thusly For if it is true that all the changes we make in the content of texts are voided by the failure of the teacher to properly develop Negro history, it is equally true that all our efforts to bring Negro history into texts are vitiated if the publisher pre- pares two editions of a text, one of which enables school districts to receive a lily-whate version of history."

Abramowitz has explalned further that .star editions' of texts--texts in which all reference, or all favorable reference, to Negroes or other minority groups vere excised-have existed for some time. In a study which he conducted recently to determine if 'star edition. texts were still being published, he found that two publishing houses still issued such editions but qualified their practice by stating that this policy was required through past commitments and by contracts which were still binding. ' ' On the positive side, however, a recent development of which all book purchasers should be cognizant. is the

"Penton, 'Crispus Attucks,. p. 399. ''Abramowitz, *Textbooks; p. 307.

''Ibid., p. 308. publishing of 'multiracial textbooks' which attempt, through illustrations of children with different ethnic backgrounds, to give a more representative outlook on America'# racially mixed society. The NAACP makes available an annotated bibliography of 399 preschool and elementary multiracial texts, entitled, "Integrated school Books :" Rowever, specific methodologies for integrating the

~choolcurriculum call for the following procedures that extend beyond textbooks: 1. Correct distortions in present American history textbooks 2. Supplement information that is now lacking in courses

3. Pill in the Negro 'vacuum" in areas other than history: for example, in reading, literature, art, muaic, science, and in the school library

4. Seek out extracurricular activities that will help make up for the deficits inherent in an all-white or segregated community " tiare supported the need to move away from textbooks, direly lacking anyway, and utilize creative syllabi (produced often with student collaboration) and guidelines culled from the laboratory of life." Therefore, methodology and content are intertwined as the student actually

""How to Integrate,. p. 24.

"Ibid., p. 21. "Hare, .The Teaching of Black History,. p. 307. 38 lives what he is learning. The need to utilize the community in place of the textbook received strong support from Bare who advocated the use of primary sources in a localized setting. Although his argument for such content and methodological approaches to black history was lengthy, it provided critical insight into the creative instructional processes needed, and thus it will be quoted almost in its entrrety: . . . the students are led to study frrst hand and raw sources, the contributions of the black race to Ameri- can history and culture with special reference to the given community. There are, for example, many black persons living in a black community whose parents, let alone their grandparents, were either slaves or freedmen or Boldiers in the Union Army or members of the ranks of black cowboys . . . who helped clear the American frontier westward. These individuals comprise an untapped fund of data on black hibtory and culture handed down to them at fireside by their parents but now already fading away and destined largely to die with their generation Many other types of community experts in some form of culture (such as jazz or blues music) could be utilized for classroom presentations of various kinds designed to enhance the student‘s knowledge as well as apprecia- tions of the intricacies of black culture.”

A Black Bistory of Cleveland, Ohio A search to date has led to the locating of one local black history, Russell Davis‘ Black Americans in Cleveland. The vork is an extensive one which traced the social conditions surrounding the Negro settlement of Cleveland, Ohio from the surveying of the Western Reserve

~ “Xbid., p. 388. 19 in 1796 to the election and subsequent re-election of Carl stokes as mayor in 1967 and 1969, respectively. Wesley asserted in his introductory remarks that:

Negroes have been residents of Cleveland for more than a century and a half, their advent dating about a decade after the founding of the city. It is the purpose of this book to tell the story of this group and thus fill a void. Minorities in American cities are too often overlooked, and Cleveland is no exception. While this group has always been subordinate, both in numbers and in influence, it presents a surprisingly interesting history within the community. of equal importance is the number of vigorous and unique per- mnalities who faced intelligently the problems, social, civic, and political, which developed within the city."

In the early chapters of the book Davis focused on the issues of slavery, abolition, colonization, and the early settlers' quest for civil rights and their struggle against the Black Laws. The Civil War and the Negro soldier's participation in it; the establishment of early black churches; the beginnings of early black newspapers; and the growth of black political involvement were presented in detailed accounts in subsequent chapters.

A twenty-year span comprised of the decade prior to and after the turn of the century was given considerable attention (three chapters) in terms of political, economic, and social advancement through individual and organized efforts. In the remainder of the book the author traced the struggle of black Americans in Cleveland as they

"Davis, Black Americans, p. 1. - 30

i1 af nal f elda, governmer 11 pos ms , cultural endeavors, public services, etc. over the next fifty years.''

Bistories of Akron, Ohio A number of local histories of Akron have been vritten since the city's founding in 1825. One of the earliest is Bierce's small volume, Historical Reminis- cences of Summit County, published in 1854. In this brief wrk Bierce provided a concise, easily read history of every township in the county. The Negro population at that time vas extremely -11 and no accounts were given in relation to their lives in Akron."

In 1881 Perrin authored The History of Summit County. The work is a voluminous one in which the author offered very detailed information on the history of various townships in Summit County. Its references to Negroes, however, were limited to a brief account of the operation of the underground railroad in Franklin Township. ' Fifty Years and Over of Akron and Summit countl,

slIbrd., pp. 7-414.

"Lucius V. Bierce, Aistorical Reminiscences of Summit County (Akron: T. L H. G. Canfield, Publishers, 854), pp. 3-a.

''william H. Perrin, ed , History of Summit count (Chicago- Baskin and Battey, Hist-, p. 634. 31 vritten by Lane and published in 1892, is a substantial rork in which the writer provided very comprehensive, detailed information on the city's growth. The inclusion of material related to Negroes focused on the fugitive slave law and the underground railroad, and contained considerable data on John Brown's activities as an abolitionist. Akron Negroes who served during the Civil War were listed and a brief history of two black churches was presented. '' The Centennial History of Summit County was written in 1908 by William 8. Doyle, former mayor of the City of Akron. Doyle's book is a massive volume which presented detailed comprehensive accounts on all facets of the city's settlement and growth. Over half of the book is comprised of biographical sketches. Twa black churches, their locations. and pastors were cited, and mention was made of the celebrated .Underground Railroad. that operated in Franklin Township." In 1917 Olin wrote Akron and Environs, an extensive history which began with a few short chapters that introduced the city and described its geology and

"Samuel A. lane, Fifty Years and Over of Akron and Summit County (Akron: Beacon Job Department, 18921, Chapters 21 and 22, pp. 212, 405, 408.

"William P. Doyle, Centennial Hlstory of Summit COuntY (Chicago Biographlcal Publishing Co , 1908). 32 archaeology. Attention was then turned to tracing the history of the site upon which Akron came to be built. Of the wealth of information provided on Akron, the author included chapters of substantial data on educational institutions, industry, churches, organizations and clubs, transportation, the press, and military matters. Comprehensive biographical eketches comprise about half of the volume. Hention was made of a few black churches: their names, locations, and pastors." Cherry's The Western Reserve and Early Ohio is a -11 volume published in 1921 in which the author recorded accounts of the settlement of the Western

Reserve. Be devoted two chapters to topics related to Negroes: the Underground Railroad and John Brown, the abolitionist. Although Cherry's treatment of the Under- ground Railroad was more elaborate than any yet cited, the brief account of the Underground Railroad which was described in Perrin's historical account was also included in Cherry's description of the operation of the Under- ground Railroad activities in Franklin Township." The authors of the Centennial History of Akron, vritten in 1925, provided information on the city's

"Oscar E. Olin, Akron and Environs (Chicago. Lewis Publishing Co., 1917), pp. 175, 177. "P. P. Cherry, Western Reserve and Early Ohio (Akron: R. L. Fouse, 19 1, pp 309-29. 33

development during its first one hundred years. Brief references to the colored troops in the Civil war: antislavery sentiment in Akron: the Underground Railroad: and

Akron's black churches then in existence, were inc1uded.l' Kenfield's Akron and Surrmit County, a three-volume work published in 1928, contained chapters on the founding and growth of Akron, women's organizations, local industry, businesses, education, the professions, transportation,

culture, etc., and provided a comprehensive history of Akron. The author devoted two chapters to two religious minority groups--those of the Catholic and Jewish faiths. Mterial on or related to Negroes was scattered and scant. Three Negro physicians were mentioned: several pages of data on John Brown were included: the same reference to the Underground Railroad as cited in Doyle's work was made in relation to Franklin Township's promotion of that means to freedom: and brief mention was made of the issue of slavery as it regarded conflicting faculty views at Western Reserve College in the 183Os.l'

In 1949 Allen's Rubber's Home Town was published. ais vork provided accounts of canal boat days, early

"Aennan Fetzer, James A Braden, et al., Centennial Aistory of Akron (Akron- Summit County Historical ~sso- ciation, 1925) , pp. 88-89, 577. settlement, and the author focused several chapters on the

rubber industry and its significance to the city's growth. while the narrative did not discuss the lives of Akron's Negroes, a few of the illustrations did include Negroes."

Unlike the other local histories Grimer's 1352

history, entitled Akron and Summit County, presented more information on social conditions that existed in the city's development in addition to the general historical

data. The effects of Spanish influenza, prohibition, the depression, and sports, on the lives of Akronites were

illustrative examples of Grismer's presentation of Akron's history. His historical analysis of Akron's citizers I included mre references to Negroes than the preceding histories. Although his accounts were not detailed, Grismer described some of the conditions vhich Negroes faced throughout the city's history. In his earlier chapters, Grismer discussed the antislavery sentiments, effects of the fugitive slave law in Akron: and John Brown, the abolitionist. In a later chapter, he discussed the social, economic, and political plight of Negroes due to racial prejudice early in the 1900s. A reference to the the slum clearance projects and the need for improved

~ "Hugh Allen, Rubber's Home Town (New York. - Stratford House, 1949), pp. 19, 13. 35 busing for Negroes in the 1940s was also included." The local history written at the elementary school level, Klippert's The Akron Story, is one in which the author presented material on the schools, the industries, the churches, the pioneer days, and the Indians. The author made reference to Negroes in the discussion of slavery and the Underground Railroad, but she provided no information on Negro organizations or churchea that existed in the year of the book's publication,

1959."

Review of Available Sources of Records Relevant to the Inquiry In order to research a local black history, several available source materials will be examined. Diverse types of records exist in the following forms. official records, oral traditions, personal records, pictorial records, printed materials, published materials, and relics. The official records known to be available are the minutes of the meetings and annual reports of the Akron Community Service Center and Urban League (ACSCWL); the minutes of the meetings of Eta Tau LamMa Chapter of Alpha

"Karl Grismer, Akron and Summit count (Akron Summit County Historical Society, 1952) , pp. 63-66, 402-3, 510-12. ''Sara Klippert, The Akron Story (Akron Board of mucation of Akron, Ohio, 1959) , pp 9T-117 passim 36

Phi Alpha Fraternity: a report from the files on the Negro Twenty-five Year Club: and information compiled by a charter member of the NAACP, Miss Mary Holmes. There are a number of citizens who have resided approxhtely fifty years in Akron and who would be most helpful in rendering eyewitness accounts of events which Occurred during their lives. mwng these residents are

Mary Aolmea, Emmer Lancaster, &nos Forman, Ednah Lewis, Edith DelaneY Mitchell, Robert Dunbar, and Bertha Moore. Several families have ancestors who were among the early

Negro settlers in Akron. The ancestors of Horace Murray, Urs. Leon Love, Rollin Clayton, and Mrs. Lynetta Craig lived in Akron in the mid-1800s. and have passed on oral traditions to their descendants Personal records have been kept by a number of Negro residents. These records include a written account of her family's history by Virginia Robinson: family and/or personal scrapbooks whicn are in the personal collections of Faith Robinson, Amos Forman, and Herman Poole; books relating to family members Long the personal collections of Eskimo Bracken and Margaret McClain, Journal articles, newspaper clippings, certificates, etc. in the personal papers of Katie Jackson, and original drafts of speeches by Mary Holmes in her personal files. Buildings, trophies, awards, plaques, and statues constitute some of the relics that help to tell the history of black Americans in Akron, Ohio. Such remains are too numerous to give an account of here. However, tw examples of those who have had tribute paid to them through the dedication of relics in their memory were Arthur Snell, for whom a plaque was erected at the County Safety Building, and Horace Stewart, for whom Stewart

Primary School was named.

A slide presentation of the programs of the Akron Community Service Center and Urban League: early data on microfilm: and photographs from black families' personal collections comprise the types of pictorial records available.

Printed materials which provide available information are found in the form of printed programs of various events throughout Akron's history, newspaper advertisements, arad advertisements in printed programs or directories. Pamphlets, leaflets, Black newspapers, directories, books, journals, periodicals, the local newspaper, and historical journals are a source of published data and provide a wealth of information to educators. Tyo directories are of particular value: The Akron Negro Directory and A Directory of Black Clubs and Organizations in Akron,

Ohio. The former directory over thirty years old and _. is was compiled by A. Kingsberry through a personal canvass and through information given by civic and public ~. - 38 organizations, namely: The University of Akron, Akron Police Department, municipal and county authorities, and the Akron Colored Community Center and its affiliated organizations."

. The latter directory is a very recent publication

(1974) which vas a joint venture of two black organizations, the Akron Community Service Center and Urban League and Eta Tau LamMa Chapter (the Akron chapter) of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity. Their combined efforts, according to William Threatt, represented another attempt by both organizations to be of service to the Akron community and to have .an instrument that will strengthen the Black community in its quest for unfettered opportunity and growth in Akron, Ohio.." The local newspaper, the Akron Beacon Journal, and black newspapers which included Akron news--the

Informer and Cleveland Call and Post--have considerable data on Akron Negroes. Early newspaper accounts in the Summit Beacon published articles that related to the issues of slavery, abolition, colonization, and Ohio's

Black Laws.

"A. Kingsberry, comp., The Akron Negro Directory (n.p., 1940), p. 3. "Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity and Akron Urban League and Community Service Center, A Directory of Black Clubs and Organizations in Akron, Ohio (Akron Rebar Repro- -uc t ions, 39

Hethodologies and Strategies Historians do not assume that relics and oral acoounts are authentic or that records are necessarily genuine. Therefore, the writer will use the methods of historical criticism to investigate each source prior to writing. In tke course of the inquiry at hand, the sources of data will be subjected to both external and internal criticism. In terms of external criticism,events, physical edifices, and relics will be traced to determine if they could have been in existence at the time stated in nitten and/or oral accounts; authorship of documents will be investigated to determine if the vork is actually that of the author; manuscripts will be examined to determine if they are originals or copies, and if wrks are undated, attempts will be made to ascertain dates. Internal criticism of oral accounts or written documents vi11 focus on determining: 1) whether or not personal biases enter into the accounts; 2) if the words and phrases used possess the same meanings today; 3) if, based on me prior knowledge of the person being interviewed, he or she speaks seriously, sarcastically, humor- ously, etc.; and 4) if persons' names, the names of places, hildings, etc., are spelled correctly. Interviews will be scheduled with persons who are believed to be able to give credible eyewitness accounts Of the events that occurred during their lifetimes. In addition to the external and internal criticism of documents and/or oral accounts, the writer will also subject the ideas presented in the study to external and internal analysis. In a discussion of the dilemma that arises in the writing of intellectual history, Welter has made a distinction between the two approaches of external or internal analysis suggesting that

Pursuing internal intellectual history, scholars have . . . tended to lay primary emphasis on malor philosophical concepts, on literary and philosophical techniques of analysis, on the study of ideas for their own sake. Pursuing external intellectual history, they have stressed the content of popular beliefs, sociological and ideological modes of analysis, description rather than close study of public opinion. . . . 65 Welter explained further that although there are scholars who do not observe the distinction in their writings, it has become customary to classify historical scblarly works either as the 'history of ideas. or as .intellectual history. depending upon which methodology is practiced--internal or external analysis. He specified that: Usually a work in the history of ideas is lust that: an extended analysis of a single idea or cluster of ideas in its successive formulations, treating it in virtual isolation from other aspects of history . . On the other hand, a work in intellectual history usually assumes the preeminence of the general

"Welter, *The History of Ideas," p. 237 41

historic process, and it treats the ideas it deals with as functions of that process. In other words, intellectual history attempts the study of history-in- general in its specifically intellectual aspects. ...61 As relates specifically to this study, the writer will utilize aspects of both methodologies. External analysis will be employed in the examination of the ideas surrounding the social issues--at the national, state, and local levels--which influenced and governed the lives of Akron’s black populace. The principal beliefs that were forces in shaping the policy, practices, and laws which affected the treatment and development of Akron‘s Negroes will be analyzed and documented. Internal analysis will be focused on the particular idea that education is a process that occurs in an educational setting which can be either within a formal school or in an informal environment. Specifically, the writer will subject to internal analysis the idea that the education of Akron’s blacks has occurred through their families, churches, organizations, and agencies, as well as--and possibly more than--in the formal school netting.

General Organization of the Study The writer has been concerned an Chapter One with the presentation of an overview of the study wherein: 1) the problem was stated and ita significance to

“Ibid., pp. 237-38. 'educators' was noted: 2) delimitations and clarifications of terms were presented: 3) literature relevant to the study was reviewed; and 4) methodologies and strategies to be used in the conduct of the research were defined. Attention will now be turned to the balance of the study.

In Chapter hro, the national and state issues that vere of consequence to the lives of Akron's black Ameri- cans from 1825 to 1899 will be examined. The writer will study the effects of the changes in racial composition upon the citizens' attitudes toward Negroes from 1900 through 1919 in Chapter Three. The struggle of Akron's black citizens to resist the prevailing racial oppression in the years from 1920 to 1939 will be researched in chapter Four. In Chapter Five, the efforte of Akron's black residents to advance through education, employment, and civic pride from 1940 to 1959 will be investigated. In Chapter six, local response to national issues from the civil rights movement to the present will be explored. The writer will summarize the study; present conclusions based on the findings, and offer recommendations in chapter Seven.

smary The problem as stated in this study was for the vriter to develop a general history of Akron's black 43 residents from the founding of the city in 1825 to the present time. Therefore, the writer detailed the significance and purpose of the study to indicate its worth. An investigation of the national black history instruction prior to and following the civil rights mvement and the specific advantages of a local black history were pre- aented to support the writer's contention that such a study muld be valuable. The delimitations of the study were set: clarification of key terms and concepts were presented: and literature relevant to the study was reviewed. The writer investigated relevant literature concerning 1) the academic aspects of black history instruction, 2) a local black history of Cleveland: 3) local histories of Akron: and 4) available records which could be utilized for writing the history of Akron's black population. nethodologies and strategies involved in the course of the inquiry were provided which indicated that four approaches would be used External and internal criticism of records and/or oral accounts would be conducted, and ideas presented would be subjected to external and

internal analysis. The organization of the study surmnarized the general outline of the first chapter and stated the topic for each chapter in the balance of the study. WTER 11

AKRON'S BUCK RESIDENTS. 1825-1899

Bac kground Informat ion To undertake the development of Akron's black history and to reduce it to written form is to attempt to relate an objective account of a people's lives based on scattered and fragmented data. Few early records were kept because the conditions under which many blacKs had to exist frequently demanded that living in secrecy vas their only alternative to slavery or death. In order to understand Akron's early black residents, it is hportant to know the type of environment in which they settled shortly after the city's founding. Thus, it is necessary to investigate the conditions that existed in the nation and early Ohio prior to 1825. The lives of Akron's black and white settlers were inter- related, and the life styles blacks adopted were dependent upon two main factors: 1) national movements that developed as a response to slavery, and 2) the diverse sentiments of Ohio's white pioneers toward Negroes. Each of these factors will be examined in depth.

44 National Movements in Response to Slavery The Colonization Movement

During the period that Negroes were settling in Akron, a coloniration movement was taking place throughout the nation. Although its origins date back to the late 1780s. several earlier proposals to implement colonization had met with defeat.' Several years later, however, a free Negro sea captain, Paul Cuffee, who recognized that the lives of free blacks were restricted and that the OppartunitieS in America were very limited, began to work toward making colonization a reality. By 1815 he trans- parted and established thirty-eight blacks on the west coast of Africa.' Subsequently other colonization efforts gained momenta and on 28 December 1816 the American Colonization

Society, a governmental organization, adopted its constitution and its official name. The American Society for

Colonizing the Free People of Color of These United

States.' The specified purposes for the formation of the

'Charles H Wesley, ed., International Library of Negro Life and History In Freedom's Footsteps (New York' Publisher's Co., Inc. under the auspices of The Associa- tion for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1968), pp. 156-57.

'Carter G. wocdson, The Ne ro In Our Histor , 8th ed. (Washington, D C. The Associ:ted Publishers, Tnc., 19451, pp. 283-84. 'ACcounts vary as to the date of the organization _-

organization were .for . . . collecting information' and assisting the federal government in formulating and launching a colony in Africa, "or such other places as Congrese shall deem most expedient."' These early colonization efforts appeared to be one solution to the .problem of free Negroes.' Some blacks, realizing the nardships they had to endure even as freemen, saw colonization as a means toward a better life. whites wught colonization, however. for very different reasons, few of which were directed toward helping Negroes. One account of white support of colonization suggested that: . . . some whites believed free blacks threatened the institution of slavery. But not all who favored colonization did so for that reason. Some favored colonization either because they were convinced that blacks could never adlust to Western civilization, or because they believed that returning blacks muld take Christianity and civilization to Africa. Some whites in the North thought a decrease in the number of blacks vould make it easier for them to find jobs.' As the movement progressed, many free blacks from southern states accepted the idea of colonization, but northern Negroes, never fully supportive of the movement,

of the American Colonizatlon Society. While Wesley cited

'Wesley, International Library Freedom's Footsteps, p. 162. 'Johneon, Ebny Pictorial, p. 186. became bitterly opposed to its implementation. In 1817 leading free black men in Philadelphia, who supported the view of total abolishment of slavery, denounced colonization and urged its rejection on the grounds that it granted .benefits. to those who did not ask for them and .benefits. which were actually considered "injuries' by blacks. ' . . Despite black opposition, the movement was successful for approximately ten years. However, with the advent of militant abolitionists in 1831, colonization as a wlution to .the Negro problem" began to lose its effectiveness. Because of problems within the American Coloni- zation Society: dissatisfaction among the colonists in

Liberia: and declining support of the colonization movement, the demise of the American Colonization Society began in the decade prior to the civil War.

The Antislavery Movement Another national movement which was occurring at the time that blacks were settling in Akron was the antislavery movement. Its advocates were both black and white persons who denounced the evils of slavery. The movement had its roots early in the nation's history, as blacks agitated for action against slavery

'Mice D. Adams, The Neglected Period of Anti- Slavery in America (Cambridge Radcliffe College, 1908. reprint ed., Gloucester, Mass. Peter Smith, 1964), p. 202. prior to the Revolutionary War, and whites lent support to their efforts. An illustrative account of the early cooperation in the antislavery struggle stated that a group of slaves in western Massachusetts petitioned a local Cormnittee of Correspondence for assistance in obtaining their freedom in 1775. The response of the rhites was related thusly: The white inhabitants convened shortly after receiving the petition and resolved, "That we abhor the enslav- ing of the Negroes in this country and vhenever there shall be a door opened, or opportunity presented for anything to be done for the emancipation of Negroes, re rill use our influence and endeavor that such a thing my be brought about:'

During the 6ame year, the first American abolition society, the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, was founded in the month of April. Antislavery sentiment actually dates back to the late seventeenth century, however, when a group of Quakers delivered an attack on slavery at Germantown, Pennsylvania in 1688.'

As the movenent to abolish slavery gained support, bath blacks and whites began to organize to espouse their antislavery positions. While the white abolitionists employed a moderate approach and worked toward gradual and peaceful emancipation, blacks were becoming vocal and regarded self-help and unity as mperative.

'wesley, International Library: Freedom's Footsteps, p. 82.

'Woodson, Negro in Our Aistory, p. 97. 49

The contrast in the white moderate and black self- help approaches to the antislavery issue can be seen in the following accounts:

They [whites] sent petitions to state and national legislatures urging the abolition of the domestic and foreign slave trade and the gradual abolition of slavery itself. Frequently, they bought slaves in order to free them They tried to mount campaigns to persuade their fellow citizens to boycott the products of slave labor. They assisted free Negroes in finding wployment and attempted to educate the blacks. In 1787, the African Free School was formed and sponsored by the New York Manumission Society.' Before the Revolutionary War, slaves had brought actions in court against their masters for the freedom which they regarded as their right even before the 'unalienable rights" of men. During the war and afterward, blacks petitioned state and local governments to outlaw the slave trade and to begin moving toward emancipation."

The early abolitionists' efforts were supportive of both colonization and abolition and most of the antislavery activity was conducted through the press. Publi- cations in the form of newspapers, pamphlets, and books were distributed throughout the nation and were often turned or otherwise destroyed by those who maintained a proslavery posture. In spite of the movements to rid the country of slavery, the .peculiar institution' became more firmly entrenched in the South and colonization efforts

'Wesley, International Library- Freedom's Footstep& p. 103. "Johnson, Ebony Pictorial, p. 198. 50 overshadowed the antislavery movement for a short time. The 1830s witnessed a different perspective of slavery, however, as the abolitionists became more militant and based their antislavery sentiments on moral and religious grounds. The doctrine of colonization was denounced as whites joined with blacks in opposition to deporting Negroes to settle in colonies on foreign soil, The Mmes of David Walker, William Wells Brown, Frederick Douglass, and Sojourner Truth came to be well known as black abolitionists, while such white men as Benjamin Lundy, WendellPhillips, William Lloyd Garrison, Arthur Tappan, and John Brown became malor antislavery activists." The movement which continued until the outbreak of the Civil War was successful in gaining white sympathizers because of the initiative and involvement of blacks who had resolved to determine their own futures. The Ebony Pictorial History of Black America indicated that. Participation of blacks in the antislavery movement was a critical factor in its success Many whites who oblected to slavery only on vague principle became actively involved in the struggle after meeting black movement leaders. Blacks were among the most effective abolitionist orators, and white abolitionists often introduced black agents to white audiences to show what blacks could attain if given the opportunity.''

"Ibld., pp. 198-212, passim. I'Ibid., p. 221. .- 51

Escape from slavery movements Resistance to slavery followed varying forms, two of which have been examined--the colonization and antislavery wvements. One further form of resistance was frequently paramount--escape.

Amidst the colonization and antislavery movements, slavery flourished. The helpless Negro was the victim of brutal and unmerciful treatment and the only alternatives to such inhuman existence were death or escape. Though many slaves chose the former, the option of escape offered the only ray of hope. The tone of slavery and the ordeals and encumbrances involved in attempting to escape were described as follows: One of the most widespread forms of slave protests was escape. mst slaves ran away on the spur of the moment--often after a particularly cruel beating-- without any particular geographic knowledge of where they had been and where they were going. They were usually caught, or returned voluntarily after a few days of starving and after recognizing the futility of the undertaking. But there were also numerous slaves who spent years carefully planning an escape and who waited patiently for the most propitious moment to carry out their plan Many of them succeeded, some by relying on their own resourcefulness, others by link- ing up with the Underground Railroad--a widely cast network of aid stations set up by whites and black abolitionists for the specific purpose of helping slaves escape. Estimates regarding the number of slaves who reached freedom throuah various manners of escape vary widely, ranging from+forty thousand to one hundred thousand. 1 I By 1793, the same year in which Eli Whitney

"Ibid., p. 128. invented the cotton gin, the first Fugitive Slave Law bas enacted to legislate the return of escaped slaves. Controversy over the interpretation of the law soon ensued for some American statemnen felt that each state was responsible for returning fugitive slaves, while others

believed that the federal government should enforce its om law. According to Siebert. portions of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 made the following provisions- It provided for the reclamation of both fugitives from justice and from labor. Its sections dealing with the latter empowered the owner, his agent or attorney to seize the fugitive and take hm before a United States Circuit or District Court within the State where the arrest was made, or before a local magistrate in the county where it occurred. The clamants' testmony, or an affidavit from a magistrate of the State he came from, must certify that the fugitive owed service as claimed. . . . Anyone hindering his arrest, or rescuing or harboring hm after notification that he was a fugitive from labor, was liable to a fine of $500.''

Although the law was enacted to curtail the flight of slaves toward freedom and to assist slaveowners in regaining their slaves, it left free blacks defenseless because

The law did not provide Negroes with trial by jury, and conviction required only the master's oral testimony or an affidavit certified by a magistrate of the state from which the slave was sald to have fled.'$

"Wilbur Henry Siebert, The Mysteries of Ohio's Underground Railroad (Columbus. rang's College Book Co., 1951). p. 3. "Johnson, Ebony Pictorial, p. 232. 53

As stringent as the law was meant to be, conflict over its meaning, accompanied by antislavery sentiment, made it difficult to enforce. Slaves continued to escape and the Underground Railroad came to be the main vehicle toyards freedom. Differing accounts of the Underground Bailroad--its origins, its legendary character, and its historical events--have been written." The Organized efforts of the Underground Railroad bad penetrated the South by 1819 and by the 1830s the wvement was widespread, operating in violation of federal law. The Urdergrowd Railroad lines began on Southern plantations and ran in the West--either to the Ohio or upper Hississippi River--or to points in the East, through

Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Because there was a great deal of danger involved in its operation, the slaves generally traveled at night. "Conductors" transported them in farm wagons, covered wagons, and carriages to .stations. spaced ten to twenty miles apart. There fugitives would eat, rest, and prepare to mve onward. The need for a more stringent law was obvious at the close of the 1840s. Runaway slaves were on the increase and uncooperative northern states passed their

"See Wesley, International Library- Freedom's Foot- steps, p. 186; Siebert, Mysteries of Railroad, pp 1-330, Larry Gara, The Liberty Line (Lexington: University Press, 1961). pp. 1-194; Johnson, Ebony Pictorial, pp. 226-32. 54 own Personal Liberty Laws to prevent slaveholders from danmding the return of escaped slaves. Thus, a new law vas decreed--the Fugitive slave Law of 1850. a stronger law which required Northern citizens to return runaway slaves to their owners. Federal officers were offered a fee for captured slaves and persons assisting slaves in escaping could be imprisoned for six months and fined one thousand dollars." The enactment of such a restrictive bill, contrary to its intention, served as a catalyst in increasing the number of runaway slaves. The need for secrecy vas fore- most as is suggested in the folloving passage. Word of the progress of passengers was passed along the .grapevine telegraph" to stations further on. One secret message, mailed by a "conductor. to the next mstationmastermin 1859, gave needed information to those who knew its purpose: .By tomorrow evening's mil, you will receive two volumes of 'The Irrepres- sible Conflict' bound in black. After perusal, please forward.. . . .le Systematic efforts and cooperation were needed to operate the railroad, and the combination of courage and organization on the part of former slaves, free Negroes, and white supporters developed into what was 'probably one of history's most intricate networks of conspiracy.."

L7~~hn~n,EbOnY Pictorial, p. 234.

"Ibid., p. 229. "Wesley, InternatioMl Library Freedom's Foot- =,p. 251. The me8 of fugitive slaves John Uason, Elijah Anderson, Joaiah Henson. and Harriet Tuhan, stand out as leaders in the Underground Railroad. In addition, Jane Lewis, a black wmn of NeW Lebanon, Ohio, was known for her

heroism in regularly rowing escaping slaves across the Ohio River."

Northern free blacks assisted in the movement by raising funds. providing shelter and transportation for fugitives, and helping to organize the railroad's network. Among the better known for their work with the Underground

Railroad were Robert Purvis, William Stlll, David mggles, Rederick Douglass, J. W. Loguen, Martin Delaney, and uwis Hayden. * Mnies needed to support the operation of the railroad were raised by Quakers, vigilance committees, philanthropists, conductors, and other Underground Rail- road wrkers.

Early White Settlers in Ohio Diverse sentiments toward Negroes

In researching the settlement of Negroes in Ohio in its early days, Wilson suggested that

In order to appreciate the attitude toward the negro"

'oJohneon, Ebony Pictorial, pp. 230, 232.

"Ibid., p. 232. "The wrd *Negro" has not always been capitallzed 56

in Ohio, it is necessary to know something of the background of the people who comprised the population of the state in its embryo form as a part of the Northwest Territory." Wileon's account detailed how the diverse popula- tions which settled in the various parts of the state held varying attitudes toward Negroes, which in turn affected blacks. Two groups of Scotch-Irish people migrated to Ohio. The element coming from the southern states of Virginia and Kentucky established homes in the southern part of the state while those from Pennsylvania and the Middle States dispersed themselves in various parts of Ohio. Although the Scotch-Irish were generally united in their opposition toward slavery and regarded the issue as economic rather than moral, they differed in their attitudes toward free Negroes. The southern Scotch-Irish did not want Negroes residing in Ohio: the Scotch-Irish from Pennsylvania and the Middle States had not been involved in slavery and felt ita introduction into the state would create economic problems. Ergo, the latter group's attitudes toward by many writers. Moon stated that W. E. E. DuBois, "as much as any single person . . . was responsible for converting 'negro' into 'Negro.' Month after month, he cam- paigned in the pages of The Crisis for recognition of the designation as a proper noun with the capital N: (Henry Lee Moon, comp.. The Emerging Thoughts of W. E. 8. DuBois [New York- Smon and SchusterXm v P. 37). l'Charles J. Wilson, .The Negro in Early Ohio,. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 39 (October 1930) -721. ~ _- 57 -e Negroes were rather moderate. Although they did not favor slavery for themselves, they were not opposed to other 6tates having slaves if it did not interfere with their

lives. I'

The New England delegation that settled almost exclusively in the Western Reserve or around the Muskingum piver comprised a very important group in early Ohio. Being of a Puritan background, these pioneers were opposed to slavery on humanitarian and moral grounds.'a Those New Englanders who inhabited the Western Reserve were of particular importance in affecting the lives of the Negroes who established homes in Akron, for

it vas in the Western Reserve territory that Akron was

eventually founded in 1825.

A brief history of the Western Reserve indicated that it earned its name in a rather interesting fashion.

During the Colonial Era of American history, royal grants were made to the colonies on the eastern seacoast giving to each of them western territories which had only vaguely defined boundaries. Following the Revolutionary War and the formdtion of the Federal Union, several states ceded their claims to these western lands, for their overlapping and conflicting boundaries could have become controversial issues. The united States government thereby acquired the

*'Ibid., pp. 722-24. "Ibid., p. 724. land and organized it into the Northwest Territory in 1787. The state of Connecticut, upon relinquishing its claim to its western lands, in September 1786, reserved a portion of that land and the .reserved. portion came to be known as the Western Reserve. The purpose of putting aside a part of the land was twofold: 1) the western portion--the 'Fire Lands. or .Sufferer's Lands.--was given to Connecticut's citizens who had suffered sxbstantial losses during the war, and 2) the eastern half was dedicated to Connecticut's school fund." Little is known about the black man's first contact with the area upon which Akron came to be built, but Davis indicated that a black man in the surveying party of Hoses Cleaveland helped to survey the Western Reserve and did come as far as the site of Cleveland." The New Englanders who eventually settled in the

Western Reserve had a tradition of being humanitarians and wrked toward the elimination of slavery. They were not alone in their sentiments for the Quakers held smilar, if not stronger, views. According to Wilson, the Quakers who settled in Ohio were divided into a northern and southern

"The Western Reserve is shown on Maps 1 and 2 in appendix 2. In Fetzer Centennial History, p. 63 and Griwer Akron and Summit. p. 31. "Davis, Black Americans, pp. 5-6. 59

branch, but regardless of the region from which they had emigrated, they were united in their opposition to slavery. The majority of Quakers settled in the central and south- eastern counties of the state, and it was from this group of settlers that the strong Ohio Abolitionists of the 1830s and 1840s evolved.'' In m,the early white settlers in Ohio were a

heterogeneous population who expressed both proslavery and antislavery views. Wilson, however, suggests that Ohioans were united in their opposition to slavery." HOreover, little unification existed among them on the advisability of admitting blacks into the state as freemen.

Ohio's Black Laws Due to the combination of diverse feelings toward the presence of free blacks in Ohio and the influence of the more populous southern Ohio element, legislation eventually was enacted which was intended to restrict Ohio's black population. Black Ohioans, although free, were not allowed to vote, and thus had no voice in the government. Because southern men from the river counties of Ohio were opposed to the very presence of Negroes in Ohio,

"Wilson, .The Negro in Ohio,. p. 726. "See Grismer, Akron and Summit, p. 164; Wilson, 'The Negro in Ohio,. p. 726. - . 60 they wished to prevent their migration into Ohio and to persuade those free Negroes residing in the state to move elsewhere. Their desires reached fruition when the "black ccde. of 1804 came into existence. Among the sections of an act to regulate black and mulatto persons, written into the Ohio law of 1804, were the following provisions:

Section 1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of the state of Ohio, That from and after the 1st day of June next, no black or mulatto person shall be permitted to settle or reside in this state, unless he or she shall first produce a fair certificate from some court vithin the United States of his or her actual freedom, which certificate shall be attested by the clerk of said court and the seal thereof annexed thereto by the said clerk."

Section 5. That every black or mulatto person who shall come to reside in this state, with such certificate as is required in the first section of this act, shall, within tw years, have the same recorded in the clerk's office, in the county in which he or she means to reside, for which he or she shall pay to the clerk twelve and a half cents, and the clerk shall give him or her a certificate of such record." other sections legislated that blacks had to enter their names and the names of their children on records at the clerk's office; that citizens were not permitted to hire colored persons unless they produced a certificate of freedom; that persons harmring or secreting or preventing owners from taking their slaves were to be punished, that

"Ohio, General Assembly, Acts of a General Nature, vol. 22 (Columbus: P. H. Olmsted, 1824) e. 335. "Ibid., p. 336. 61

owners of slaves could apply to the associate judge or justice of the peace to clam their slaves1 and that persons were not to remove Negroes without proving property.”

I. Feeling a need for even more restrictive legisla- f. tion against Negroes migrating into Ohio, the legislature ,, ?. in 1807 enacted further laws to amend the former law. Section 1 of the law of 1807 read Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the state of Ohio, That no negro or mulatto person shall be permitted to emigrate into and settle within this state, unless such negro or mulatto person, shall within twenty days thereafter, enter into bond with two or more freehold sureties, in the penal sum of five hundred dollars, before the clerk of the court of common pleas of the county in which such negro or mulatto may wish to reside, (to be approved of by the clerk) conditioned for the good behavior of such negro or mulatto, and moreover to pay for the support of such person, in case he, she or they should thereafter be found within any township in this state, unable to support themselves, and if any negro or mulatto person shall migrate into this state, and not comply with the provisions of this act, it shall be the duty of the overseers of the poor of the township where such negro or mulatto person may be found, to remove immediately, such black or mulatto person, in the same manner as is required in the case of paupers.” Although the first several sections of the act applied to Negroes entering the state, the status of all blacks who resided in the state was considered by whites

as subordinate as is evident in Section 4 of the act,

which stated that

”Ibid.. pp. 335-36. ”Ibid., pp. 336-37. . . . no black or mulatto person or persons shall hereafter be permitted to be sworn or give evidence in any COUrt of record, or elsewhere, in this state, in any cause depending or matter of controversy, vhere either party to the same is a white person, or in any prosecution which shall be instituted in behalf of this state against any white person?' Wilson discussed the results of the legislation of 1807 from its negative and positive standpoints. The negative effects of the law being that: 1) the Negro could be brutally mistreated without recourse$ 2) Lf the Negro could receive a trial he wuld probably appear before an all-white prejudiced jury; and 3) because he bas denied the ballot he could not force a redress of his grievances. The positive effects indicated that the laws helped to solidify the abolitionists' sentments. Sum- marizing the status of the Negro in regard to the "black codes,' Wilson asserted- Although the "black codes' were not immediately enforced, they presented a basis for potential rank injustice, and inasmuch as they were not repealed until 1849, a free negro in Ohio was not really .tree' until approxmately a decade before the Civil war.aa Further legislation was enacted through the years, some which aided blacks and other legislation which was aimed at preventing abolitionists from helping blacks. In 1819, an act to punish kidnapping went into effect and

l'lbid., p. 337. l'wilson, 'The Negro in Ohio," p. 766. 63 provided some protection for free blacks." It was later repealed and a similar act was enacted in 1831 which, in sum, prohibited the seizing of a free black or mulatto person with the intent to transport him out of the state8 required that a person must establish proof that a black or mulatto person is his property before transporting him out of the state; and provided that any person violating this act could be imprisoned for three to seven years."

AQ abolitionists became more militant, however, resolutions were presented in 1836 which suggested in port that the state of Ohio had no power to legislate on the subject of slavery and great forebearance should be used in the discussion of subjects which prove disturbing in their nature, or injurious to the peace and quiet of the country." By the time that some of the Black Laws were repealed in 1849, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was enforced and blacks continued to feel the sting of discrimination in Ohio.

A summary of the conditions existing around 1825

"Ohio, General Assembly, Acts of a General Nature, vol. 22, p. 338.

"Ohio, General Assembly, Acts of a General Nature, vol. 29 (Columbus: Olmsted and BaiThache, 1831) , P. 442. "Ohio, General Assembly, Acts of a General Nature, vol. 34 (Columbus- James B. Gardiner, 1836) , P- 657. - 64

indicated that the national movements of colonization and abolition, along with attempts to escape from slavery, were occuring in Ohio at the time that blacks settled in Akron. As Negroes migrated to Ohio to escape slavery, they encountered--and had to abide by--the Black Laws passed by hostile, white Ohioans who opposed blacks reaiding in their presence. Although the laws were not heavily enforced throughout the state, Negroes suffered

under the very existence of such laws. Because the Ohio , settlers in the Western Reserve were opposed to slavery on humanitarian grounds, the blacks who made Akron their home were somewhat more advantaged in terms of being in less Imstile territory. Such was the state of racial affairs when Akron was founded in 1825.

Akron's Early Black Settlers The records on early black settlers are scant and fragmented for a variety of reasons 1) escaping slaves had to live in secrecy; 2) free blacks had little protection against the Fugitive Slave Law! and 3) records on

blacks were not considered of particular Importance. To construct the history of Akron's Negroes in the very early years, therefore, obviously requires some conjecture. The available records that do exist provide some information on tw important aspects of black history, namely: 1) general data on the residents, and 2) Akron's 65 involvement in the national movements in response to alavery.

' General Information on Akron's Black Pioneers The city had a unique development for there actually existed tvo Akrons prior to the spring of 1836. General Simon Perkins and Paul Williams had originally founded Akron in 1825. At that time the village of Akron van located in Portage county and the town plat was recorded in Ravenna, the county seat, on 6 December 1825?' several years later an adjoining village, called Cascade, came into being. Founded by General Perkins and Dr. Eliakim Crosby, the town was platted and recorded in Ravenna in 1833. Subsequently, the name Cascade was changed to Akron, and thus two Akrons existed. In order to make the distinction between the two, the original Akron was called South Akron, and the former Cascade became known as North Akron."

A great rivalry existed between the two villages, sometimes erupting in violence. However, in the winter of

1835-36, the tw Akrons jointly petitioned the General Assembly for an Act of Incorporation which was passed on

"Grismer, Akron and Smlt, p. 81. "The tvo Akrons are shown on Nap 3 in appendix 2. In Grimer, Akron and Summit, p. 97. 66

12 mrch 1836, and the two villages of Akron became one..‘ In the city’s infancy, the black population was almost negligible. The 1830 census indicated that there were only five free colored persons residing in Portage Township.” Akron remained a part of Portage County for fifteen years, until Summit County was created in 1840.” By that year, Akron’s black population had increased to a figure .somewhere between twenty and forty. The sixth census reported a total of twenty” while the Akron Negro Directory placed the number of blacks at thirty-nine.‘’ The first black birth in Won has been reported to be that of Augustus W. Rove, born on IO December 1830.” Bowever, census information indicated that Rove was born in Tennessee and placed his age at thirty-seven in the

“Olin, Akron and Environs, p. 66. “U.S., Bureau of Census, 1830 Population schedules, Ohio, vol. 13, File Microcopies OF Records in the National Archives, Number 19, Roll 138, Fifth Census of the United States.

“A map of Smlt County, Hap 4, is included in appendix 2. In Grisrner, Akron and Sumit, p. 129. “U.S., Bureau of Census, Sixth Census or Enumera- tion of the Inhabitants of the United States (Washington. Blair and Rives, 1841) I P. 332. “A. Kingsberry, Akron Negro, p. 15.

“Ibid.; Akron Beacon Journal, 21 October 1973, p. 811. 67 year 1880.‘ ’ One of the earliest black families to reside in Ahon was the family of Edward and Sarah Smith who came to the city in 1836. Smith had been a barber in Columbus, Ohio for approximately twenty years prior to coming to Akron. Because Columbus had an abundance of barbers. mith migrated to the developing city of Akron where he opened a shop. Combining his business savings with the income from his properties in Columbus, Smith purchased a lot on East Market Street. On this property the family erectad tn, buildings--one a frame home for themselves and the other a building which they rented for business purposes.”

The black population grew in the 1840s ae is indicated by the 1850 federal census figure of seventy-three blacks in Akron.” Among Akron‘s black pioneers were the families of: James Darnell, Sarah Smith (widow of Edward Smith), Mansfield Parcham, David Berry, George Miller,

John Knight, Tamer Ann Cooper, David Johnson, John McGi11, Eannah Williams, John Dunning, James Reynolds, Caroline Bell, Henry Cramer, Alexander Gaines, Shubard Field, John

“U.S., Bureau of Census, Ohio Population Schedules, vol. 60, Roll 1068, Hicrocopy Number T-9. “Idne, Fifty Years, p. 583. “Kingsberry, Akron Negro, p. 15. 68

Brooks, and James Worthinqton." Very few of the early black settlers owned property during this time, but records show that the real estate values of four of the black families were assessed thusly: Sarah Smith's property, 2,000 dollars, David Johnson's property, 100 dollars; Hannah Williams' property, 300 dollars; and James Worthington's property, 500 dollars.''

The enactment of a stricter Fuqitive Slave Law in 1850 undoubtedly affected the black ppulation in Akron in tw ways: that is, fewer Negroes came to reside in Akron, and many of the black Akronites fled to settle in Canada. The 1860 census figures reflected the gravity of the I pituation, reporting only twenty-four black residents in Akron that year Among the blacks who did reside in the city during the decade prior to 1860 were Jane Lennon, Rebecca knight, Xina Edwin, and the families of Elisha mse, ~ohnBrooks, and Tamer Ann cooper."

According to a series of newspaper articles

"U.S., Bureau of Census, Population schedules of the Seventh Census of the United States, 1850 , National Archives Microfilm Publications, Microcopy Number 432, Roll 732. 'IIbid. "Kingsberry, Akron Negro, p. 15. "U.S., Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Eighth Census of the United States, 1860, National Archives Microfilm Publications, Microcopy Number 653, Roll 1039. 69 published in 1973, the ancestors of other black families did migrate to and settle in Akron in the 1850s. Among these vere Joseph Dandridge, Frank Hailstock, and James mrrison. Some of the descendants of Dandridge, Hailstock, and Morrison vho currently reside in Akron are. Hrs. Lynetta Craig and Hrs. Thelma Williams, granddaughters of

Joseph Dandridge; Horace Murray and Edward Hailstock, grandsons of Frank Hailstock, and Hrs. Leon Love, James mrrison's granddaughter.l' Little is known about the occupations of the early black settlers, but available records show that prior to the Civil War most black men were listed as laborers. Three black males vere identified as barbers and one blackmith, mason, sailor, and boatman were reparted.l'

Akron's Involvement in National Movements Regarding Slavery The Colonization Movement

The movements that existed nationally were mirrored in various forms on the local level in Akron. Although records are insufficient to prove that Akron's black citiaens were involved in the colonization movement of the American Colonization Society, it is possible that blacks

"See Akron Beacon Journal, 25 October 1973, p. B15, Akron Beacon Journal, 22 October 1973, p. A17, Ak&k Beacon Journal, 21 October 1973, p. H11. '5U.S., Bureau of Census, Seventh Census, 1850 Microfilm. I 70

in the Akron vicinity could have aided the cause. A newspaper article in 1851 told about three young colored men of Cincinnati who planned to go to Liberia as emigrants to remain in that republic and to lay the foundation of the proposed colony of Ohio in Africa. The article, signed by David Christy, agent for the American Colonization society for Ohio, specified that- Being intelligent and well educated young men, the Ohio Colonization Committee have assigned to tw of them, the duty of examining and reporting the facts in relation to the best point in the newly purchased territory for the establishment of our Ohio colony. A considerable number in different parts of the state, are proposing to emigrate, and the work nov begun, will need to secure it6 success, the prompt and energetic support of the friends of the cause. . . .56 In a similar way, it can only be speculated that in 1852, blacks in the Akron vicinity my have attended the state Convention of Colored Persons--a convention of delegates from the Colored People of the State. h%en the meeting convened in Cincinnati, several views regarding

colonization were espoused. The president, J. H. Langston of Oberlin, spoke strongly in favor of some scheme of colonization: William H. Day, a graduate from Oberlin, was opposed to a general emigration plan, but would not dis- courage those individuals who chose to colonize Africa, the West Indies or elsewhere: and C. H. Langston of Columbus decidedly favored emigration to some territory on

"Akron Sumit Beacon, 22 January 1851. the American continent where blacks could exist as a self- governed nation. Though differing on their views concerning colonization, all who spoke appeared to be in agreement on the .opposition to specific measures of the . . . Colonization Society, maintaining that its promoters were not true friends of colored people:” Although Akron’s early black settlers may have attended meetings regarding colonization, it is an extremely remote possibility that any of them actually went to colonize Liberia, for an 1853 newspaper article stated that a chartered vessel which planned to sail for Liberia had received applications for passase from 178 persons, only one of whom was from Ohio. The price of passage and six months support in Liberia was sixty dollars per person, which attracted the blacks from the southern states, but at this point in tune did not entice many of those who were freemen in the North.” Some evidence that black8 in Akron were concerned with the issue of colonization does exist. At the close of the 1850s the Summit and Medina Counties Convention of the People of Color convened when the house was called to order by J. H. Brooks of Summit County. William B. Hail-

stock and A. T. Payne served as secretaries. A discussion

“Ibid., 28 January 1852. ”Ibid., 9 March 1853. of colonization ensued which brought forth ten resolutions. Three, which follow, reflect the temper of the persons in attendance. They read ne it resolved: That the Lmnediate emigration to Central America or some South American provinLes, is the only way that we can ever hope for the elevation of our own posterity. That the insults and prejudices of the whites tovard us have frequently alienated our feelings from our native country, and have dispelled all feelings of patriotism from their bosoms, and that we regard all white men as our enemies who do not prove themselves otherwise. That our sincere thanks be tcndered to the great and good men of our country who are laboring so arduously and assiduously for our oppressed and down- trodden race. "

The Antislavery Movement It vas the antislavery movement, however, which attracted mare attention in the Akron area than did efforts toward colonization. The humanitarian spirit prevailed among many and the protests against slavery were forceful. As early as the 1830s abolitionists were confronted with problems concerning their antislavery protests. Several northerners sympathized with the souther- ner's position even though not owning slaves themselves. Incidents vhich occurred at Summit County's Western Reserve college in Hudson, Ohio exemplified the conflictlng

"ALron Summit County Beacon, 5 January 1859 73 sentiments on the slavery question in 1833. Rev. Charles 8. Storrs, the institution's first president," became a fervent abolitionist after meeting another influential and dedicated'abolitionist, Theodore Weld, in 1832." Storrs, who held profound views against slavery and spoke out openly on the sublect, fell into disfavor among several of the faculty and board members who were proslavery advocates. Because many of the students were from families who were from the southern portion of the state and had southern backgrounds, the enrollments and endownents dropped markedly. A resolution was passed thereafter condemning the promulgation of radical views. Not until Storrs' death, and the resignation of faculty members who supported ham, did the dis- harmony cease.'1 One of the most fiery abolitionists during the early yaars of Akron's growth was John Brown, who resided for a time in the city in the 1840s. Lane, Cherry, Ken- field, Klippert, and Grismer have provided accounts of hie

"Cherry cited Dr. Henry H. Storrs a8 being Western Reserve College's first president in Western Reserve, p 324, Davis in Black Americans, p. 12 and Grismer in Akron and Summit, p. 164 reported the first president's nam- Charlea B. Storrs, and papers in the "Wilbur H. Siebert Uanuscript Collection," BOX 110, Columbus, Ohio Historical Society referred to the first president as Charles B. stowe. "Davis, Black Americans, p. 12. "Grismer, Akron and summit. p. 164. antislavery activities for which he became famous.''

BrOn grew up in Hudson, Ohio, site of Western Reserve College, and is said to have drawn a large part of his inspiration from the teachings of the college's first president, Storrs. He lived in Hudson for about twenty years, moved to Pennsylvania for several years, and returned to Ohio in 1833, settling in Kent. Brown became involved in the sheep and mol bueiress around 1840 and eventually came to Akron in 1844. He was provided with a frame house which still stands at Diagonal and Copley Roads. Employed by Colonel Sunon Perkins, son of the general, Brown later formed a partnership with him and the firm of Perkins and Brown was established. They had a successful business for some time until escalation of prices, on Brown's part, caused the firm to suffer substantial losses and thus dissolve. . Ruined financially, Brown went to New York and resided there for several years, during which tune he became greatly concerned over the slavery issue. By 1855 he participated in border warfare in Kansas and soon became a leader in the antislavery movement in the state, carrying out raids on the proslavery forces. In 1856 Brown came to Akron and held several

"See Lane, Pift Years . 586-92, Cherry, Western Reserve, pp&&:yeld, Akron and Summit County, pp. 54-58, Klippert, The Akron Story, pp. 91-93, 115. 75 meetings which resulted in his obtaining a building in which he stored rifles, shotguns, revolvers, pistols, and other forms of arms and amunition. The building, which una known as John Brown‘s Arsenal, was located on Broadway, just north of Exchange Street.” In December of that same year Brown spoke in Akron at the Empire Hall. An article on that event related that Brown, a former Akron resident who was well known for his participation in the Kansas troubles, addressed an audience on .the affairs in that unhappy territory:” Three years later Brown was convicted of treason and sentenced to be hanged for his activities at Harpers Ferry. On the day of his execution, 2 December 1859, the citizens of Akron mourned. Flags were flown at half-mast; bells were tolled, the court of common pleas adjourned; and stores and businesses closed in respect for the martyrdom of JO~Brown.“ A portion of a letter which Brown wrote in response to correspondence from his close friend, Mr. Lora Case, follows. Written moments before his execution, it exemplified the type of man he was. It read My Dear Sir--Your most kind and cheering letter of the 28th of November, is received. Such an out-burst

“Cherry, Western Reserve, p. 325.

I’Akron Summit Beacon, 17 December 1856.

“Grismer, Akron and Summit, p, 166. 76

of warm hearted sympathy, not only for myself, but also for those who have no helper, compels me to steal a mment from those allowed me in which to prepare for my last change, to send you a few words. Such a feeling as you manifest makes you shine (in my estimation) in the midst of this wicked and perverse generation, as a light in the world, and may you ever prove yourself equal to the high estmte I have placed upon you. . . .$7 While John Brown was an active abolitionist throughout several states over a period of decades, the organized abolitionist movement felt its effects in Akron around 1850 when citizens met to discuss their interests in a proposed new constitution for Ohio. The reported on a meeting to be held for that purpose: The undersigned citizens of Summit County, anxious to do something if possible, towards securing to our disfranchised countrymen of color, the rights of suffrage, under the new constitution, propose that a convention be held at Akron on the 19th day of Feb., inst. at one o'clock P M. to take into consideration this and other matters pertaining to the rights of men. Carlos Smith, H. S. Carter, Jothan Blakelee, Ira P. Sperry, Wm. C. Oviatt. F. H. Wright, F. w. Upson, John Lane, D. F. Bruner, A. G. Babcock, George Robbins, Levis Arner, J. s. Carpenter, James M. Hale, G. N. Abbey, G. J. Ackley. D. P. Randall, C. W. Palmer, J. C. Berry, George DOW, Josiah Hains, John Davis, John B. Harrison, Marvin Williams, George Bowden, I. C. Pendleton, H. A. Hitchcock, Grant 0. Turner, Austin Babcock, P. G. Somers, Albert G. Mallison, Joseph Cole, and Warren Lane. There were other names received, but they were too late for insertion.ca After a few meetings to organize and set up committees, several resolutions were made which revealed the

"~ane, Fifty Years, p. 591. "Akron Summit Beacon, 13 February 1850.' 77 committee's undisputed stand against racial discrimination and which ably expressed their indignation toward injustice. Two resolutions will be cited to illustrate their feelings. They read- Be it resolved. That the editor of any political paper in this county who is not willing or has not the moral and political courage to advocate the incorporation into the anticipated new constitution of Ohio, a clause enfranchising the colored population of our State, is totally unhurthy of the confidence and support of the freemen of Summit County. That a law should be passed in the state forbidding to slave catchers the use of our ]ails, and punishing vith fine and imprisonment any of our citizens who should be found aiding in catching or sending back fugitive slaves."

Following their meeting, the Surrunit County abolitionists received a letter of encouragement from William H. Day, the well-known black leader in Cleveland, wherein he related his admiration and respect for their efforts to secure for blacks their right to vote. He expressed in eloquent words the hope and frustration that he felt and said in part- There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which taken at the flood leads on to fortune mitted, all the voyage of our life Is bound in shallows and in miseries On such a full sea are we now afloat, And we must take the current when it serves, Or lose our ventures...... On Lake Champlain under Commodore McDonough, my father fought in blood up to his ankles, to gain for me rights of which I am now deprived by law. And

"Ibid., 27 February 1850. 70

thouqh he carried to his arave the marks of the battie, what did they avail hm? What has it availed his children? . . .70

Along with the abolition movement there was a general humanitarian movement underway throughout the nation. COmOn issues were concerned with the der- privileged, women's rights, temperance, peace, and other reforms. Noted blacks, Frederick Douglass, Willlam Wells Brown, and Sojourner Truth participated in these movements. When a Women's Rights Convention convened at Stone Church in Akron on 28 My 1851, Sojourner Truth was present. It vas at this convention that she delivered her now famous address." Although the Summit Beacon did not report her address, it made the following acknowledgment: The .bright, particular stars. of the convention, aside from the wrthy home circle, were ms. Coe of New York, Hrs. Swisshelm of Pittsburgh, Hrs. Gage of kConnelsville, . . . and a number more whose names we are not familiar with. An old colored lady from Uassachusetts. nearly six feet high, once a slave in New York, who boasts the somewhat singular name SWOURNER TRUTH, won upon all by her quaint utterance of good hard sense at intervals during the sittings of the convention 'I

A portion of her speech which captivated the audience follows

"Ibid. "Great American Women's Speeches, Caedon Records, Inc., 1973, Side TWO, sojourner Truth (c. 1797-1883) .Ain't I a Woman?" (Convention in Akron, Ohio 28-29 my 1851) read by Claudia McNeil.

"Akron Summit Beacon, 4 June 1851. 79

That man over there say that women needs to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud puddles, or gives me any best place1 And ain't I a *roman? Look at me1 Look at my arm1 I have ploughed, and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me1 And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man--when I could get it--and bear the lash as well1 And ain't I (I H)mbn? I have borne thirteen children, and seen them most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me1 And ain't I a womani.79 That there existed a humanitarian mood on the part of many white citizens in Akron was also reflected in thek reception of a theatrical production of Uncle Tom's ---a play with an antislavery theme based on Harriet Beecher Stowe's book. Whereas the Rinney and Company's American Dramatics Company presented the play in Akron's Union Hall without incident," a Negro preacher was imprisoned under sentence of ten years for the possession of a copy of Uncle Tom's Cabin in the state of Maryland."

Escape from slavery movements

The Fugitive Slave Law drd not prevent slaves from attempting to escape. The brutality of slavery was severe enough that it alone motivated blacks to become freedom bound. Because of Ohio's geographical position and the fervor of its settlers for abolition, it was the chief

"Johnson, Ebony Pictorial, p. 204. "Akron Summit Beacon, 12 April 1854.

"Akron Summit County Beacon, 7 October 1857. 80 -.. CL center of Underground Railroad activities." Hundreds of blacks traveled through Ohio as they made their way to Canada. '' One particularly descriptive account of a fugitive slave's escape to freedom was reprinted in the Summit -Beacon in 1856. Taken from the Trenton State Gazette, it renders a tale which has typical of the unsung black heroes of that time. Entitled -A Remarkable Incident,' it is cited in full because it is representative of what those fugitives who passed through Akron may have endured, serves as an illustrative example of the black man's struggle to survive: and mirrors the sympathy with the antislavery view prevalent in Akron at the time.

A few nights since there passed through this city, on the railroad bound for Canada a family of eight fugitive slaves. One of these--the leading spirit of the whole--was a voman sixty years of age, a bold, courageous, prompt and energetic mman. Two years ago she has living as a slave in the South. She was the mother of six children, all of whom she had seen torn from her arms when old enough to be useful, and sold away from her. One day she overheard her master bargaining with a . . . driver, who desired to purchase for the far South, her grandson, a boy of some fifteen years old. Stung to the quick by this design of stripping her of the last of her kindred, she instantly resolved on flight. The same night she started with her boy for the North. Night after night they traveled by the North star--the only guide the helpless fugitive knows in making for the land of Freedom and one that deceives him not, since it is fixed in the heavens. After long

"Johnson, Ebony Pictorial, pp. 226, 228.

"Ohio's Underground Railroads are shown on Map 5 in appendix 2. In Siebert, Mysteries of Railroad. 81

and painful wanderings they arrived in Canada. Aere this heroic woman hired herself at wages. Tvo months ago with purse well filled she started back to the residence of her old master at the south Here, alone, she concealed herself in the thickets, a fugitive from Freedom--cared for, however, by the Eew trusty souls to whom she revealed the dangerous secret of her presence in the land of bondage. After remaining there some two weeks, she collected seven of her children and grandchildren and started with them for the North. Long and slow and anxious was their journey. The same unerring star shone faithfully from above upon their midnight pathway. By day they lay by, concealing among the thickets of the country, through which they made a beeline for the North. No toil discouraged, no danger dismayed this heroic woman. Many times the party suffered to the verge of starvation. She cheered them onward--she was their only .guide,. their counselor and friend.. Worn down with the hardships of this perilous journey, with garments torn to shreds and fluttering in the breeze, with shoes worn into fragments, without hats or bonnets, this heroine conducted her party to the house of a friend. Word was immediately passed around among some of the good souls who dwell there as the salt of the earth, that eight fugitives were concealed in a garret and destitute of means of further progress. The word was followed by the deed. All necessary means were instantly provided for their safe transmission to the North, and the train which passed through this city on the same night, carried the whole party toward the home of their leader in Canada, where they have by this tune undoubtedly arrived we doubt if a similar instance of devotion to friends and kindred is on record. It required a dariq mind to ever conceive the idea of going back to the scene of bondage and encountering the hazard of dis- covery in the lion's den But nothing short of the [sic1 that heroism which under other circumstances has made men immortal, was needed to put into execution an enterprise so full of difficulty and danger Such spirits, if any, not only deserve to be free but are fitted to enjoy the largest liberty.'' The citizens in the city of Akron were probably as involved in assisting fugitives as they were in the

"Akron Summit Beacon, 21 November 1855. 82 antislavery movement. The Centennial History of Akron asserted that: Akron--like the rest of the Western Reserve--shared with its parent New England the most violent sentiments against slavery. During the Fifties one artery of the Underground Railway system led through Akron, and there were stations here and in other parts of the county." One of those known to be an operator in Akron was Zebbes stout who lived about five miles south of the city.

Ee was a Yankee farmer who made the last run from his receiving place to Cleveland. Another of the operators in the Akron area was Sidney Edgerton, who later became a governor of the Montana territory. He operated the Under- ground Railroad in Tallmadge, Ohio, where his home was one of the stations. Edgerton came to live in Tallmadge in the spring of 1844, attended Cincinnati IAW School in

1846, and at one time practiced law in Akron.'' The names of Dr. Joseph Cole of Akron, Dr. Amos Wright Of Tallmadge Township, and ~ohnHall of Springfield are also cited as

being conductors in the Akron area." The position of Akron's abolitionists expressed furor against injustice and was verbalized repeatedly as to which the following incidents will attest. Because of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850,

"Petzer, Centennial History, p. 88. "'Siebert Manuscript Collection,. Box 110. "Siebert, Mysteries of Railroad, p. 270. 83 reactions were evoked which resulted in a request for a public meeting to be held on 16 October 1851 for the purpose of taking into consideration what course of action was deemed necessary in regard to that law. The strong feeling of disfavor towards the law and the commitment to aid blacks is reflected in the following words. The strange infatuation which led to the enactment of a law so inhuman and unjust, should be dispeled for- ever. There is no occasion for alarm among the colored citizens of this section. An attempt to drag any of them into slavery could be made here only at the peril of life." One week later similar remarks were echoed Public feeling is here moved to its very depths and will find utterances in resolves strong and earnest. The pains and penalties of the law have no terror for our citizens. They can not be made to divest themselves of their humanity. The fugitive from Slavery will not be turned away empty from their doors, nor can they be made supple instruments of the South in his reclamation. . . . Its heartless provisions have aroused a feeling of abhorrence toward the "peculiar institution" that requires such legislation for its suppart which would render perilous the mission of the slave catcher in this section." neetings in Bath, Cuyahoga Falls, and Trumbull County created like responses." Yet, blacks in Akron lived in constant fear of the effects of the Fugitive Slave Iaw. Their fears were not unwarranted for in 1854 an attempt to capture Jim Worthington, a black barber, and

"Akron Summit Beacon, 16 October 1851. "Ibid., 23 October 1851. "See Akron Summit Beacon, 30 October 1851, 6, 20 November 1851. transport him to the South brought to full realization the emotional stress under which blacks were forced to live. Historians Grismer and Lane have given full accounts of the episode and a 1973 newspaper article also reported the atory .*' Grimer noted that on 17 Uay 1854, slavecatchers came to Akron in an attempt to capture Worthington by producing a phony warrant for his arrest on counterfeit charges. Northington was denied the opportunity to talk vith his attorney, General Lucius V. Bierce, and wan forced to accompany the 'officers" to the train depot. Abolitionists Eleazer Sackett, Christopher Wolcott, and

William upson helped to alert Lhe townsmen and arrlved at the train station in time to thwart the slavecatchers'

> scheme and demand Worthington's release. A near riot was prevented. Lane provided a much more detailed account and suggested that Worthingfon attributed his plight to the fact that his wife betrayed his secret and was thus partially responsible for the slavecatchers' attempts to capture him. The newspaper account inaccurately set the date at nay 1857, but otherwise reported similar information as related in Grismer and Lane's accounts.

"See Grismer, Akron ad Summit, p. 165-66, Lane, Fifty Years, pp. 580-82; and Akron Beacon Journal, 24 October 1973, p. C1. . 85

After Worthington's escape, the Summit Beacon stated that he had resided in Akron atout twelve years. Eis prior residence and whether or not he was in fact a fugitive or former slave was unknown.'' The mood of the community towards slavecatchers was expressed in a portion of that account: It is the impression of many here that he was a slave but they are not for taking a point of so much mpor- tance for granted. The time never has been when a peaceable citizen could thus be smuggled away from Summit County into Slavery. . . . Worthington is now in all probability beyond the reach of the Slave- hunter; but whether he is or not, it will not be well for either Southern or Northern men to come again into this community on such an errand." Lane related how other fugitives were alarmed after the narrow escape of Worthington and thus moved to Canada. Be cites the particular case of Hrs. Sarah Smith who left Akron and joined the Canadian colony after having resided

in Akron for eighteen years. According to Lane, many other local blacks left Akron and moved to Canada . . . either because they were escaped slaves, or because, having been torn free, but with colored skins, they were fearful of being kidnapped into slavery, as had in several well authenticated instances, already been done." The concern of Akron's black leaders was obvious

"Grismer noted that it was learned later that Worthington's former owner had pulled strings to have his runaway slave returned, in Akron and Summit, p. 166. ''~kron summit Beacon, 24 my 1854. "Lane, Fifty Years, p. 583. 86 for they held a meeting er tha year a 3 invited th colored citizens of Akron and vicinity to attend. The purpose of the meeting was to consider the best methods of preventing the friends of the nation from betraying others into slavery. Signatures of J. H. Brooks, W. Halestock [el, Moses Jones, Robert Hurse, George Jackson, and David Manse accompanied the article." Escaping fugitives continued to travel to Canada in the years preceding the Civil War. Brief accounts of fugitive slaves passing through Akron were reported in the late 1850s. One account noted that two fugitives considered valuable chattel passed through Akron in pursuit of freedom under difficulties." The second implied the fear expressed by a fugitive who passed through the city on his way to Canada asking nothing except to be shown the road. The tension and pressure of the deplorable conditions existing for runaway slaves were made manifest in the article which continued One of the most painful things noticeable in a fugitive is his constant suspicion and distrust. He never is secure, never feels confidence in those who befriend hun. The dread of pursuit or betrayal is ever in his mind. He is as wary as if he tho't himself still in the enemy's country, liable to capture." The strain under which blacks lived in the 1850s

"Akron Summit Beacon, 6 December 1854.

''Ibid., 16 April 1856. "Akron Summit County Beacon, 5 May 1858. was vary acute. Yet in spite of their hardships, blacks took time to engage in cultural discussions.. An article in an edition of the Sununit Beacon in 1856 stated that the colored citizens of Cuyabga Falls and Akron held a discussion at Union Hall in which they debated the question, 'WhD has suffered the most at the hands of the white man- the African or the Indian?. The reporter concluded the article with the comment, -What would have been the result if the Indian had been permitted to argue his own case we cannot say, but as the discussion stood last week it was a draw. . . . .*a

Civil War Years Through Reconstruction The paucity of records on blacks in Akron from the years 1860 to 1877 restricts the information to a discussion of Akron's black Civil War veterans and the progress Negroes mcde toward being united in order to become independent.

Ahon's Black Civil War Veterans As the nation grew more divided on the iesue of slavery, the alienation climaxed in the outbreak of the Civil War. Akron responded immediately to the call and the first companies recruited were A and B, Akron Union

''uron Summit Beacon, 16 April 1856. E8 _.

Light Infantry and Company C, Akron Buckeye Infantry." No black men were in these companies, however, for as Wesley points out. Colored citizens in several parts of the state offered their services as soldiers, but these offers were consistently refused during 1861 and the first part of 1862." In order to provide the military background of Akron's black Civil War veterans, a brief history of Negro soldiers in Ohio follows. It wasn't until 17 July 1862 that Congress autho- rixed the President to 'accept persons of African descent for war services for which they were competent..)' Approximately su( months later the first successful movement in the North to utilize black troops was initiated on 26 January 1863 when Secretary of War Stanton empowered Governor John A. Andrew of Massachusetts to raise volunteer companies for duty in Massachusetts and elsewhere. Such volunteers could enlist for three years and could include those of African descent. The regiment, comprised of those of African descent, was to be known as the Pifty- fourth Mssachunetts Volunteers." Thus blacks who may have enlisted from Akron during the early years of the

"Grismer, Akron and Summit, p. 167. "Charles H. Wesley, Ohio Ne roes in the Civil War (Columbus, Ohio State University F'r',ss, 1963) , e. 22. "Ibid., p. 24. "Ibid., pp. 24-25. 69

Civil War probably joined the Fifty-fourth Regiment.

With the appointment of John !I. Langston as agent for recruitment in Ohio and the Midwest, the enlistment of colored men progressed. Langston, a well-known black attorney and a prominent figure in convention activities among colored people, was influential among blacks. xis task, however, was a most difficult one because *a major obstacle to recruitment was that colored soldiers were paid less than white soldiers."" As Wesley indicated: It vas not until June 15, 1864 that Congress adopted an act providing that colored soldiers would receive the same pay, uniforms, arms, equipment, rations, medical and hospital attendance and emoluments (other than bounty) as white soldiers." Records did not always distinguish where black enlistees were assigned during the early days of the civil War. Thus, aome of Ohio's black recruits who served in the nassachusetts regiment may not have been identified as coming from Ohio. Governor Tod recognized this problem and requested that Massachusetts' Governor Andrew keep the colored men of Ohio in separate companies and record their

Mmes, ages, and place of residence BO that Ohio would have 'the full benefit of all enlistments from the State and the recruits themselves the benefit of the State associations to the same extent nearly as if organized into

"Ibid., p. 27.

"Lbid., p. 35. 90

a state regiment."* Although Governor Tod had opposed the acceptance of blacks in Ohio for military service in 1861 and 1862, by 27 Way 1863 he appealed to Secretary Stanton to be given the authority to raise a colored regment. Stanton replied positively, Gtatiilg that .it was the design of the Depart- - ment 'to raise colored troops wherever it can be done,' I but he thought that Governor Andrew of Massachusetts should go on with his plans. . . . .I00 Not until 1 November 1863 was an Ohio Negro regiment called into service by the War Department--the name of the regiment being the Fifth United States Colored hoops. Its active participation in expeditions throughout various locations in the states of Virginia and North Carolina were well known and it distinguished itself particularly at the Battle of Petersburg."' By 11 January 1864 a second black regiment, the Twenty-seventh United States Colored Troops, was organized at Camp Delaware. This regiment fought from the Rapidan to the James in May and June 1864, participating in the siege of Petersburg and Richmond, and in the mine explo- sion at Petersburg on 30 ~uly1864.10' Several honors were accorded both Negro regiments.

'*Ibid., p. 26. "'Ibid., p. 33.

"'Ibid., p. 37. "'Ibid., p. 39. 91

It was officially reported that the Twenty-seventh Regi- ment had .distinguished itself for unsurpassed gallantry and good Conduct upon the battlefield.. The Fifth Reyi- ment, along with several other regiments, had the word .Petereburg. inscribed on its banner for its gallantry in capturing the enmy's mrks and guns, and had the further distinction of having the vords *New Market Heights. inscribed on its colors for the same reason.lU' There were also hundreds of unassigned recruits from Ohio who were credited to several Congressional dis- tricte. Although their number is unknown because of insufficient records, it is known that many were assigned to the Sixteenth, Seventeenth, Forty-fourth, and Seventy- second Regiments of the United States Colored Troops, as vel1 as the Fifth Regiment of the Unlted States Colored Heavy Artillery.'o' Available records on Akron's black Civil War veterans are lmited. The Akron Negro Directorx llsted James Robinson, Hoses James, Oven Hailstock, Frank Hail- stock, John W. Brooks, Absalom €I.Brooks, Washington Martin, and James Morrison as those who enlisted from

Akron in the Union Army in 1861.'u' The foregoing history of Ohio's Negroes in the Civil War indicated, however,

'"Ibid. "'Ibid. "'Kingsberry, Akron Negro, p. 13. 92 tha Negroes wer not recruited in the North until 186 Lane provided some background information on the Fifth United States Colored Infantry and cited the names of Akron's black Civil War veterans and the regiment to which they were credited thusly: Absalom A. Brooks and John W. Brooks (sons of our former well-known colored citizen John H. Brooks), Gustavus Edinqton (nephew of Hrs. Washington Martin), orderly sergeant of Company F, and Owen Hailstock.18'

Prank W. Hailstock was reported as serving in the

Twenty-second United States Colored Infantry and Moses Jones'" and James Uorrison were cited as performing duty in the Twenty-seventh United States Colored Infantry.'o' The Centennial History of Akron did not list the black Akronites who served in the Civil War, but it did present an unofficial list of the names of the battles in which the Fifth Regiment of the United States Colored hoops participated, namely: New Kent C H., City Point, Fort Darling, Petersburg (3 battles), New Market Heights, Fair

Oaks, Sugar Loaf Hill, Federal Point, and Wilmington.lo' Following the close of the Civil War, both Morrison and Hailstock returned to Akron. Morrison met and married

l0'lane, Fifty Years, p. 405. "'Lane, in Fift Years reported the name as being mses Jones rather eiamesas listed in the Akron Negro Directory. "'Ibid., p. 408.

"'Fetzer, Centennial History, p. 511. mily Hailstock, a resident in "Old Germantown. (currently mst Akron), in 1865. Approximdtely four years later the mrrieons purchased property on Livingston Street, which was a part of the Benjamin Codding Allotment. There the descendants of the mrrison family resided until October 1972, when the city began to purchase their land for highway construction.

The mrrisons celebrated their fiftieth wedding anniversary one year before Emily Wrrison's death in 1916. Pour years later James Morrison expired. Hrs. Leon Love, Ibrrison's granddaughter, is a current resident of Akron."' Bailstock, like Morrison, married soon after his return from military service, and he and his wife, the former Hattie Turner, reared several children at their residence on Furnace Street.

It was while working at Goodrich that Hailstock learned the blacksmith trade at which he worked for many years at Akron's City Shop on Spring Street. The last fifteen years of his life, however, weir spent as a park- ing lot attendant at the courthouse. Bailstock was an active participant in political I organizations and an original member of the Silver Leaf

Lodge of the Masons. He spent many days touring area

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 21 October 1973, p. ~11. 94

schools, making countless speeches. In 1927 Hailstock passed away leaving two children, Harry, father of Edward

Bailstock: and Elizabeth, mother of Horace Murray. Hail- stcck and Murray are both currently residing in Akron.'" Another Civil War veteran, Alvin Smith, came to Akron after the end of the war in 1865 and resided in the city most of his life until his death in 1948. Smith was born on 15 October 1843 in a little cabin

in Fleming County, Kentucky. At the age of nineteen, after being sold as a slave for 5760.50 on an auction block, he ran away to loin the Union Army, managing to escape from Kentucky into Ohio by crossing the Ohio River. Polloving his discharge from the service, Smith came to Akron where he learned and worked at the plastering trade. 'I For two years he searched to find his mother, brothers, and sisters who had been living in secrecy in Kentucky, not knowing that they were free. Upon finding them, Smith brought them to Akron and took up residence on Easel Street."' Be became a member of the Masonic Lodge and John Pulton Post NO. 272 of the American Legion. Smith frequently participated in Akron's Memorial Day

"'Ibid., 22 October 1973, pp. A16-17.

"'Ibid., 14 April 1948. "'Interview with Rollin Smith and Rollin IC. Clay- ton, 619 mver Ave., Akron, Ohlo, 7 November 1974. 95 parade. I' As the Civil War neared its end, the population of Akron had increased to the extent that on 21 Sanuary 1865

Akron became a city. Although the 1860 census had shown a marked decline in the number of blacks, the total population by 14 December 1864 had surpassed five thousand enabling the village of Akron to be eligible to advance to a .city of the second class.w11'

Early Steps Toward Unification and Independence The few blacks who resided in Akron during this period were beginning to make progress in terms of becoming independent economically, socially, and politically. AS early as 1861, William D. Stevens, father of the black philanthropist, George Stevens, purchased property on Main Street, which later became a portion of the land on which the current Main Branch of the Akron Public Library was erected. I ' Illustrative examples of other early black land- owners and the years in which they purchased lots are: Washington Martin, 1863; Tamer Ann Cooper (whose property was located where the current Board of Education's

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 11 October 1948.

"'olin, Akron Environs, p. 67. "'Summit County Deed Records, Book 42, p. 212. Akron, Ohio. <--. 96

Administration Building stands), 1864; James and Emily

lbrrison, 1869; Frank Hailstock, 1869, Smith Dandridge,

18731 and Isham Smith, 1874.ll' Ftesidential patterns indicated that most blacks resided in the area of North Broadway, North Kigh, and Furnace Streets. - The need for unification and spiritual strength

undoubtedly influenced some of Akron's black citizens to join together and form their own church. Throughout Ohio, churches excluded Negroes more often than they admitted them thus causing blacks to establish separate churches or to sit in the 'Negro gallery.--separate pews for colored

persons. ' I' Akron's first black church was established in 1866 when a muall group of Negroes began to meet in private homes or halls in order to worship Although they had no money, they held steadfastly to a dream of having their

own building in which to worship. Their dream was realized in the late 1860s or early 1870s and their first house of worship was the old Perkins [School] building

which had been abandoned. The building was purchased and moved via the Ohio Canal to a site near West Exchange

"'Summit County Deed Records, Books 45, p. 623, 49, p. 523; 67, p. 458 , 69. P. 456 , 87, p. 11, and 94, p. 63. Akron, Ohio. "'Wesley, Ohio Negroes, p. 7. -. - 97

street. Founders of the church were listed as Brother Prince, Prank Morrison, Isham Smith, Mr. and Mrs. Hail- stock, Hr. and Mrs. Levi PiM, and Mr. and Mrs. Frank

Lancaster. I Conflicting records exist as to the original pastor of the church. One record named the Rev. Joseph Armstrong a8 the first regularly appointed pastor and named him as one of the founders. Another record cited Rev. Warm Cypert as the first pastor of the then Zion Chapel African Methodist Episcopal Church.lfo Lane listed several ministers as being among the early pastors of the church, notably: Rev. P. R. Anderson, five years; Rev. Charles H. Docket, one year; Rev. A. 8. Mathews, two years; Rev. P. R Anderson (second time), one year, Rev. J. A. kmllen, one year, and the Rev. George Cliff (present minister at the

time of Lane's writing, 1891) 'I1

AB the years passed the church membership increased and by 1882. through the assistance of the Ladies Home

ilstock was another of the founders.

"'WeSley Temple One Hundredth Anniversary Brochure. l*'Lane, Fifty Yeara, p. 212. 98

nisaionary Society and Hon. George W. Crouse,"' a lot was -_ purchased on South High Street and a small building erected for the congregation's servicee."' Lane's account of the history of the church presented contradic- tory data in this regard, stating that the old house used for worship was moved to the new site."' A. the decade of the 1860s ended, the number of Negroes had increased to 196."' While no blacks were bun to be professionals during these years, they did work at varying occupations. Most blacks performed jobs as unskilled laborers, but a few had learned a trade. Occupations available to blacks at that tune included: barbers, tailors, hairdressers, boatsmen, whitewashers, hod carriers and preachers."' Blacks were beginning to become self-sufficient economically, and were organizing socially. They also saw the need to become politically oriented. The Negroes'

"'A portion of a legal transaction involving the Eon. George W. Crouse and the A.M.E. Zion Church is included in appendix 3.

"'Vistoric Sketch of Wesley Temple A.M.E. Zion Church in Akron, Ohio." Brochure among the records of the church. 12'Idne, Fifty Years, p. 212.

"'Kingsberry, Akron Negro, p. 15.

"'Andrew J. Hall, comp.. Hall's General Director and Business Guide of the Clty of Akron (Akron Lane Can: field and Co , 1868) , pp 41-114 passim. 99 increasing awareness of the importance of being politically organized resulted in the formation of a black Grant and Wilson Club in 1872. Little data is available about the organization which was established in support of President Grant and his vice-presidential nominee, Henry Wilson. It is known, however, that there were also white Grant and Wilson Clubs. The black Grant and Wilson Club's first meeting convened at Hanscom's Block, Howard Street, and resolutions were adopted which expressed the association's purpose and objectives. Those holding office were: William Ball, president. J. A. Brooks, vice president, and N. C. Levis, secretary. The buainess committee was composed of D. 8. Greene, W. A. Green, adw. Benford."' Altbugh the rights of the black population in Akron had been protected for several decades by those who had a humanitarian bent, those sentiments were not endorsed statewide. The post-Civil War amendments to the United States Constitution--specifically the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, designed to better the lives of Negroes--vere met by opposition throughout the state, but vere eventually ratified."' The proclamation of the enactment of the Fifteenth

"'Akron Summit County Beacon, 14 August 1872. "'Davis, Black Americans, p. 84. 100

Amendment on 30 March 1870, guaranteeing the citizene of the United States the right to vote, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was a giant step toward blacks' progress and was therefore cause for celebration on the anniversary of its ratification for several years thereafter.

An account of celebration activities in Akron on 30 March 1874, stated that approxunately one hundred people attended the exercises held in Temperance Hall, Hiller's Block, on East Uarket Street. Governor Edgerton, a former Underground Railroad operator and former Akron attorney, was speaker of the day. The account reported on his address thusly: He spoke of the african race as it was while in bondage and as it is now, encouraged them to go forward; to study, to hurk and make themselves good citizens. He spoke of their enterprises in the most flattering terms, related to them incidents of the war, and delivered a speech that should have been heard by everyone of our citizens whether black or white. His speech was well received by his hearers and brought forth frequent and loud applause."' Progress among blacks was sometimes impeded by the death of the breadwinner or by family illnesses. The maladies at that tune--which antedated significant advances in medicine-Saused deaths to occur at relatively early ages. Among those diseases contributing to the expiration of Akron's citizens during the post-Civil War

"'Akron Daily Beacon, 30 March 1874. -

101 years were consumption, cholera, whooping cough, and scarlet fever. Illustrative cases of Akron's black residents who died from those diseases between 1866 and 1876 were three adults ranging in age from twenty-five to thirty-four and three children between the ages of one day to one year and five months.'"

Post-Reconstruction Years to 1899 The years which followed the Reconstruction Era leading up to the turn of the century witnessed some small but significant developments in the history of Akron's black population. This segment of the paper focuses on two aspects of blacks' growth: economic opportunities and the emergence of more black organizations to further black progress.

Economic opportunities Employment opportunities were very llmited for Negroes, for blacks had little education. George Stevens, a young black, was the only Negro known to have attended

Buchtel College."' Subsequently, Stevens was afforded

'"See Loretta St. John. Marilvn Welsh. and~ Jane._- Woods, comps.. Summit County Deaths, i866 to i872, vol. 1, 1972, pp. 29, 49. laretta St. John and Marilyn welsh, comps.. Summit County Deaths, 1872 to 1876, vol. 2, 1972, PP. 1, 7. 31. 51. "'Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Buchtel college, 1877- 78 , Akron, Ohio (Akron: Beacon Pub- lishing Co., 1878) , p. r2. 102 the chance to work as a machinist apprentice. Still later, other ventures ard opportunities enabled Stevens to accumulate a fortune after he left Akron and passed for white. By the late 1870s most Negroes were employed as plasterers, domestics, laborers, porters, cooks, expressmen, engineers, and teamsters.”’ There were a few isolated cases of blacks who vorked as tailors, dressmakers, and hairdressers.”’ Paton Johnson (spelled variously as Payton and Patton in different city directories) was employed as a janitor at the Broadway School in the late 1870s.”‘ Although blacks were residing in various parts of the city, most Negroes lived in the area of North Broadway, Furnace, North High, Cuyahoga Streets, etc. Some black residents lived in the vicinity of the current City Hos- pital and what is now known as Central Akron. Black businesses were few during the last decades of the century. However, the fact that Negroes were

IS2Ltty. Emmer Hartin Lancaster suggested that during this period of history expressmen were similar to deliverpen: engineers were steam engineers who operated boilers; and teamsters were men who drove a team of horses.

“’N. 8. Burch and Co., Akron City Directory, 1877- -78 (Won: N. 8. Burch and co.,1877). ”’N. H. Burch and Co., Akron City Directory, 1879- -80 (Akron. Tribune and Germania Printing House, 1873). P. 164. *, 103 - making some progress in this area was attested to by: 1) the fact that Henry Pickett and Charles Alexander's Excelsior Whitewashing Company had opened: 2) tw bathroom businesses--Chavis and Hamlin, as well as Martin and

Brown-were in operation: and 3) black barbers were pool- ing their resources to form their own shops and employ

~ other black barbers. Martin and Dangerfield, and Hamlln and Hale were two of the black barbershops in existence.

As black enterprises prospered, the businessmen began to advertise and were listed in the business section of the city directory. I "

As the decade of the 1880s began, blacks continued to work in the occupations previously mentioned and a few were also engaged as brickmsons, tilemkers, moulder's helpers, hostlers, and coachmen.'"

Black Organizations to Further Black Progress

The black population had increased to 278 by l88O'" and Negroes found the need to establish another church, one of a different denomination. Lane's history of Akron

'"A portion of the business directory listing some of the black barbers (in the 1879-80 Akron City Directory) and Pickett and Alexander's ad (in the 1883-84 Akron City Directory) appeare in appendix 4.

'"U.S. Bureau of Census, Ohio Population Schedules, M1. 60, Roll 1068, Microcopy T-9, and vol. 61, Roll 1069, Hicrocopy Number T-9.

"'Kingsberry, Akron Negro, p. 15. 104

indicated that Shiloh Baptist Church was believed to have been organizeh in the early 1880s. Having no house of

wrship of its om, the members met in a hall on Howard Street where a Cleveland minister, Rev. Cheatham [*I, officiated every other Sunday. The congregation was very mall having a membership of only twenty-five persons and a total of forty Sunday school mwbers, including both students and teachers."'

In the last decade of the century, the population

of Akron's Negroes increased from 451 to 525.l" and a small yet meaningful increase in black organizations occurred. Negro citizens were engaging in significant dialogue directed toward self-help and black independence.

It wan not surprising then that another black church was Organized in 1892-Second Baptist Church. Beginning as a mission, the small congregation met in the home of John T. Black and was recognized as a

church in 1893. The first minister was Rev. Cheatham [E]

who came from Wadsworth and pastored the church for one

year. It was recommended by Rev. Cheatham [=I that

Rev. R. A. Jones, who worked in Wadsworth at the tme, be ordained and called to pastor the growing church. Rev. Mr. Jones became the minister in 1893 and continued to

"'Lane, Fifty Years, p. 212. "'Ringsberry, Akron Negro, p. 15. 105

servo his congregation until 1941."#

Second Baptist was founded with a membership of only eighteen persons. Among the wrly officers were the deacons: Beverly mnn, Robert Johnson, ~ohnT. Black, J. R. Green, and Louise Christian; and the trustees: James R. Byrd. John C. Coleman, Moses Pollard, J. D. JOhnBOn, and T. T. Johnson. The church treasurer was J. 0. Coleman and Thomas T. Johnson served as clerk.'" Throughout the history of Afro-Americans, churches have been very important institutions, for it was within the church that black people could not only feel spiritually uplifted, but could also gain the necessary leader- .hip skills and become better informed and educated. Information on the capabilities and progress of the Negro uere being addressed continually in the decades that followed the black man's emancipation. This much debated subject was the topic of discussion in several of Akron's churches both black and white. The churches' pastors, Visiting ministers, or educators frequently spoke to the congregations on the black mn's status in America.

Late in 1891 Zion A H E. Church was favored with the appearance of .Broad Axe. Smith, a well-known black

"'Interview with Rev. Stanley Lynton, current pastor of Second Baptist Church, Akron, Ohio, 15 December 1974. "'Leon Gordie, Negro Yearbook of Akron and Vicinity (Akron Eureka Printing co., 1922) , P. 12. 106

editor and speaker from Pittsburgh. He addressed the congregation on the topic of Negroes' progress and prob- laus, calling for black pride, a need to use the economy viselyr and the unification of black people in their efforts to gain their rights.'"

Similarly. a Rev. D. S. Orner of Savannah, Georgia visited another of Akron's black churches, Second Baptist Church, approximately three years later. He spoke to its congregation on .The Negro's Progress and Future Destiny.. The well-educated black minister talked for over two hours encouraging blacks to be politically independent. A brief abstract of his speech was printed in the local newspaper,

a portion of which follows

We have always thought that our remedy lay in politics, but experience has proven that neither party will Protect us after it has secured our vote. I sometunes vonder whether I live in civilized herica or in darkest Africa. . . . Save your money and get all the education you can and cultivate your best character and you will be bound to be recognized.'" The racial question was addressed in some of Akron's churches early in the 1890s. One minister, Rev.

C. J. Tanner of the High Street Church of Christ, preached a sermon, "What Shall We Do with the Negro in the United

States?. which elicited a series of sermons by Rev. W. A.

Cypress, minister of Zion A.M.E. Church. A newspaper

'"Akron Beacon and Republican, 7 November 1891. "'Ibid., 8 September 1894 107 account stated that Rev. Mr. Cypress 'spoke from factual data 'which he obtained after an exhaustive study of the subject and his statements were warranted upon figures and statistics obtained.'""' Although the church was one of the strongest black- institutions and served to meet spiritual, as well as some

6OCial and educational needs, blacks also eetablished lodges and other clubs to satisfy their diverse objectives.

AS early as 1891 Negroes had organized the Grand

United Order of Odd Fellows, Smit mdge NO. 3190. Lodge meetings were held weekly at 122 South Howard street, and officers were J. Gross. Noble Grand: R. w. Hughes, vice Grand; P. Hamlin, Treasurer, and W. Dickson and J. Doug- lass held two other offices."'

The Grand United Order of Odd Fellows (in America) was a national organization founded in 1843 by Peter %den ard other free Negroesrl" and by 1895 had a membership of approximately 111.000. " Another early black organization, the Colored

~~~ "'Ibid., 27 November 1893.

"'Burch Directory Co., Akron City Directory, 1892- -93 (Akron: Beacon Job Department, 1892). "'Wesley, International Library. Freedom's Foot- =,p. 176. "'Albert C. Stevens, ed. and comp.. The Cyclopedia of Fraternities (New York: E. B. Trent and co., 1907), P. 250. 108

Voter's secret Society, composed of a number of Akron's colored voters, was reported to have met in the black Odd Fellows Hall on 13 March 1891 with thirty of the society's representatives present. Robert Gray delivered a speech on the .unity of the colored race" which is sard to have conpined =me valuable pointers. An estimated 250 colored voters were reported to be influenced by the voter's organization and supposedly followed that body's dictates.'" The Colored Masons, silver Leaf Lcdge No. 47, Free and Accepted Masons was established in Akron by 1892. It met weekly, convening in a hall over 101 East Market I Street. The Worshipful Master was Samuel Bell, and other officers included John Coleman, Senior Warden, Christopher

Bailey, Junior Warden: C. T. Alexander, Secretary: and James mrrison, Treasurer."' Early in 1894 another black organization, the Union Laague Club, held its first public meeting in its hall over the Star Clothing Company on South Howard Street. Frank Darnel1 explained briefly that the purpose of the club was to advance the colored men of Akron, educationally and politically.

The principal speaker was John A. BOtzum who had

'''Akron Beacon and Republican, 13 March 1891. "'Burch Directory Co., Akron Directory, 1892-93, p. 32. .. 109 traveled to and spent c0nsiderab.e time in Africa. His address on the 'Condition of the Colored Race in Africa. drew a comparison between the conditions of black Africans and black Americans, indicating that the latter had made rapid advancement in this country. Several other speeches by Rev. Wr. Cypress, William Hopkins, P. Hamlin [believed to be Rank Hamlin] , and R. Jones [believed to be Richard Jones1 provided interesting discourse. Charles Williams offered remarks on the rapid advancement of the colored race in merica--socially. religiously, and political~y.'~~ Later that year when some of Akron's black citizens were accused of a crime involving assault and arson, the

Onion League Club called a .rousing meeting' at the black odd Fellows Hall to publicly contest the allegations; denounce and condemn lawlessness, and to call for an investigation by the proper authorities, newspapermen, and a committee of the Union League Club. ReSOlutiOns were adopted and speeches were made by some of Akron's leading black citizens, notably N. C. Lewis, Wiliam Branch, Richard Jones, Will Hall, Thomas Datcher, James Robinson, and R. W. Hughes. Charles williams, George Smpson, Joseph Dandridge, and N. C. Lewis were selected to comprise the investigating committee to assist in the

')'Akron Beacon and Republican, 14 mrch 1894. I10

implementation of justice."'

sununary The environment in which blacks settled in Akron in

1825 was influenced by both national and state sentrments - regarding the issue of slavery. National movements in response to slavery sought to treat the 'Negro problem. and the problems inherent in slavery in diverse ways. Colonization, antislavery efforts to abolish slavery, and attempts to resist slavery through escape were the pre-

dominant movements prior to the Civil War. Diverse feelings existed concerning both slavery and freemen in Ohio which resulted in the enactment of the .Black Lavs' to regulate the lives of blacks and mulattos. Akron, being situated in the Western Reserve, waa favored with the humanitarian spirit that prevailed among the strong abolitionists whose views were opposed to slavery, and whose position also sought to protect blacks who were free. Akron's early black residents were limited by their educational levels and by the opportunities that were open to them. The black population was extremely small in 1830--five persons--and had increas-ed to only seventy-three in 1850. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 undoubtedly

affected the small number of blacks who did reside in

~ l'lIbid., 17 September 1894. 111

Akron, for by 1860, Akron's black population had decreased to twenty-four. Many white Akronites ard the city's few black residents were involved in the antislavery movement. The Underground Railroad passed through Akron and fugitive slaves were successfully assisted in their flight to CaMda in the years preceding the Civil War. Less successful were the local efforts toward colonization which drrored the largely unsuccessful attempts throughout the Northern states. Black men from Akron enlisted in the Civil War once blacks were permitted to serve. Following the war's end ome of the veterans returned to the city, married, and reared families whose descendants currently reside in Akron. Still suffering from lrmited educational and economic opportunities, Akron's black residents saw the need to organize themselves socially, politically, economically, and educationally. Black churches were founded, a few black businesses merged, tw black political clubs -re formed: and black organizations were established for the purpose of advancing the city's black citizens. Such was the development of black history in Akron from 1825 to 1899. -.

CBRPTER I11 CFIANGES IN RACIAL COMF'OSITION AND RACIAL ATTITUDES: 1900-1919

The First Decade: 1900-1909 By the turn of the century, Akron's total population had reached 42,728 and Akron's Negro population--

52S--constituted less than tu0 percent of that total. Although the black population remained small, blacks, nevertheless, continued to be conscious of their particular needs in a society which had not absorbed them, nor considered them as equals. Thus, in the first decade of the twentieth century Akron's black residents were involved in political, civic, social, and educational efforts--either collectively or individually--to improve their conditions. Adequate records to explain their total

experiences during those years are lacking, but the avail-

able records give some indications of the development that occurred at that period in Akron's black history.

Civic Concerns and Political Efforts

As the century began the city witnessed a riot

which left the town in flames and called for all civic- minded persons to fulfall their individual and personal

112 113 responsibility to help establish and maintain peace and order. Although several historians have written accounts of the event,' Grismer's account will be cited herein.

On 20 August 1900 the citizens of Akron became incensed when A six-year-old girl allegedly was crminally assaulted by a Negro, Louis Peck, who had recently arrived from Paterson, New Jersey and had found employment in a downtown saloon. On the following day, Peck was captured, imprisoned et the city's prison, and reportedly confessed to the crime. Grinner noted that: The afternoon newspapers--one printed in red ink-- screamed out the story, greatly exaggerated in all its sordid details. Accepting the news at its face value, the town began seething with wrath. Said a leading professional man in a downtown store, -1.11 be one of a crowd to go over and take hm out of ]ail and hang him up.. No one protested.' Fearing that Peck would be lynched, that afternoon Sheriff Frank Kelly secretly took Peck from the jail and transported him to Cleveland's jail. Later that day, an angry mob gathered at the building which combined City Ball and the prison. Thinking that Peck was inside, the mob stoned the building and attempted to break down the

'See Grismer, Akron and Summit, pp. 298-301, Doyle, p- p- , 0 in, Akron and Environs, ine, comp., The Akron Riot of 1900 (n.p., 1951). pp 1-23: "Official Souvenir of the Openinq of the Mayflower Hotel,. Akron, Ohio, 1931, pp. 62-63.

*Grimer, Akron ad Summit, p. 298. 114

doors. Their actions were answered by shots from police-

men who vere within the building. As the policemen fired out into the crovd, stray bullets killed a ten-year-old male spectator and a four-year-old child--who with her parents were passers-by. The enraged crobd demanded that Peck be surrendered and a committee of six was granted permission to search the building. Although a lull followed for a few hours thereafter, the fruitless search had heightened the mob's anger, and shortly before midnight a crowd gathered in front of the city building. Armed sufficiently with guns, armnunition, and dynamite, some two to three hundred rioters blasted down the walls of City Ball, shot through doors and windows, smashed electric lights to prevent their actions from being seen, set fire to nearby Columbia

Ball; and fought the firemen's efforts to extinguish the blaze by cutting their hoses and driving them back.

The mob dispersed near dawn and by 7:OO A.M. the militia, which had been called in to restore order, had

started to arrive. Company C of the Eighth Regiment, arriving from Canton, was followed two hours later by nine companies of the Fourth Regment from Columbus. Martial law was declared and on Friday afternoon

Peck was secretly returned to Akron and placed on trial. Mob spirit still prevailed and soldiers stood guard outside the courtroom. Unrepresented by counsel, Peck 115 pleaded guilty in court proceedings that lasted only twenty minutes. Be was sentenced to life imprisonment and sent to the penitentiary in Columbus. Peck's case, as well as the cases of the rioters, waa prosecuted by County Prosecutor Reuben n. Wanarnaker. Forty-one men and boys were indicted. While six men were sentenced to the penitentiary, six others were sent to the Wnsfield Reformatory. Imprisonment at the county hvrk- Imuae and payment of fines constituted the other penalties. One youth was sent to Idncaster Reform School.

hro days after the outbreak of the riot a letter was sent to the editor of the Akron Beacon Journal from I R. 8. B,eath, a colored citizen, who apparently believed in Peck's guilt. Be expressed his sentiments about Peck and appealed to the white citizenry not to ludge all blacks by Peck's behavior. Be asserted. . . . I don't have any sympathy for a brute that rill commit such a crime as did Peck and I think justice should be meted out to him in the very severest terms. While I do not believe in violence, I feel very indignant at the matter myself and I hope that all good moral thinking white people will not blame nor discruninate against the better class of our race in the city for what one brute does . . . We do not uphold such outrages and we should not be blamed for what another does.' Many Akronites, however, felt that Peck had not received a fair trial and that his *confession' had been obtained through intimidation. Thus, a movement to grant

'Akron Beacon Journal, 23 August 1900. 116

Peck's release began shortly after he began to serve his life sentence. Although the movement was blocked for years, on 6 Hay 1913, Peck received an unconditional

pardon by Gov. James Cox on the recommendation of members of the state board of administration and former Warden E. T. James. At the conclusion of his account of the case, Grimmer noted: In granting the pardon, the governor stated that his advisors had concluded that there were grave doubts about Peck's guilt and that the Negro had been given little chance to establish his innocence.'

Approximately six months later the colored voters of Akron met at AHE Zion Church for the purpose of forming a permanent organization to assist them in securing some representation in the city's government. The black voters noted that although the black vote vas in great demand by the political parties, the elected politicians never shared the spoils of their office with Negroes. Ergo, the colored voters organized to lend their supprt only to the party which would give them some representation in the city government. Officers who headed the new body were Hobart

Parrish, president; Frank Hamlin, vice president, 1. C. Pollard, assistant secretary: and George Brown, treasurer'

~~ 'Grismer, Akron and Summit, p. 301.

'Akron Beacon Journal, 5 April 1901. 117

Self-Help in Akron's Black Community Black organizations-- 6ocial. civic, and reliqious During the first ten years of the century, several black benevolent and secret societies came into existence. By 1901 the Daughters of Jerusalem and the Grand United Order of True Reformers, Supreme Fountain No. I211 had been founded in Akron. A brief history of the former organization indicated that the Mughters of Jerusalem, Ida play Council No. 12 was established in Septmber 1901 by Sister Natalie Chapman Littlejohn.' No records were found on the establishment in Akron of the latter organization.

A 1905 newspaper account, which repOrted on a convention of the Daughters of Jerusalm held in Akron, provided some historical insights into their national association.' IC was an outgrowth of the American Mys- teries organization and the auxiliary women's organization entitled the Daughters of Zion. Both organizations were formed in antebellum days and their membership was composed of both black and white people who worked to help

slaves escape to Canada by way of the Underground Rail- road. The Daughters of Jerusalem, dating back to 1865,

'*Festivity Celebration of the Daughters of Jerusalem,. Akron, Ohio, 1964 'Akron Beacon Journal, 14 September 1905. 118

ma composed entirely of colored people, principally women. By 1905 there were forty to fifty councils in axistence throughout the United States and eleven councils in Ohio. The society had established a home (although not yet in use) for aged colored women who were members of the organization. Akron's Mary J. Pickett was a national . officer-messenger of the Grand Lodge--and was one of the trustees of the home for the aged. The Grand united Order of True Reformers

(G.U.O.T.R.) was an early fraternal society which worked

to eliminate slavery and to uplift the black man.' A brief account of its program was summarized in an Akron- Beacon Journal article which reported on an address to the organization by its chief, W. R. Griffin, at Akron's Second Baptist Church. Griffin recounted the history of blacks in America and then told how Negroes had progressed in the G.U.O.T.R. having paid $1,500,000 to the sick and $714,378.25 to the widows and orphans. The society had also employed four hundred men and women daily.' By the end of 1902, a new organization, the Loyal Legion of Labor, was in operation in Akron and other

'Wesley, International Library Freedom's Foot- steps, p. 116. 'Akron Beacon Journal, 24 June 1902. 119

cities. Its purpose was to better race relations and to further the educational, protective, and induatrial interests of the colored race in general. Headed by Prof. Z. W. nitchell, founder and supreme master of the organization, blacks in Akron were organized in a way in vhich they had never before been organized.

Hitchell was not only successful in aiding and organizing Akron's black population, but he also succeeded in enlisting the cooperation of some of Akron's leading and influential white citizens. Among them were: Col.

George T. PerKins, HOn. George W. Crouse, 0. C. Barber,

Charles Baird, H. 8. Camp, P. E. Werner, R. P. mrvin, Dr. A. B. Church, John Lancaster, Judge A. C. Voris, Judge E. W. Stuart, and Mayor Doyle. Beadquarters for the Akron office of the Loyal -.Legion of Labor were located at the Independent Order of Cdd Fellows (IOOF) Temple. However, the organization had offices throughout the state.

To assist the Loyal Legion of Labor financially, Andrew Carnegie offered it several thousand dollars if the association could raise an equal amount at the offset. Further support came when the Loyal Legion of Labor was offered the old female college at Hillsboro, Ohio to be used as its national headquarters. The offer was virtually a gift of fifty thousand dollars conditioned upon the college being equipped and operated under the 110 plans aubitted by the Organization." Approxhtely six months later, the first annual convention of the Loyal Legion of Labor was held at Silver lake, Ohio with seveety-five delegates present. myor

Ampel welcomed the organization to the city and compli- mented it thusly Your order is a noble one. It recognizes that the essential thing in the make-up of a man is mind and not matter or color, or previous condition of servitude."

A stirring address on .The Political and social

Status of the Negro. was then presented by Clarence Watson from Doylestown. The c0nventioP.s educational sessions were held at the Pirat Congregational Church where Hon. George H. White of Washington--the last black man to hold a congressional office (at that time)--was to be the featured speaker. EOwever, due to a sudden death in the family, White sent Mitchell a telegram stating his regrets that he could not appear.

A reception for the delegates was held at Second

Baptist Church at the conclusion of the convention. Tuward the end of the decade, two more black secret societies were established in Akron, the Colored Knights of Pythias, Odessa Lodge NO. 9 and the Improved Benevolent

"Ibid., 27 December 1902.

"Ibid., 9 July 1903. 121

Protective Order of the Elks Of the World (I.B.P.O.E. of N.), Delta Mge NO. 149. Both organizations were founded around 1908. Little informtion is available about the early history of the Colored Knights of Pythias. However, sources indicated that some of the early members were Prank Lancaster, Bob Dandridge, Charles Jenkins, Charles

Rideout, Michael Woolridge, John Clark, High Hountain, and Lawrence Black."

lDre information existed regarding the history of the Negro Elks. The Delta Lodge No. 149 vas organized in Akron in May 1908 with a membership of thirty-one persons. Only two of the original members' names were available, R. L. Prince and H. 0. Woolridge. The small group of men joined together for the purpose of practicing the precepts and principles of the order, namely Charrty, Justice, Brotherly Love, and Fidelity

Eventually Delta Lodge NO. 149 was able to fulfill one of its long-term desires--to have a home of its own. After years of hard work, property was purchased on the corner of Broadway and Bluff Streets at a cost of five thousand dollars. Subsequently the mortgage was burned

"Interview with Ben Dominic and Atty. mer Lancaster, Akron, Ohio, 26 January 1975. 122

in a ceremony at the Akron Armory." The Elks organization has been reorganized twice since it began, but it has continued to be an active aesociation in the black community. A black church was also founded in 1908, Bethel AHE church. (Its name was changed thirty-three years later to

St. Paul AHE Church.) A group of seventeen persons, who

were former members of the Am Zion congregation, constituted the original members, namely- Ur. and Urs. William Keller, Ur. and Ure. Isham Smith, Mr. Richard Robinson, Hiss Susan Crawford, Ur. and Urs. John Walker, Hiss Pon- seta Walker, Mr. Avery Douglas, Mrs. Ida Dillard, Mrs Barbara Rogers, Hiss Ma Rogers, Hiss Bessie Douglas, Hrs. Julia Williams, and Mr. and Urs. John Clark. The church was organized on 18 September 1908 in the parlor of Grace Hethodist Church of East Uarket Street. Subsequently, a hall was rented on South Howard Street for vorship services. The Akron mission was made part of a circuit with Canton, Ohio and Rev. H. 9. Fox served as pastor for two years."

".souvenir Program of the I.B.P.O.E of W. convention, 1951,' Akron, Ohio, 1951. "mCondensed History of St. Paul African Methodist Episcopal Church," Akron, Ohio, 1975, p. 1. 123

Attempts to solve the .Negro problem. Until recent years the presence of the Negro in America had been-thought of and termed America's .Negro problem.' Both whites and blacks discussed the problem of the Negro in America early in the nation's history and various schemes to deal with the problem had been devised, .. i.e., colonization, segregation, assimilation, "separate but equal. treatment, education, etc. However, the problems inherent in slavery and those related to the free black man in America continued well after the Civil War

and the Reconstruction Era had ended. Therefore, continued discussions of 'the "Negro problem. were frequent in the early years of the century and Akronites, like people in other cities throughout the nation, endeavored to solve the problem. In a meeting at Second Baptist Church in Akron in 1902 the colored lecturer, G. P. Richings, presented what an Akron Beacon Journal reporter described as .one of the best things of its kind ever presented to an Akron audience. * ' ' Richings showed pictures of Negro colleges, banks, merchants, and contractors--Colored people involved in all sorts of business enterprises and educational institutions. Of particular note were his pictures of Tuskegee Institute

"Akron Beacon Journal, 7 January 1902. . 124

and the wrk being done by Booker T. Washington. Richings spent approximately four days in Akron, tw days making his presentation to audiences at Second Baptiet Church and two days repeating his program for audiences at AHE Zion Church. Two years later Booker T. Washington made an appearance in Akron when he addressed a state Christian

Endeavor convention. Washington occupied Suite 205 at Buchtel Rotel during his short stay.''

Be spoke to predominantly white audiences at First

Baptiet Church and amther Akron church. The general theme of his address was the advancement of the Negro in education and civilization.

Bighlighte from his speech indicated that Wash- ington compared blacks with the other races and suggested that it was the severest test possible to compare Negroes vith white Americans, because if the Negro should catch up vith this country's white population there should be none ahead of him. Be discussed the Negro's advancement and his motivation to wrk asserting that through contact with vhites and education in their homes, schools, and churches, blacks have had their minds awakened and strengthened. He maintained that southern Negroes are not an idle people,

"Ibid., 1 July 1904. r* 125 but a people who want education for their children and a people who want land, houses, churches, books, and papers. Be said, in sum, that Negroes want the highest and best in our civilization. washington then acquainted his listeners with some statistical information regarding Negroes. ne declared that vith all of his disadvantages, official records showed that the Negro had blotted out 55.5 percent of his illiteracy since gaining his freedom. Washington compared the merican Negro's illiteracy rate of 44.5 percent (after only forty years of freedom) with that of: 1) the African Negroes, 95 percent of whom were illiterate:

2) the Spaniards, 68 percent of whom remained illiterate after years of civilization and opportunity: 3) the Italians who had an illiteracy rate of 38 percent: and

4) the average South American country's illiteracy rate of

80 percent. In support of the advantages and opportunities Negroes have gained from education, Washington stated that not a single graduate of Hampton or Tuskegee Institute could be found in any jail or penitentiary. Be closed his address on Negroes with the following points for consideration: No one has a right to pass final judgment upon the moral status of a race unless he has visited the homes, the intellectual gatherings, the schools, and the churches where he can observe something of the higher life of that people Our moral progress must 126

not be judged by the man on the street. It must not be forgotten that we are as proud of our race as you are of yours, and the more progress we make in education, the more satisfaction do we find in our own homes and social circles " A little over a year later Akron's Negroes heard an address by Rev. J. M. Riddle, D.D., at the Northern Ohio Odored Baptist Convention in which he reminded them that the future for Negro Baptists and the race is what they make it. Rev. Dr. Riddle stated further that Negroes mlduse all of the forces at their command for their upbuilding. ' While some speakers who discussed the .Negro problem. addressed the race's progress, there were others who were critical of blacks. Typical of the diverse opinions were those represented in newspaper articles which appeared in the Akron Beacon Journal throughout 1906 and 1907.

While an editorial lauded Prof. 2. W. Mitchell for his work among his race, a later article reported that James Douglass--a Negro--criticized his race (at a meeting at AlIE Zion Church) for not taking sufficient interest in their country. A few months later a news article appeared wherein blacks were debased by whites, and early the next year an account indicated that blacks were commended by a

"Ibid.. 27 June 1904.

"Ibid., 20 October 1905. I. 127 black minister. I ' . several addresses in 1909 dealt with the .Negro problem.. Early in that year Rev. R. A. Jones, the pastor at Second Baptist, addressed the Men's League of the First Universalist Church on the subiect of 'The Negro and the Church.. In referring to the Negro's advancement, he stated that: . . . the negro's advancement should not be measured by the height to which the white people had attained after many hundred of years. Instead it should be measured from the depths from which the colored race had come.20 Rev. Hr. Jones viewed education as the only real solution to the .Negro problem,' for through education, he mid, the self-respect of the colored man would then be aroused. A few weeks later the paper which Rev. Mr. Jones had presented to the men's organization of the First Universalist Church appeared in the Akron Beacon Journal.

An excerpt from the text, which showed the nature of the .Negro problem,. follows: A story is related of a family in the west that owned a donkey which was too old to do any kind of vork. How to get rid of this burden was a puzzle they could neither sell nor give him away, and owing to the good service rendered by him they had not the heart to kill him. One day the farm hands were diggrng a well on the place. when it had been sunk some

"Ibid., 18 Uay. 27 Novemher, 31 December 1906, 16 March 1907. "Ibid., 12 January 1909. thirty feet the men were called to dinner. During their absence the old donkey walked too near the edge of the well and it caved in with hm. The family was somewhat elated over this accident and exclamed, "We have gotten rid of the donkey at last, for we cannot get him out of the well, so we will bury him and dig another.. When the men began to shovel dirt on hm he would, with great vigor, shake it off and tramp it urder foot. This process was continued until the donkey tramped his way to the top of the well, walked out, and went to grazing with the rest of the stock. The negro is in the pit He has had the dirt of slavery, ignorance, superstition, fanaticism, poverty, inferiority and minority thrown upon hm by the so- called superior race, but the negro like the donkey in the story with his brawny muscles and acute intellect, io shaking off all this trash which was intended to bury him, tramping it under his feet, making them etepping stones by which he reaches the plain of prosperity, intelligence and noble manhood."

The foregoing discussions have focused on addresses

that have been directed toward the "Negro problem. in general as it existed throughout the United States. HOW- ever, the 'Negro problem' encompassed more than educating

Negroes and 'explainingm Negroes to the white race. It was a complex problem in which all Negroes were judged and

treated the same and thereby it created and perpetuated new problems. Tvo incidents which were specific to Akron

serve as illustrative examples to show how blacks, stereo- typed as a class, responded to such treatment.

As blacks began to come from the South there were many who were not prepared for the adj~stment~tourban 1ife:styles and no civic attempts had been made to help 1 Negroes make those adjustments. Thus, many of the

"Ibid., 2 February 1909.

,_.. . 129

ne*comers became involved in crimes. The blacks who were residents of Akron and had been law-abiding citizens did cat condone criminal acts any more than white citizens did and took action to show their sentiments. In 1909 the Wen's Club of Second Baptist Church expressed their feelings against the coming of 'undesirable. blacks to the community and formulated a resolution which stated Be it resolved that we, the Men's Club of Second Baptist church and citizens, desire that it be known that we are not in sympathy with this class of men and wmen who are constantly being brought up in our courts for committmg crimes and various offenses and that we stand ready as a club and good citizens to cooperate with our officials of the city in bringing about a better condition by assisting in giving all the information that we can to bring these pepole [E] to justice and that we are not in favor of being lenient with them when found guilty of these mis- demeanors any more then with any other race." The second incident, reported in a 1908 newspaper, related to an incident that occurred at a resort in the Akron area. In correspondence sent to Silver Lake, colored people reserved a cottage. Subsequently, when the Negroes arrived and entered the silver Lake Dance Hall, a heavy curtain barrier was erected which left the eight black couples half of the flwr while two hundred white couples were forced to crowd into the other half. The account concluded that the blacks were not a

"Ibid., 21 Hay 1909. Y 130

bit abashed, the more people to watch them, the more they

danced.''

Early Individual Endeavors in Akron's Black History Black professional men

As black organizations grew, black individuals also advanced, and as far as can be determined Akron had its first black physician by 1901 and its first black attorney four years later. They were Dr. Ferdinand Simpson and his younger brother, Atty. Harrington Smpson.

The background of the two men can only be con- jectured from available records, but based on that data,

their past was constructed as follows. George Simpson, their father, came to Akron around

1879 am3 resided at 122 Livingston Street. Re was employed as a janitor at the Academy of Music for a short time before working at Taplin, Rice, and Co. for approximately seven years. In 1892 Simpson found employment at

Rubber Works and his son, Ferdinand, vorked at C. M. Ginther. In 1894 Ferdinand joined his father at Rubber

Works. One year later the elder Simpson transferred to Goodrich and was employed there until his death in 1914. Ferdinand Smpson continued to work at Eubber Works for

"Ibid., 14 August 1908. 131

approximately three years and then left to study medicine.

George Simpson's younger son, Harrington, graduated from high school around 1897 and began to work at Rubber Works in 1898. The next year he joined his father at Goodrich and worked there for about three years In the meantime, Simpson's elder son, Ferdinand, had graduated from the Western Reserve University Medical Dspartmentr had satisfactorily completed the Ohio State mard Examination:" and had obtained his license to practice medicine in Ohio on 29 June 1900." Pour years later Aarrington Simpson graduated from Western Reserve Law School. Ae.satisfactorily met the state requirements and was admitted to practice law in Ohio on 22 June 1904 .*'

"No... etate-~~~~ medical~~~~~~~ ~ examinin0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ , bard existed...__~~- until 1896, and the new M.D., prior to that time, need only hang Out his shingle and start practicing. In 1896, the Board of Medical Examination and Registration, State of Ohio was established. Later the name was changed to Ohio State Medical Board. Doctors who were already practicing were permitted to continue conditioned upon their reqisterinq with the Board. A. S. McCorrnick, The History of Medicine in Summit County (New York: Hobson Book Press, 1946), P. 31. "A copy of Dr. Ferdinand Simpson's registration which authorized hrm to practice medicine in Ohio is included in appendix 3.

"A copy of Atty. Harrington Simpson's certificate and his registration card, which is on file in the Ohio Supreme Court's Clerk of Court's office, are included in appendix 3. 132

An early black athlete According to a 1974 nevspaper account a profes-

sional football player, .DOC" Baker, played for the Akron Indiana in their 1907, 1908. and 1909 seasons. He reportedly dropped from sight for about a year and returned to play several games in 1911. Little information existed about Baker at the time of that article. However, it vas known that he played for the Indians at the old Sherman Street Field before he turned professional and played at Nolan Park Field."

That account speculated that .DOC. Baker waa probably the first black professional football player in the nation. Hovever, a 1975 nevspaper article reported that further research revealed that although Baker played for the Akron Indians in 1906, Charles w. Follis of Shelby (Ohio) played professionally in 1904. Additional data from that research provided more information on Baker. He vas reared in the Children's

Home and acquired the nickname 'Wc" from a white physician who befriended hm and taught hm to be his aide. In addition to playing for the Akron Indians,

Baker also played for the Akron Tigers, joining that team in 1911.~'

"Akron Beacon Journal, 17 February 1974, Magazine Section, pp. 14-15. "Ibid., 2 March 1975, Beacon Magazine, pp. 5, 7. 133

The Second Decade- 1910-1919 An the city entered the second decade of the century, it began to experience rapid industrial growth in the form of the expansion of the rubber industry. Good- rich, Goodyear, and Firestone were the dominant rubber firms by the end of 1912" and they were making sizable capital gains. Able to attract labor cheaply and being strong competitors, the rubber companies expanded magically and Akron ceased to be known for its mowers and reapers, its clay products, or its clay industry. According to Griwer, .It became known as Akron, the Tire City, the Rubber Capital of the World:" The advent of World War I gave added mpetus to Akron's industrial development as huge orders for products needed for warring nations--food, clothing, munitions, etc.--began to pour into the United States Jobs were plentiful, wages soared, and factories were working overtime.' I

As the nation's economy prospered, automobile production skyrocketed. Concomitant to the boom experienced in the automobile industry was the boom in the tire industry, and Akron experienced a prosperity unlike any it

~ "Grimer, Akron and Summit, p. 336. "Ibid., p. 341. "Ibid., p. 376. 134 had known-in its earlier history. One of the effects of the city's industrial growth was naturally an increase in its population. In the ten- year span from 1910 to 1920, Akron's total population soared from 69,067 to 208,435 and the influx of southern Begroes resulted in Akron's black population increasing eightfold--from 657 to 5.580." Such a substantial increase brought about several changes for the city's black residents: 1) mounting racial problems: 2) growth in the promtion of black consciousness and black culture: an3 3) increased advancement despite oppression.

mounting Racial Problems Overt racial hostility The combination of Akron's newfomers--European immigrants, southern whites, and southern Negroes--created unprecedented racial problems in the city. In a discussion of the problems that ensued, Grismer has noted that during these years an unusually high percentage of Akronites were native-born, but approximately ten thousand persons rere European immigrants who had to learn to speak English in order to hold their lobs and become American citizens. Thus, Americanization classes were instituted and prior to the decade's end, special classes for the foreign burn--which produced excellent results--were

"Kingsberry, Akron Negro, p. 15 135 conducted in all of the major factories and by the board of education in the public schools." The marked increase in the black population, however, bas met with racial hostility rather than *cordial hospitality.. Instead of actions being taken to assimi- late the southern Negroes, racial discrunination brought about obstacles to the Negroes' advancement. On this point, Grimmer has stated Akron had less difficulty assimilating the newcomers from foreign countries than it did Negroes from the South, mt because the colored people were less adaptable or less desirable but because of race prejudices. Prevented by the antipathy of the whites from living in good residential sections, they were forced to take squalid quarters in the mrst districts. For the first time in its history, Akron got,:xtensive slums, and the slums bred disease and crime The problem of &on's black residents finding adequate housing was a major one, for it not only effected the black newcomers, but the black citizens who had been lifelong residents as well.

As early as 1913 an incident occurred on North Hill which exemplified the gravity, magnitude, and extent of the white hostility toward Negroes. According to newspaper accounts," white residents, determined that blacks could not live in their neighborhood, formed a committee

"Grismer, Akron and Summit, p. 402.

l*Ibld. "Akron Beacon Journal. 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 30 August; E September 1913. 136 to oust their Negro neighbors. The trouble began when white residents in the area learned that a colored family had purchased a lot and home in the neighborhood. A committee of twenty white neighbors organized and visited the homes of the white real estate agent and the Negro buyer with the intention of preventing the transaction from being finalized. They remonstrated with the real estate agent and warned the Negro that if he continued with his plans he wuld in all probability meet with serious trouble. The Negro declined their advice and tw days later a congregation of whites went to his home with a sign that read, in part, .First Warning.. subsequently, the white committee visited other colored families who resided nearby-- some of whom had lived there peaceably with white neigh- bora for decades--and informed them that it muld be necessary for them to move, that their presence in the future would not be tolerated. All Negro residents except one vowed that they wuld not relocate. when the colored residents appealed to the mayor for protection, his reply stated in part that. . . . any attempt to iniure these people will be met by police resistance. Those people as long as they are law-abiding citizens have lust as much right to live there as white people and will be protected."

The next day a local attorney reported that the

"Akron Beacon Journal, 13 August 1913. 131 colored citizens had been offered approximately one thousand dollars more than the value of their property if they would move. The feelings of the white residents was that the presence of one or two families was not objectionable, but "when they began to collect their friends, we objected."" The offers to purchase were met by refusals from the Negroes. Yet the white residents continued to pressure the black newcomer not to move in and requested the Negroes who were already established to leave the vicinity. rou days later the colored citizens of Akron held a ndss meeting to plan resistance against the tactics being pursued by the white residentn. Charging that unlawful and intimidating threats had been made against the colored residents of North Hill, the black citizens presented resolutions to the mayor which said:

Whereas, We the colored citizens of Akron, 0.. feel aggrieved at the action of certain men, white citizen8 of North Hill, in unlustly and unlawfully going to the homes of certain of our brethren, who live there and who own their homes there, and giving them notice to vacate and leave their homes, and Whereas, these white citizens have made unlawful and intimidating threats against our brethren to cause them to leave their homes, to their great loss, incon- venience, and humiliation, and Whereas, We feel that such action, if carried into effect, would tend to deprive us of all the prestage [sic] we have gained, and would make it next to unpos- sme for us to obtain property elsewhere in the city and wuld give the whole of our citizens an unenviable reputation abroad, and

"Ibid., 14 August 1913. 138

Whereas, We know those people . . . their families and others to be respectable and law-abiding citizens in whose neighborhood any person or persons might live without trouble or fear, and Whereas, Many of us are direct taxpayers and all of US indirectly so, therefore be it Resolved, That we, the colored citizens of Akron, 0.. call upon the Honorable Mayor and city government for protection for our people all over the city and especially, at this the, for those who live on North Bill." Uany wild rumors apparently circulated regarding the tense situation, Ergo, in a further attempt to handle the state of affairs intelligently, P. B. ldncaster, Chairman of the Executive Cormnittee of the Colored Citi- zens club, appealed to the colored people of Akron--in a short news article--to refrain from public discussion of tho events on North Hill and to consult their Cormnittee of Ten if they desired any information. Approximately ten days later about fifty white residents staged a demonstration in front of the home of a colored family. lumed--in anticipation of reprisals--they erected a gallows and hung a Negro in effigy. That incident was intended to be the Negroes' last warning, but it went unheeded as the black citizens maintained their position and refused to mve. About a week later the white residents decided to nettle the issue through the formation of the North Akron Improvement Co.--a company established for the purpose of

"Ibid., 19 August 1913.

, 139 purchasing properties of all colored residents whom they considered objectionable. The company was incorporated and all real estate dealers who were interested in property on North Ail1 were warned not to sell to colored people.

Political and civic endeavors to resist racial hostility Some of Akron's black residents attempted to meet their needs through political endeavors by urging political appointments of Negroes and/or by educating members of their race about politics. Early in 1910 black men formed an association called the Colored Men's Square Deal Club of Akron because they contended that black citizens did not receive their just dues at the hands of local politicians and public officials. At its first meeting the men designed plans -= for a wvement to have a colored policeman appointed and prepared a .stinging rebuke. to be sent to Akron's police chief for ridiculing their efforts. The club also planned to wrk toward the improvement of conditions of the colored man in other walks of life." The vast number of black Americans in Akron were cmnlaborers who had limited educations, but they knew hov to capitalize upon their existing abilities. Since

lYIbid., 24 January 1910. 140 the newspaper was one avenue of education open to them, blacks read and responded to the articles appearing in the press. Individual blacks protested their inability to have a voice in the governmental affairs of the rity. Typical of such protests was that of Thomas P. Levis in a letter Kitten in 1913 to the editor of the Akron Beacon JOurMl. Addressing his remarks to other black citizens, he said in part:

AQw if the rrmn of color can do mighty things elsewhere why not in Akron? You are American born citizens living under the laws of the land. You are voters and taxpayers, and still have no voice in the affairs of the government.' a

Levis suggested to his black brethren that they unite their forces politically and demand that which was rightfully theirs, equal representation, according to their numbers. He called for a progressive move and noted that the watchhvrd for Akron's colored voters should be .Unity of Accord, Unity of Purpose, Unity of Progressive- ness. in order to fulfill the duty of their race.''

By 1915 a Negro Men's Independent Political club had organized to take part in the fall election. The meetings were held at Second Baptist Church and the officers were as follows: G. F. Gross, president; william Hurray, vice-president; Thornton H. Kelley, secretary;

~ "Ibid., 28 October 1913. ''Ibid. 141

Julius Johnson, assistant secretary; and William Cucker, treasurer .‘l In 1917 several newspaper articles were written regarding an escalated crime rate among black Akronites since the rapid migration of .undesirable. blacks from the South.” Some of the citizens sav fit to answer these charges and meet what they considered a civic responsibility in educating whites about Negroes. Thus, letters were written to the newspaper to defend blacks’ positions and to explain the conditions under which they lived. One letter, vritten by a southern black nevcomer, requested that the police investigate the vice occurring in the areas where blacks were forced to live, and stated further that The negro who goes into his pocket and pays tventy to thirty dollars for a railroad ticket doesn’t do so to go to some city to break the law. He goes for better- ment of conditions. . . . There are as many as six staying at the same house where I am, wanting some decent place to stay so they can bring their families and they are men that haven’t a blemish against their names. ‘* Another letter written approximately one month later by James Bell, a foreman for a large corporation which employed a large number of Negroes, explained his pesition thusly-

“Ibid., 30 August 1915. “Ibid., 23 April, 7 July 1917. “Ibid., 26 April 1917. While I regret to admit that there are some undesir- ables, yet I am forced to take exceptions to any statement that the majority of the negroes coming among us is of an inferior caliber. I can truthfully- state that 90 percent of the colored men, who are employed by the corporation with which I am identified, are men whose character are above revroach. Men. who have come to us with recommendations-of from three to twenty yeare."

A second letter which appeared on the same day was written by a colored working man who suggested that some of the high crime rate was due to the fact that the vagrancy law was not enforced. He expressed regret that meblacks were committing robbery and assaults on inno- cent people, but he felt that all blacks should not be

blamed for the actions of a few criminals. He asserted that, . . . we want to cooperate with the law in driving them from among us, and show the people the colored man is a law-abiding American citizen.."

Community orqanizations to confront racial problems Adequate housing for blacks had become critical by 1917. Black newcomers who had come to work in hotels and clubs were confronted by a color line which severely restricted their choice of residence. Consequently, a colored welfare club was organized for the purpose of solving the housing problem. The twenty-five members met

"Ibid., 29 May 1917. "Ibid. 143

weekly at the hme of Joseph Hadnott on Sununit Street."

That same year 'Cap. Herring organized a group of

blacks to form a coalition to fight the racial discrimination and prejudice both in Akron and in the South. This small group was organized into the Akron branch of the NAACP and received their charter on 18 July 1918. Some of the earliest members were Willie Allen, Ednah Lewis, bry Holmes, and John Dunbar. The first president under the charter was Rev. James McMullen, pastor of Wesley Temple Church." > The branch could not afford an office in the early

days, and branch activities were limited to fund raising and meetings at Central High School and various churches. The cause, however, was more ambitious as the organization sought to provide for blacks a legal means of protection in an unconcerned society. The large number of southern Negroes who came to Akron--like other migratory people--brought with them the traditions and many of the problems of their native

regions. Therefore, early in 1919, several business and

professional men, along with some of Akron's older citi-

zens, petitioned the local YMCA to develop a branch to

'71bid., 10 January 1917. "Interview with Hiss Hary Holmes, 293 Otis Street, Akron, Ohio, 4 January 1975, Mary Holmes, "Black Akron History Beginning in 1918," Akron, Ohio, 1974, p. 2 144 work with Akron's colored population. The agency responded later that year and opened a Perkins Street Branch placing a secretary in the field." The secretary, thirty-five-year-ald George Thompson, a university man and former principal of a colored high school in Crawfordsville, Indiana, was selected after the entire nation was canvassed to procure the most competent man for the job.'' Thompson had a reputable background in education, social work, and athletics. In regard to the latter, in his track career,Thompson had been a quarter-miler and had set state interscholastic records. '' He subsequently set state intercollegiate records for the University of Indiana in the same event. In 1904 Thompson represented the United States in the Olympic games and ran the quarter mile in 49 2-5 seconds [s&l." According to a newspaper account, the aim of the colored YMCA branch was to offer assistance to Akron's black population and in particular to the Negro newcomers --arriving on the average of one hundred per week--who had

110 place to go and no one to provide them with assistance. The account suggested further that until the Akron

"Leon Gordie, Negro Yearbook of Akron and Vicinity (Akron: Leon Gordie, lV22), p. 11 "Akron Beacon Journal, 20 March 1919.

"Ibid., 22 April 1925. 145 -

YMCA took steps that resulted in the creation of the colored branch of the organization, not one society had been established in the city for the assistance and improvement of the Negro population."

Promotion of Black Consciousness and Black Culture Since Negroes were barred from membership in white associations, they solidified and enlarged their ohm organizations which became vehicles that served many functions--one being the development of black consciousness and black culture. Both black social organizations and black churches vere active in this process.

Increased black social organizations Social organizations were frequently addressed by speakers who emphasized black awareness and black unification. Typical of such programs was one sponsored by the Daughters of Jerusalem at AM!?, Zion Church when Dr. Joseph Bradfield spoke on 'Some Examples of Self-Help and Success Among colored People:" Black social societies were on the increase and a wmen's auxiliary of the'mights of Pythias, the Naomi

Friendship No. 49, Court of Calanthe was established 14 January 1911. Charter members included: Julia Pinn,

"Ibid., 8 August 1919.

"Ibid., 25 September 1911. 146

Leah Idncaster, Irene Rideout,’ Mabelle Brown, Niona Archer, httie Jones, Victoria Heath, Marie Anderson,

Cordelia Archer, Amanda Mountain, Bertha Alexander, Fannie Alexander, Pearl Heath, Ester L. Jor

Daughters of Jerusalem; and Court of Calanthe.

The celebration consisted of scheduled day-long activities which included: southern melodies sung by a forty-voice chorus under the direction of C. Pollard and Hiss Esther 1. Jones, pianist, a Thanksgiving sermon by

Rev. H. R. Sunrmer, speeches by a centenarian, .Papa. Coleman, and other black citizens, readings by Mary

Pickett and Ws. M. E. Jones, addresses on the Civil War by Civil War veterans, James Morrison and F. M. Hailstock; and dinner with ex-slaves and old soldiers as honored guests.

“Charter of the Naomi Friendship Court No. 49, Court of Calanthe: Interview with Mrs. Helzola Weeks, 895 Mercer Ave., Akron, Ohio 13 February 1975. The key speaker of the day waa Prof. E. W. 8. Curry, president ard founder of Curry Normal and Industrial Institute in Wrbana, Ohio. The school followed a program similar to that of Tuskegee Institute. Dr. Curry advised the blacks to obtain homes; to educate their children in trades as well as in the literary; to lead a clean life; and to be industrious and honest. '' Mother black organization which was established during the second decade of the century was the Mount Calvary Lodge No. 76 of the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Free ard Accepted Masons. According to Wesley's The Eistory of the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of the State of

Ohio, 1849-1960, on 6 Uarch 1775, Prince Hall and fourteen other freemen of Boston were initiated at castle William, Boston Rarbor-currently Port Independence--in Masonry in the British Hilitary Lodge NO. 441 which worked under the authority of the Grand Lodge of Ireland. This record is contained in an old minute book of the lodge, still in existence." Prom this event the Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of Ohio Free and Accepted Masons was formed by convention of

~ ~ ~~ l'A)rron Beacon Journal. 28 November 1913. "Charles R. Wesley, The History of the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of the State of Ohio, ~n49- iybo (w ilberforce Central State College Press, 1961), pp. 4-5. 148 the three Cincinnati Lodges. It was from the Grand Lodge of 1849 that the Prince Hall Lodges in Akron--Mount

Calvary NO. 76 and Phoenix Lodge No. 112--derive their authority to exi8t.l' Munt Calvary Lodge No. 76 received its charter on 16 November 1916." When Grand Plaster Cory Mams opened a lodge of master masons in the old Xnights of Pythias Hall, a class of seventeen candidates from Akron had the several degrees of masonry conferred upon them. That evening the lodge was instituted and the following officers were installed: Benjamin H. Andrews, Worshipful Master: N. D. Sheldon, Senior Warden; John A. Banks, Junior Warden

Wichael 0. Woolridge, Treasurer, Julius R. Johnson, Secre- taryi Brother Charles C. Jackaon. Senior Deacon, J. A. Hollovay, Chaplain: Charles R. Lewis, Senior Stevard, Levi

Pinn, Junior Steward: G. Frank Greos [GI, Tyler. " The supreme Camp of the American Woodmen was organized by .Cap. Herring around 1917 Not much information was accesaible concerning the organization, but available data indicated that the Akron lodge vas a part of the national organization. The mmen's group formed a

"*Souvenir Program of the Mount Calvary Lodge No. 76 Fiftieth Anniversary Banquet," Akron, Ohio, 1966. "Wesley noted the date the lodge was instituted as 14 November 1917 in Wesley, The History of Prince Hall, p. 167. "'souvenir Program Mount Calvary." 149 band and played for many civic events--one of which was the opening of the North Hill viaduct. There were approximately twenty-one band members which included the following persona Anna Mae Lee, Rose Whatley, Cassie Hale, Mamie Rivers, and Lena Williams." In the spring of 1917 a conversation occurred between Jessie Blake, Mildred Cobb Woodward, Maude Brown IleDonald, and Leonard Fomn (a member of Delta Lodge No. 149 of the I.B.P.O.E. of W.) which eventually led to the founding of Hary Exalted Temple No. 95. The -men discussed with Forman the possibility of forming a women's auxiliary to Delta Lodge No. 149. Forman suggested that the ladies petition to the Grand Lodge to become a Temple and auxiliary, but plans were delayed because of the onset of World War I. Subsequent plans led to the founding of Mary

Exalted Temple No. 95 which received its charter on

5 November 1917, The Temple was given the name Mary in honor of Daughter Mary Mollie Isseem Debraun of Cleveland who devoted her untiring efforts toward the formation of the chapter. Daughter Bell Byrd served as the organira- tion's first Daughter Ruler.''

"Interview with Ednah Lewis, 463 Noah Avenue, Akron, Ohio, 30 December 1974. "*Souvenir Program of the Mary Exalted Temple No. 95 Golden Anniversary," Akron, Ohlo, 1967. A few months later the Mary Chapter, Order of the Eastern Stars was granted its charter on 17 March 1918. Angia Andrevs served as the first Worthy Matron and Joseph tiolloway, first Worthy Patron.”

New black churches were established The influx of black southerners brought abut an increase in the number of black churches and four were founded between 1910 and 1919. The Robert Street Church of God began in 1917 and has had tour pastors in its history. Rev. George Suddeth, Sr. founded the church after bringing his family from Alabama.” Be pastored the church from 1917 to 1943. The mes and years of service for the remaining pastors were- Rev. Iierbert Shankle, 1943 to 19441 Rev. Robert L. Fowler, 1945 to 1968, and Kev. Ronald Fowler, who became minister in 1969. Rev. Fowler continues to serve sa current pastor .I‘ munt Olive Baptist Church was founded in May 1918 as the outgrowth of a conversation between Rev. Eerbert william WClellon and Hr. Richard Jones in a barber shop at 3 East Market Street. Rev. Hr. McClellon was seeking a

“Interview with Robert N. Dunbar, 817 Nevin Street, Akron, Ohio, 6 Harch 1975.

“Akron Beacon Journal, 4 March 1968, p. 03.

“.A Membership Guide for Robert Street Church of God,’ Akron, Ohio, n.d. ?

151 site in which to begin a church. When Mr. Jones made arrangements for the minister to rent Mount Calvary Lodge Ball for three dollars a week, Rev. Mr. WClellon had several announcements printed and disseminated them at the corner of llain and Harket Streets.

The first meeting was held at 164 South Howard

Street and plans were made to organize a church the following Sunday. A month later Rev. Ilr. mclellon organized Mount Olive Missionary Baptist church and served a8 ita first pastor. The Sunday School was established that same day by Mrs. Lillian WClellon, the pastor's rife. In July 1918 Rev. Mr. McClellon and Brother Jesse mnford attended the Northern Ohio District Baptist AQSO- ciation in Haasillon, Ohio at which time Mount olive nissionary Baptist Church joined said association. Several months later the church moved to a garage at the corner of High and Ridge streets. Rev. Mr. Mcclellon resigned shortly thereafter on 4 November 1918. By the early 19208, the church had relocated to Bluff Street.L' Early in November 1918 Rev. Mr. McClellon rented a storefront and living quarters at the rear of E5 East North street for the purpose of establishing another church. A few weeks later, on 25 November 1918, the

"€I.W. McClellon, .History of the Mount Olive Missionary Baptist Church,. Akron, Ohio, n.d. 152

pastor's wife organized a Sunday School. Because of the prevailing flu epidemic, however, all churches and schools in Suunnit County had to close. On 19 April 1919 HDunt Zion Missionary Baptist Church was organized. Hrs. McMaehan, ma. Kaggie Curry,

Wr8. Parlee Powers, Brother John Henry Story, Brother C. Paarine, Hrs. Pearine, and Hrs. Pearine's mother (with letters from Alabama) were the early members listed in the history of the church." Early in 1918 at a Methodist district conference in Chicago, led by Bishop Theodore Anderson, a discussion on how to deal with the problem of large numbers of southern Negroes migrating to the North was a matter of particular concern. As a result of the discussion, Rev. Frank Arnold was sent to Akron to investigate the possibility of instituting a church. Although his report at the quarterly conference in Cleveland, Ohio indicated that

the circumstances were not favorable, the conference remained convinced that the need was great. Thus, Rev. Howard E. Chapman and Rev. D. C. Skelton, District Super- intendent, Were appointed to come to Akron and formulate plans for establishing a church."

"H. W. Hcclellon, *History of Mount Zion Mission- ary Baptist Church," Akron, Ohio, 1957. ".Souvenir Program of the Forty-first Anniversary of Centenary Methodist Cnurch," Akron, Ohio, 1959. 153

Rev. Ilr. chapman was relieved of his duties at munt Pleasant Church in Cleveland and preached his first sernwn in Akron in May 1918 before a group of people who assembled at the corner of Howard and Furnace Streets."

On 29 May 1918 a small congregation of ten people met at the home of Mr. and Mrs. Kudger who had offered the use of their home at 223 North Street as a temporary place of mrship. Later that afternoon, the Sunday school was Organized on the porch of the Kudger's home. Services were held later that year at the Elks Hall on noward Street and the church was named Elvira Chapel in memory of Rev. Ur. Chapwan's mother. Worship services were interrupted shortly thereafter because of the flu epidemic in 1918. The church did not resume activities until 1920."

ninknal Advancement Despite Oppression Growth of black professional and business men The large number of black persons who came to Akron included a few professional persons beginning in the mid- 1910s. Among the first to arrive was Dr. Charles R. Lewis, who with his bride, came from Columbus, Ohio on their -. wedding day, 18 October 1916. Lewis had come to Akron

".Souvenir Program of the Fiftieth Anniversary of Centenary Methodist Church," Akron, Ohio, 1968. ".Porty-first Anniversary of Centenary.. 154 earlier after gradusting from Ohio State University's Hedical School but he did not settle permanently until after his mrriage.

Hi8 decision to reside in Akron was based on the suggestion of a friend, Charles Jackson, for whom he had wrked building roads in Ohio during the smer. Jackson had told Dr. Lewis that there were no colored physicians in Akron and thus persuaded hh to come. (or. Smpson had moved to Dayton, Oh50 in 1905.) The Lewises first lived on Mama Street with Mrs. Burley, an early settler who had come to Akron in the 1880s. Later they resided in a three-room apartment over a saloon at 12 North Howard Street--the only place they could obtain (and said to be fortunate to get that) during the great influx of people coming to the city. concerned abut living over a saloon, Dr. Lewis discussed the matter with Rev. R. A. Jones, pastor of

Second Baptist Church. The sagacious minister replied that, .If you wuldn't be good living over a saloon, you wouldn't be good living over a church. It isn't where you live, it's how you live.""

Year by year a few more black professionals arrived in Akron. By 1917 Atty. Thomas (Ted) Greene and Dr.

Harold P. H. Dickinson, the first black dentist known to

"Interview with Ednah Lewis, 30 December 1974. 155 practice in the city, were getting established in their professions. Approximately a year later, Akron had a black pharmacist, Harold Clark, and as the decade closed, Dr. John W. Dunbar began to practice dentistry in 1919. Lhited information existed concerning black businesses during this decade, but it is known that black businessmen, like black professionals, were very few. A

1916 news account reported in that regard that Akron's

Negro population had grown so large by 1916 that the city had one black physician: an attorney was to come soon: aeveral restaurants and bar shops were owned by Negroes, and one saloon was under Negro management." Three years later Woodie Colvin came to Akron and Opened his interior decorating business. He had attended high school at Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute where he had come under the influence of twa nationally prominent black educators-Booker T. Washington and Dr. George Washington Carver. Dr. Carver not only taught Colvin agriculture, but he was also his Sunday School teacher. A news article has suggested that in the many years which Colvin has lived in Akron, he has used much of the philosophy of Carver and Washington in his civic vork to promote racial harmony and to solve community problems. Colvin has been described as a man with a cause: making

"Akron Beacon Journal, 19 October 1916. 156

Akron a better place for all residents.” Black educators who had taught in the South were eot able to use their professions in Akron. When Beall C. Stevens and Hr. and Hrs. Robert Stewart arrived in Akron, they had to find employment in the rubber factories in order to support their families. Stevens came to Akron around 1916 from Alabama where he had been enrolled years earlier in Tuskegee

Institute’s first class. In 1958 he was the only living member of the class.” Through the years, Stevens had in his possession a nrrmber of old, yellowed papers that were collector’s items which told some of the history of the South. One prized document was a paper which in 1902 granted hun the right to vote. In 1900 Alabama passed a law declaring that only educated Negroes--physicians, teachers, attorneys, and ministers--could vote.” Ria most prized possession, however, was a letter of recommendation to teach, signed by Booker T. Washing- ton, famous black educator and founder of Tuskegee Insti-

tute. Stevens taught at mskegee for thirteen years and became a good friend of Washington’s.’’

”Ibid., 4 July 1954, p. D3. “Ibid., 26 June 1958. ‘‘Ibid. ”A copy of a document which states that Stevens was licensed to teach in the public schools appears in 157

Whem Washington died, Stevens and his family attended the funeral late in 1915. Mattie Coulter-who subsequently married Stevens' son, Leonard, was a student at Tuskegee Institute at the time of Washington's death and also attended the funeral She had begun school at Tuskegee Institute at the age of eight and had classes in the Children's HOUSe (similar to a primary school). HTs.

Stevens graduated from Tuskegee Institute in 1918." When Beall Stevens decided to come North in order to better support his family, he first worked at his trades ae a carpenter and a cobbler. After residing in Akron one year, he brought his family to this city and lived for three months with Rev. HT. Upperman, pastor of Ane Zion Church. The family then moved to Case Avenue across from the old Kent School and resided there for a short time. While employed as a carpenter, Stevens worked for a contractor and helped to build Goodyear's Plant TWO and Goodyear Hall.

Not long after Stevens began to work at Goodyear

Tire and Rubber Co., the family moved to Walkersville--an area close to Toban Heights. Both of these sections of Akron were located in the vicinity of nartha Avenue, close to Goodyear's Plant Tyo. They were "shantytowns," appendix 3. "Tuskegee Institute, "The Eurekan,' Tuskegee, Ala., 1918, p. 12. populated by blacks who worked at Goodyear. The family moved once more to Honodle Avenue and Stevens worked in the maintenance department of Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co. for thirty years until his retirement." Be and his wife, Sally, celebrated their sixtieth ndding anniversary on 4 July 1958." Robert and Lottie Stewart had both been teachers and principals in schools in Florida. Robert Stewart, having acquired a private education in his youth, was later able to attend Fisk University for two years and was thereby qualified to teach. Kis wife, Lottie, had been

provided an education in her aunt's private .Creole School.. Such education was considered relatively superior and later enabled her to obtain a position as a teacher and principal in the Freedmen Bureau Schools of Pensacola--schools which were maintained for black children. The Pensacola Board of Education had become more stringent in its educational requirements and the Stewarts, needing more money to support their family, came North to Cleveland, Ohio for a short time before settling in Akron.

"Interview with Mr. and Mrs. Leonard Stevens, 1221 Everton Drive, Akron, Ohio, 28 December 1974.

"A letter of congratulations sent to Mr. and Mrs. Beall C. Stevens from Ohio Sen. Fred W. Danner is included in appendix 5. 159

The couple found employment at Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co. During this period in Akron's history, blacks vere employed only in menial capacities regardless of their educational backgrounds. Ergo, Stewart was employed as an elevator operator and his wife, Lottie, Ilorked as a charwoman.'y

Black students seek higher education Altbough educational opportunities were severely limited for black residents in Akron, black parents encouraged their children to aspire to higher educational levels. Extremely few black Akronites were completing high school and/or going to college in the early years of the twentieth century. Northern blacks who did acquire a college education generally had to go south to attend black colleges or enter one of the country's other black institutions. Rlo which were located in Wilberforce, Ohio vere Payne Theological Seminary and Wilberforce University.

A history of the two black colleges indicated that there was an early concern for the advanced education of blacks, and Wilberforce University predates the Civil War. The first step toward higher education of American Negroes was taken when on 21 September 1844 at the AME Conference of Ohio, a committee was appointed to select a site for a

"Virginia R. Robinson, 'One Family Among Many,. 30 May 1973, FH-26 in Family Histories in the University of Akron, Library Archival Services, Akron, Ohio. 160

.Seminary of Learning.. A result of that committee's work was the purchase of 172 acres and the founding of Union Seminary in 1847 near Columbus, Ohio. Courses in both nranual labor and literary instruction were offered.

At the Cincinnati Conference of the ME Church, Ohio took its second step toward educating black youth. On 28 September 1853 a committee recommended that a higher order literary institution for the education of Negro people generally should be established. Tawawa Springs--

a healthful and popular resort near Xenia, Ohio--was pur-

chased as the site for Wilberforce University. Through the cooperative efforts of the ME and AllE Conferences of Ohio, the school was incorporated on 30 August 1856.

During the days of the Civil War, Bishop Daniel Alexander Payne purchased wilberforce University for the AME Church at a cost of ten thousand dollars on 10 March 1863. In the process of reorganization Bishop Payne became the president of the institution. Wilberforce University was subsequently enlarged through the sale of Union Seminary and the increase of additional faculty members and students. Payne Theological Seminary was established as a

separate institution during President Samuel T. Mitchell's administration of Wilberforce University. Because a university could not receive state aid as long as ministerial or sectarian training was a feature of a college or 161 university, it was to the advantage of Wilberforce Uni- versity to establish a separate institution for ministerial training. Thus, in 1894 Payne Theological Seminary vas established with a separate and distinct board of directors and a separate state charter." Records indicating the attendance of black Akron- itos at Wilberforce University or black southern colleges during the first decade of the 1900s were not found nowever, Loretta May Davis (from Newark, Ohio), who later nettled in -on, was a sophomore at Wilberforce Univer- nity in 1910." She graduated from that institution around 1912 shortly before coming to Akron. Although she is deceased, her husband, Morris Woodson, currently resides in the city. By 1915 three black college students from Akron were enrolled at Wilberforce University, namely, Faustina Walker, Charles Points, and Mary Gross." Geraldine Dyson, another Akronite, attended there one year later. In 1917 mer Lancaster had begun his studies at the University of Akron in pursuit of a Bachelor of Arts

"Wilberforce University Catalogue, 1938-39, Wilberforce, Ohio (pages unknown) quoted in "Payne Theo- logical Seminary of the African Methodist Episcopal Church," n.p., n.d., pp. 5-8. "Wilberforce University Catalogue, 1910-11. Wilberforce, Ohio, p. 138. "Wilberforce University Catalogue, 1916-17, Wilberforce, Ohio, pp. 139, 155, 156. 162

Degree. Bat black families in Akron during those years ware not able to send their children to universities. Bowever, black parents taught their children, within the family circle, about black culture, respect and pride, and black awareness. They taught their youngsters both by ample and through books. Some of the southern Negroes who migrated North had come from homes where education was stressed, as in the case of Stevens and the Stewarts. Mary Holmes, who came to Akron in 1918, had also been taught in her home to value education, and she developed an appreciation for black history. Miss Eolmes had grown to appreciate the history of Negroes through brusing a book she obtained from her 1 father, 0th Holmes--a laborer. The book, which she currently has in her possession, is a mssive volume entitled Twentieth Century Negro Literature." Hiss Holmes, one of the charter members of the NAACP, has made a scrapbook of that organization's history and has been called upon by many organizations to speak on black history in Akron.

Black entertainment in Akron Rollin Smich, who has gained international fame,

"D. W. Culp, ed., Twentieth Century Negro Litera- -ture (Atlanta: J. L. Nicholas and Co , 1902) , PP. 1-472. 163 vas born in Akron in 1699. Re lived at 723 Hazel street and attended Praunfelter Elementary School and Central Eigh School. Prom the time he was very young, he studied music. At first he studied informally--through listening to and vatching his father play the family organ: listening to his brother, Clyde, play the violin: or listening to his mther and aunts' quartet as they sang beautiful spirituals. Eo used to try to position his hands on the keys that he 8av his father play, and at an early age he himself playedfor the church choir. During the years that

Smith vas growing up, the church was the only social outlet that black people had, and he never forgot about its knportance. Re has credited the black church as being a great influence in the lives of black people as is reflected in several of his couanents which follow: When you see a black singer, you don't ask if he or she got their start in a choir . . . you lust ask vhich church. During 250 years of slavery the church was our only Bocial outlet--it was our home, our mother--and our means of escape to freedom. . . . It was our concert hall, our theatre, our country club--everything . . . and it kept us on the straight and narrow. This was good in a way because the people raised in the ghetto got to see people at their best. . . . It gave us hope and faith in human beings.''

While a student in elementary and high school, Smith had several foml music lessons from various

"Sunday Post-Eerald tHong Kong), 25 !!arch 1973, p. 15. 164 teachers including. Professor Seigel on west Market Streetr Hiss Kratz, who taught him viola lessons at Kratz Music Co. on Maln Street; Professor Damon, who instructed him in playing the cello: and Hr. Harley Washington, a Cleveland saxopnonist, who taught him saxophone lessons at Smith's home. All of his formal training was in the classics. Smith learned a great deal about jazz when he shined shoes at a barber shop (for one dollar a week) at age thirteen an8 listened to the bands booked by Charlie Parker at nearby Eaet Market Gardens. Around 1917, Smith and his older brother, Clyde (who became a concert violinist at age fifteen), played in the Elite Jazz Band at local halls-Stanley Dance Hall at Hain and Exchange Streets and Hense Baker's Club on Howard street. They also played for Ethel Waters when she appeared in Akron. Around world War I, the Smith brothers played for the noon dances held for the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.'s employees at the Goodyear gymnasium. Later, the cafeteria across the street hired them to play five evenings a week. The brothers were soon making one hundred dollars a week and .were on their way to becoming outstanding musicians. The noted musician has been able to recall much of hie early life as the foregoing segment has indicated. Among some of his other childhood recollections are varied 165 memories. Re recalled that his mother, Ella Rogers Smith, was in the same class in grade school with Thoma Edison's

rifer that Mrs. Hurley, a cateress who lived on Adams Street, had baked Thomas Edison's wedding cake, and that .DOC' Baker, the professional football player, had dated Smith's aunt, Ma Rogers. IS Anather local musician around 1917 was William

Fowler, who came to Akron from Pensacola, Florida. A very talented musician, he played the trumpet at engagements

that ran the gamut from minstrel shows to vaudeville circuses. Fowler got his first union card in 1917 in the Akron Local No. 24 of the Musician's Union.'L In 1919 Akron obtained one of the most outstanding athletic figures of that period, Fritz Pollard, a Negro

football player. Pollard, the great All-American halfback from Brown University, signed to play with the Akron

Indians early in November of that year."

Although he only weighed 145 pounds, Pollard was acknowledged as a versatile player and perhaps the great-

est backfield man in the East during that tme.

A 1920 account of Pollard's feats on the gridiron for tw seasons in Akron termed Pollard an Idol of both

"Interview with Rollin Smith and Rollin Clayton, 879 Dover Avenue, Akron, Ohio, 7 November 1974.

"Akron Beacon Journal, 13 January 1952, p. 83.

"Ibid., 6 November 1919. -. 166

blacks and whites; described his unusual athletic ability, and provided some insights into his modest personality and sagacity. One portion of the article pointed out that although Pollard earned a good salary, he was vise enough to Mve a good share of it so that 'he would be prepared for 'rainy days' when age forces him to give up the

gridiron. .*I Pollard has had the distinction of being the only black head coach of a professional football team in the nation. In 1919, he coached the Akron Steels in the old

American League." Be was nominated to the Summit County Sports Hall of Fame in 1960 for his outstanding football prowess.'O

Sununary The turn of the century witnessed a riot that ' developed from the irresponsible acts of some of Akron's citizens who were enraged when a Negro, Louis Peck, was accused of assaulting a six-year-old girl. Mob rule pre-

vailed when a crohd vent to the prison to remove Peck. Fearing a lynching, the police took measures to protect Peck by secretly transferring him to a ]ail in Cleveland.

" "Ibid., 30 November 1920.

"Ibid., 8 September 1974, p. 81. "Ibid., 23 December 1960. 167

Unaware that Peck was no longer in Akron's jail, the mob stoned the building and attempted to enter

forcibly. In the ensuing events, tvO children were acci-

dentally killed when police fired on the advancing rioters. subsequent actions left the city in flames as the irate crod set fire to City Ball and thwarted firemen's efforts to extinguish the blare. Martial law was enforced until calm could be restored. A total of forty-one persons were prosecuted in relation to the riot. Peck was imprisoned, but years later he ws granted an unconditional pardon for it was felt that he had not received a fair trial. During that same period of time blacks were becom- irsg cognizant of their lack of representation in the city's government despite their political support of various politicians. Thus, they organized a political club for

the purpose of uniting to give support only to the party from which they could secure representation in the local government. In the early years of the century blacks were also founding local chapters of national organizations established to uplift Negroes. Among the organizations which . sought to elevate the black man's position were the Daughters of Jerusalem, the Grand United Order of True

Reformers, the 1.B.P.O E. of W. (the Negro Elks), and the Knights of Pythias. . 168

The Loyal Legion of Labor aimed not only to advance the Negro, but also to better race relations. A local chapter was founded in Akron very early in the 1900s. Said organization had the cupport of many of Akron's prominent white citizens.

A third black church, Bethel AME (known currently as St. Paul AME Church) was also founded during the first decade of the century. The 'Negro problem' in America was the subject of many addresses and discussions as Akron's citizens--bath black and white--listened to orators and laymen offer their solutions to the problem. Negroes were generally encouraged to obtain an education, and whites were 'educated' about Negroes. Three black personalities made significant contributions to the black community between 1900 and 1909. Dr. Ferdinand ShpSOn became the first black physician in Akron; his younger brother, Harrington Simpson, became the city's first black attorney: and 'Doc" Baker demonstrated his athletic ability as a professional football player for the Akron Indians. The rapid industrial growth due to the expansion of the rubber industry and the advent of World War I brought abut a marked increase in the number of black residents in Akron. The Negro population increased eightfold between 1910 and 1919. Such a substantial gain created a 169

drastic change in racial attitudes toward Negroes. One of the early signs of racial hostility was manifested in incidents that occurred on North Hi11 in which white residents pressured both established black residents and black newcomers to vacate their homes and

live elsewhere. A tense situation existed for approximately a month as blacks withstood alarming threats and attempts to force them to relocate. Black reaction to such tactics resulted in citywide black unity and increased political and civic activities. Black political clubs were formed and letters were written to the press calling for black unity for political progress and defending the Negro's position in an obviously hostile society. The segregated circumstances under which blacks

ware forced to live served to develop black consciousness and black culture. Negroes participated in, enlarged, and

founded their own social organizations and churches.

Thereby, they perpetuated their culture through music, readings, sgeeches, dinners, and celebrations of anni- versaries and events of significance to their race.

A few advances were made in terms of professional and business development among Negroes. By the end of the second decade, black professionals who had come to the city and were getting established in their professions

included: one physician, an attorney, a pharmacist, and 170 two dentists. Black educators were unable to teach in Akron. A few restaurant and bar shops, a saloon, and an interior decorating business constituted the majority of black businesses. Pew black students were completing high school and even less aspired to higher education in the 1910s. However, a rnnall number of black families had instilled in their children the necessity of a college education. By 1917 four young adults from Akron were at Wilberforce University and one colored male student had enrolled at the university of Akron. The talent provided by tvo Negro musicians and a black athlete had attracted the attention of many Akron- ites in the latter part of the 1910s. Rollin Smith and William Fowler were versatile musicians who played in local bands in Akron, and Fritz Pollard had gained the respect and admiration of football buffs throughout the area. Black progress was slow but enduring as the 1910s drew to a close. I CHWTER IV

EACIAL OPPRESSION AHONG AKRON'S BUCK RESIDENTS

The Third Decade 1920-1929

A larger black papulation accompanied by omnipresent racial discrimination resulted in blacks being separated from the dominant population politically, economically, and SoCiallY. By the early 1920s racial barriers had been erected to the extent that blacks. 1) were not served in Akron's finer restaurants; 2) were requested to sit in the balcony in theaters; 3) could not swim in local swhning pools; 4) were refused lodging in the city's hotels; and 5) were .invisible' in both mana- gerial business positions and in administrative posts in the local government. The programs, pursuits, and organizations which Akron's Negroes developed to combat racial pre~udiceand involve themselves in their communities, and the city at large, will be examined in this segment of the paper.

Political and Civic Involvement of Black Residents Political appointments of blacks were almost nonexistent during this period in Akron's black history and 171 - 172 very few Negroes sought to hold public office. Kowever, changes were beginning to occur as Negroes became more educated and more unified in their goals. One of the early political appointments occurred when Judge E. C. Spicer appointed George W. Thompson as a deputy probation officer of the Summit County juvenile court. Thompson's specific responsibilities were to handle the cases of Akron'a Negro juvenile delinquents.' By 1922 two Negroes had run for public offices. Dr. Charles R. Lewis sought a seat in the state legislature, and Leon Gordie ran for councilman of Akron's first ward.' Soon after the enactment of the Nineteenth Amend- ment, which granted women the right to vote, several black wen in Akron organized the Colored Women's Political

Club. Formed during the 1920 presidential campaign, the first officers elected were HTs. Artee Fleming, presi- dentt Hiss Iva Iiaines, first vice-president; Hrs. T. W. Dyson, second vice-president; Mrs. Johnne B. Dennis, secretary; HTs. Mary DeBraun [+I, treasurer. Beginning with a small group of humen who vorked to nominate Dr. Charles R. Lewis as a candidate for the state legislature on the Republican ticket, the membership grew

'Akron Beacon Journal, 29 September 1920.

'Cordie, Negro Yearbook, pp. 39-40. 173 to five hundred during the campaign.' The next year the club gave its assistance to efforts to nominate Leon Gordie and James Miller to City Council. Although neither man was successful, the organization shared in the success of the Republican ticket and was more keenly aware of the advantages of the ballot. The women holding office that year were: Mrs. Artee

Fleming, president, Hrs. T. W. Dyson, first vice-president: ma. Rose Grossett, second vice-president: Mrs. Laura Black, secretary: and nCs. Lyda Atkins, treasurer.'

A Negro men's political organization was also established in 1920. Recognizing the need for improving the Negro both politically and economically, a small group of men, mely, Leon Gordie, Alexander Davis, Henry Killings, Frank E. Petite, and Thurston Watt, founded the Young Men's Progressive Club on 22 July 1920. The club worked in cooperation with the Colored Women's Political club to support the county Republican ticket as well as the candidacy of Dr. Charles R. Lewis for the state legislature. Lewis was the first Negro in Sumit County to be selected to run for public office. Be finished fourth in the race, and his undisputed leadership among Akron's Negroes led to his appointment on the

'Ibid., p. 17.

'Ibid., p. 23. -

~ 174 - Republican Central Committee.' Further activities of the Young Uen's Progressive Club resulted in tm appointments of blacks to positions in the city's government. NO-n Kerr became clerk to the County Surveyor. Jack Waver: and llarvin Kendrick--Akron's first black patrolman--vas appointed to the police force.' John Suddieth. Akron's second Neqro patrolman, joined the police force in 1922.' r The officers of the Young Uen's Progressive Club in 1922 were: Leon Gordie, president; Frank E. Petite, first vice-president: Rev. T. W. Chryer, second vice-president:

Norman C. Ken, secretary: EeIUy Killings, assistant secretary: Dr. W. E. Hayo, treasurer: and Robert Hill, sergeant-at-arms. The organization had an active membership of about three hundred members.'

BBCaUSe of the rampant racial discrimination throughout the city and the activities of the local Ku

Klux Klan Organization, George W. Thompson, Leon Gordie, and Dr. Charles R. Lewis--actinq as plaintiff s--3ointly filed a petition on 25 Hay 1922 in the Summit County Court of Common Pleas requesting a restraining order to prohibit the organization from meeting within the limits of Summit

'Ibid., p. 39. 'Ibid. 'Interview with John Suddieth, Uhrichsville, Ohio, 4 Harch 1975.

'Gordie, Neqro Yearbook, p. 39. 175

County. Attorneys Samuel T. Kelly and Artee Planing represented the plaintiffs in their action.' However,

Attorney Kelly has been credited with initiating that injunction which was carried to enforcement by the court!O By 1928 Negroes were recognizing the need for participation in tvo political parties in order to advance their race. Therefore, Atty. mer Lancaster, a 1927 graduate from Western Reserve Law School, and John Banks, the head waiter at the Portage Hotel, founded the Summit County Colored Democratic Club, Inc.ll As politicians attempted to attract and hold the majority Negro vote, Negroes began to better their conditions. Civic endeavors toward improvement of the Negroes' lives were engaged in by both blacks and whites and Negro speakers were sometunes requested to speak to white audiences. In the summer of 1920 a prominent colored voman, Mrs. D. Walker Booker from Indianapolis, addressed representatives of various white civic organizations at the YKA in order to educate them about the Negro race. She spoke on the Negro's advancement after 250 years of

'Summit county Court of common Pleas, case NO. 41857, Akron, Ohio, 1922.

LoAkronBeacon Journal, 24 December 1950, p. 83. "mer Martin Lancaster, .Biographical Sketch," 19 October 1965, University of Akron, Library Archival Services, Akron, Ohio; Holmes, "Black Akron History," p. 3. 176 slavery; his loyalty throughout the war; and the shilari- ties of the black and white race. In regard to the latter, she added that .The Negroes have all of the problems of the white people and their own besides.'" Prior to that meeting, PITS. Booker had appeared at the various Neqro churches and urged blacks to do all within their power to Lnprove their race. Further evidence of civic attempts to better the lives of Negroes was the formation of the Citizens Civic Federation which has organized by Hrs. Mary E. Allen. One of the programs which the organization instituted was the annual observance of the anniversary of the Rnancipation Proclamation. On 1 January 1927 a program to observe the sixty- fourth anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation was held at Perkins Auditorium. The Honorable Robert s. Abbott, L.L.B., editor of the Chicago Defender, was the orator for the memorable occasion." The event was given the full support of the black community.

Economic Conditions of Akron's Black Residents Black persons of prominence In the fall of 1920 plans for establishing a

"Akron Beacon Journal, 14 August 1920.

"A copy of the printed program appears in appendix 4. 177 permanent colored business and professional men's organization were effected at a meeting held at the YMCA. The purpose of the organization, as stated by George W. Thomp- eon, was to promote the business interests among the colored people in Akron. Thompson had obtained the idea for perfecting such a group from a National Negro Business League Conference in Washington, which he had recently attended." By 1922 there were a number of small Negro business establishments to serve the black community. Both men and wmen were engaged in profitable enterprises and vere demonstrating their competencies in diverse occupations.

Weof the more prominent men and their field of business or professions included: T. M. Fletcher, under- taker; Henry Killings, produce merchant; Frank E. Petite, sheet metal business; L. H. Forman, proprietor of a restaurant; Charles C. Manley and Troy V. Allen, barbers.

A. H. Damon, instructor and owner of a music studio, J. S. Wilcher, contractor, J. D. Lewis, contractor and builder, A. Lavaine Bohr, printing business, Ed Patterson, restaurant proprietor, Dr. Charles R. Lewis, physicran; Samuel T. Kelly, attorney, Artee Fleming, attorney, Dr. F. E. Strawbridge, physician, Dr. J. W. Dunbar,

"Akron Beacon Journal, 9 September 1920. - 178 dentist; Dr. w. E. myo, dentist; Harold G. Clark, pharmacist; L. L. Lumpkins, expressing and hauling business; Leon Cordie, grocer; and 0. H. myfield, hotel manager. ' George Hathews, who settled in Akron in 1920, began his business ventures with the purchase of an old eleven- room boarding house at 106 North Hain Street. By 1925, he invested all of his money into converting a rooming house into the Mathews Hotel. His business enterprises met with mccess and four years later Mathews was able to add a barber shop to his hotel." hving this period -men were beginning to enter business and professional pursuits also. The names of some of the well-known black women and their occupations follow: Mrs. G. w. Turner, beauty culturist; Miss M. c. Bolar, beautician and dressmaker; Mrs. Wimbish, Mrs. c. L. RUM, and Mrs. William Archer, grocery store managers, phs. Gertrude Guy, proprietress of a restaurant, Mrs. J. C. FergUSOn and Mrs. Ramsey, managers of boarding and rooming houses; Mrs. Priscilla Forrest, beautician and dressmaker; Hrs. Sidney Young, designer, Mrs. Artee Fleming, Mrs Robert Dennis, Mrs. Claudia Coleman, Miss Mary Holmes, and Miss Ethel Black, typists, and Mrs. Joseph Cater and Miss

"Gordie, Neqro Yearbook, pp. 1-40 passun.

"Akron Beacon Journal, 2 February 1958. ,- 179 *. mrie Scott, nurses." Urn. llary Upperman stood at the head of all colored businesswomen. Born in the South, she was orphaned by age two. ma. Upperman received her education in Cincinnati

rpchwls and came to Akron in 1916 with her husband, Rev.

1. N. Upperman, pastor of Wesley Temple AHE Zion Church. After overcoming many hardships in her life--among them the untimely death of her husband--Hrs. Upperman pursued several successful business ventures. She owned and managed one of Akron's largest Negro grocery stores, conducted an employment bureau: operated a hand laundry; and operated a large rooming house.'* Eventually We. Upper- man also became sole owner of the only colored drugstore (the Globe Drug Store at 103 North Main Street) in the city at that tune." n*o black pharmacists, mitt Hogan ard William Bridgeford, were employed there." In addition to the businesses already stated, there were Negro bakers, caterers, decorators, tailors, insurance agents, real estate agents, and millers. By 1927 many other names had become well known in

"Gordie, Negro Yearbook, pp. 8, 14, 21.

"Gordie, p. 8

"Opie mans, ed., The Negro Yearbook of Akron, -Ohio (Akron: Opie Evans, lm, p. 5. "Interview with Mary Holmes, Akron, Ohio, 21 February 1975. business-enterprises and several other businesses had axparded. The Akron Negro Business League--affiliated with the National Negro Business League--was founded on 30 September 1926. Officers were Dr. Charles R. Lewis (physician), president; Dr. John W. Dunbar (dentist), vice-president; Charles C. Jackson (real estate agent),

secretary; and Rev. G. G. Horgan, treasurer. The league's purpose was to secure comercial operations among blacks and to induce blacks to patronize legitimate Negro enterprises. The following professional and commercial enterprises (and those engaged in said enterprises) were listed as being associated with the league- attorneys--Samuel T.

Kelly, Thomas E. Green, Artee Fleming, S. C. Easley, and mer Lancaster; physicians--Charles R. Lewis, Fred H. Strawbridge, B. L. Thurston, L. R. Johnson. painters-- J. R. Harris, J. S. Munford, 8. Harris; barbers--W. M. mntgomery, C. C. Manley, Mlliam Mathews, J. C. Grant,

R. 8. Jones, Troy Allen, Charles L. Nunn, H. W. Woodwardr

social workers--George W. Thompson, Clyde L. Wilkerson,

RaymDnd Brown; mOVerS--J. S. Larkin, J. H. Eldridge, Vic arum; printer--Alex Davis, salesmen--Prank Ford, Henry

Killings; garage repairmen--William Massey. William Reed,

auto service stations--William zuber, E. L. Nunn, beauty parlor--Mr. Fite; tailor--Earl Gardner, musicians--A. M. Damon, B. P. Harris, G. A. Jackson; engineers-F. 8. 181 tancaster, lsaih Whitehurst; and manufacturer--Robert L. Delaney." Although black residents in Akron faced significant economic problems, they were undaunted in their determination to be economically independent. Black women, like black men, continued to pursue many specialized fields and yere patronized in most cases by members of their race. ln addition to the occupations in which the wmen were engaged five years prior, they were also employed as mleswomen, music instructors, laundresses, and stenog- raphers. Ethel Black had been employed for several years as a clerk in the Depositors Savings and Trust Co. and had the distinction of being the only black woman in the city to hold such a position." In the hair and beauty culture business, two beauticians had unusual experiences. Hrs. J. H. Wilson was the only black woman in Akron who manufactured and dispensed her own hair preparation in leading drugstores. she had twenty-five agents in Akron and Cleveland and other agents in Southern cities. MS.me Pettigrew, who had sixteen years experience in beauty culturing, was the only black operator whose patronage was entirely white."

"Evans, Negro Yearbook, p. 31. "Ibid., p. 19. "Ibid., p. 9. Wployment and economic discrimination Despite the increase and expansion of black businessea, the employment picture for the vast number of Akron's black employed persons was marked with discrimination and limitations.

An editorial which appeared in a 1922 newspaper indicated that Akron's black population complained of unfair treatment in the distribution of employment. More specifically, Negroes complained that too many of the jobs to be distributed went to people who were neither citizens nor taxpayers. Blacks stated further that they were not considered according to their individual worth, but rather as a class of people. The newspaper declared that it had not investigated the criticism, but did know that the persons who registered the complaint had been residents and good citizens for many years. Thus, the newspaper stated it was pleased to bring the matter to public attention in the hope that doing so would correct whatever discrimination did exist."

A few years later a particular incident was brought to the attention of the newspaper in a letter to the editce signed by .A Colored Citizen: The Negro detailed how he had been vorkrng satisfactorily for two years among men of all races and creeds only to lose his job when he differed

"Akron Beacon Journal, 6 February 1922. . 183 with a new boss regarding the Klan's policies. Tha man, who was married and had four children, Stated that when the layoff came he was the first to be released even though he was the second oldest on the job. Be claimed further that a foreigner who was single, as well as other single men, remained on the job. In conclusion, he asserted, * . . . but I am colored and not a hypocrite and would not admit that the Klan was good for ma.m1' Beyond letters of protest other efforts to alle-

ViatO the problems of Negroes obtaining and holding their jobs were also made. Negroes attempted to attack their economic problems indirectly through education of whites and directly through self-help. The executive secretary of the National Urban League, Eugene K. Jones, came to the city and addressed a social wrker's club at the YWCA in the mid 1920s and spoke on Negro labor. He told the audience that it was the that organized labor began to notice Negro workers since Negro labor in the North would remain permanently. Jones pointed out that white employers were beginning to recognize the capabilities of Negroes and cited instances where blacks played leading roles in the success or failure of strikes."

"Ibid., 18 October 1924. "Ibid., 30 January 1925. 184

Shortly after the formation of the Negro Business League, the organization invited W. Franklin Walker of Columbus to speak to the local colored workers. Walker had been the former secretary to the treasurer and super- inredent of education in Liberia."

Late in the 1920s a black finance company was established because colored people could not readily get loans from white finance companies. The loan company, entitled the People's System Finance Co., was located at

22 West Market Street. It came into existence after a black attorney, Dan Bowles, secretary of a black finance company in St. Louis, nissouri, sent a man to Akron to consult with Atty. Artee Fleming on procedures to establish the needed company." Some of the early members of the People's System Finance Co. were noted black business and professional men. Among them were: Attorneys Fleming and Kelly, Dr. Charles R. Lewis, Dr John W. Dunbar, Robert Dunbar, C. C. Player and William Hardy." Amos Forman, who later became an outstanding deputy sheriff, was one of the managers of the company Shares were sold at ten dollars

"Ibid., 21 January 1927. "Interview with Atty. Artee Fleming, 139 Central Court, Columbus, Ohio, 7 December 1974. "Ibid.: Interview with Robert Dunbar, Akron, Ohio, 12 February 1975. 185

a share and the company was solvant for approximately five or six years. It terminated because of financial difficulties during the depression."

The Black Social Environment The social environment of black Akronites encompassed diverse activities--xltural, athletic, religious, comunity, and educational. Accounts of these facets of

Akron's black history in the 1920s will be investigated herein.

Black culture Black music constituted a part of the black culture, and tw outstanding black musicians and a dancer were among the Negroes who transmitted that Culture to audiences in various parts of the city. As indicated in an earlier portion of this study (pp. 162-651, William Fowler and Rollin Smith were talented musicians who were known locally. Still another young man--J. C. Wade--was also to develop a reputation as a talented entertainer. Each of these men left Akron and in this decade ended up as successes in New York City.

Fowler had traveled to New York City with a band which he had organized and directed following his brother's death in the early 1920s. During this period,

"Akron Beacon Journal, 21 August 1943. r 186

he studied at Columbia University to improve his knovledge of music, and he led the orchestra which played for nkny theatrical productions at the Club Alabam located in the Fanny Brice Theater. In 1927 he traveled to Europe and booked engagements in Prance, Belgium, the Netherlands,

Svitzerland, Spain, Germany, and Italy. It was during this point of his life that Fowler had the opportunity to study at Sorbonne University." Smith left Akron around the early 1920s and played for engagements in Peoria, Illinois before moving soon afterwards to Indianapolis, Indiana. In Indianapolis, he began to meet bands from New York and he eventually went there to join Sam Wooding's band. Accepting offers from Broadway, Smith joined an ensemble that played for the shov, The Plantation Review, and he went to Europe in 1923. Both Europe and the United States were home throughout the 1920s. When in Europe, Smith and the band played for English royalty (the Duke of Windsor, the Duke of York, the Duke of Kent, ard the Duke of Gloucester): the Rothschild's (Prance's top banking family) : and

General Pershing (at a French society restaurant). Traveling throughout Europe, Smith learned to speak the local language and to play the national or local

"Akron Beacon Journal, 13 January 1952, p. B3, Interview with William Eqwler, Sr., Akron, Ohio, 22 Eeb- ruary 1975. 187 instruments in each country which he visited. He studied opera and performed concerts in fourteen different lan- guages.

when Smith was in the United States during the 19208, he played with Duke Ellington for abut six months.

EO aleo appeared in two Broadway plays, DOver Street Dixie in 1923 and the original Ziegfield Showboat in 1928. In the latter show, Smith had a starring role and sang -01 Man River: Throughout his career, he also had several other distinctions which included 1) playing with the famed musicians, Louis Armstrong and .Fats. Waller; 2) playing in a band engaged by Cole Porter; 3) performing comedy with Zero nustell in Three Penny Opera, and 4) performing for royalty in Spain, Italy, Greece, and Iran. He has received three honorary memberships, namely, honorary official of the French Academy, honorary citizen of Mont- uartre--a district in France (awarded to him by the mayor of Paris): and honorary member of the Giriel Foundation (an organization which invites artiets to appear for benefits for children's illnesses) "

J. C. Wade entered show business quite differently from Fowler or Smith. Re attained- stardom almost

"Interview with Rollin Smith and Rollin Clayton, 7 November 1974, Interview with Rollin Smith, 144 Mustill Court, Akron, Ohio, 9 November 1974; Sunday Post-Herald (aong Kong) 25 March 1973, p. 15. 188 instantly after his dancing talent was discovered around 1915. wade had wan a Charleston contest at East Market

Gardens when still a student at Akron's West High school. Later when the Olson and Johnson troupe appeared in Akron in need of a dancer for their stage show, they learned abut young Wade and requested that he audition. Wade tried out at the Keith Albee Palace Theater where his demonstrated ability enabled him to join the troupe immediately. Be performed for three days in Akron; completed another three day show in Youngstown, Ohio: and went from there to Broadway in New York City. He appeared as a tap dancer with Olson and Johnson revues for the next several years. " One of the most historic occasions in which black Akronites participated collectively was the celebration of the Centennial Anniversary of Akron's founding. On the city's one hundredth birthday, black citizens took part in the week's festivities and contributed their part toward making the occasion a memorable one. Their particular contribution was a program of Negro music provided by the Akron Community Chorus, a chorus comprised of about one hundred of the city's most talented vocalists.

"Interview with Rayfield Wade, Akron, Ohio, 11 February 1975. 189

An account of the rehearsals for the program illu- strated the pride and diligence the black citizens exhibited in preparation for their contribution. The

article paid tribute to the Negroes’ talent and pointed out the extent of that talent as the blacks successfully overcame three obstacles. First of all, the greater number of singers were without musical education. Secondly, one week prior to the program the singers had never before seen the music. Lastly, the songs were difficult arrangements of the antiphonal sort. Yet, the

black chorus rehearsed untiringly at Second Baptist Church from 7:30 P.M. until 11:30 P.M. nightly.’’ The choir’s director was Carl Diton, a successful I black corhuctor, composer, and pianist from Philadelphia, who vas invited to direct the chorus by his friend, Dr. John W. Dunbar, a local Negro dentist. An account of an interview with Diton (who was said to be one of the first of his race to acquire fame) reported his belief that there was no doubt that music was the gift which the Negro had for America.” In 1914 Diton was awarded first prize in the National Negro Composition Contest. Some of the selections offered by the Akron Community Chorus were songs he had composed.

“Akron Beacon Journal, 18 July 1925. ’ ’Ibid. 190

The performance was presented at Central High

School on 22 July 1925. Its intent was to display the

creative as well as interpretative ability of the Negro.

A number of Negro spirituals were sung and three soloists were featured: Miss Edith Player, pianist, Mr. Chester Tisdale, baritone: and Mrs. Elizabeth Murray, who pre- aented a reading. Clorina Bullock and Marguerite Crav- ford accompanied the chorus."

Young black athletes Several black athletes came to the attention of

Akronites during the 1920s. One who never saw his boyhood dreams reach fruition, yet became a significant person in

the lives of many black youths, was William (Bill) Suddeth.

Suddeth's contributions to others were based in experiences he had undergone early in elementary school. During those years, Albert J. Dillehay--who had been hls principal and coach--and Frank Heley--a custodian at Robinson School--were instrumental in influencing hls llfe

and involving him in the school's .Three C Club: [Three

C's represented clean speech, clean living, and clean

sports. ) Suddeth had started to show promise as an out-

standing athlete in the seventh grade, leading his team to - titles in basketball and noccer. At East High School, he ''Ibid., 22 July 1925. 191 had won five varsity letters in three sports by the middle of his sophomore year. However, a serious football injury crippled him in 1925 and ended his athletic careeL. NOt- withstanding the fact that he couldn't compete, the track team elected him captain for its next season. After twenty-one years of bitterness due to the loss of an athletic future, Suddeth began to referee basketball games at Elizabeth Park and his interest in sports was revived. Later, when he became recreation supervisor at that park, he recalled the lessons he had learned through the devotion of Dillehay and Heley. With his interest in athletics renewed, young people benefitted for the next twenty-three years as Suddeth ran athletic programs and coached championship teams." Akron had another noted football player at East High School during the mid 1920s. William M. Bell--known familiarly a6 .Big Bell: Upon graduating in the class of 1928, Bell attended Ohio State University. During his first year at college, he received financial assistance from the Goodyear Tire and Rubber C0.i the Negro Elks absorbed a part of his expenses during his sophomore year. I' Bell achieved two distinctions when he was selected

"Ibid., I March 1968, p. D3. "Ibid., 18 October 1965, p. B7. 192 to play on Ohio State University's varsity team. He was the first Negro alumnus from East High School to attain a position on a Big Ten varsity team," and he was the first black since 1897 to make an Ohio State University team. Ball distinguished himself further when, in 1931, he vas voted an all-Big Ten tackle and was chosen for several All-American teams including that of the Associated

Press.' a Be is listed in Who's Who in Negro Education and Who's Ulm in American Education. The latter source provided the following information on his educational and athletic background- Bell earned all three degrees at

Ohio state University--a B.A. in 1932, an M.A. in 1937, and a Ph.D. in 1960. His educational and coaching assignments have included pasitions as head football coach at Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1936-42, and professor and director of physical education and varsity athletics at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical

College." Mother black athlete from the opposite side of the city had also gained recognition in the 1920s. Earl

"Ibid., 19 February 1959. "Ibid., 18 October 1965, p. 87.

"Robert Cook, ed., Who's Who in American Education, 23rd ed., 3 vols. (Hattiesburg who's Who in American Edu- cation, Inc., 1968), v01. 1 Who's Who in American Educa- tion, 1967-68, General Education, by Robert Cook, p. _. 63. ~ ~~

-I I -. 193

.Sheik. Delaney had marked his West High School with several significant accomplishments which included: 1) earning letters in football, basketball, and track1 2) holding Akron sp?int records for the 100- and 220-yard dashes; 3) being selected as an All-City end; and 4) setting a new state record in the 100-yard dash at columbus,

Ohio.

Polloving his graduation from high achool, Delaney mnintained hia interest in football. He played for the Akron Indians, Copley Road Merchants, and Darago Meats. Be also coached the Akron Black Peppers, a Negro bantam wight football team."

A noted prizefighter, Gorilla Jones, attained local, national, and international fame toward the end of the

1920s. Managed by Suey Welch, Jones held the National Boxing Aesociation Championship in the middleweight division. During his career, he von 106 fighte--48 by knock- outs--and was defeated in twenty touts.

When the Summit County Sports Hall of Fame was created in 1957, Jones vas one of the forty-nine original mwbers selected for induction."

The black churches

A number of churches were established during the

~~ ~ "Akron Beacon Journal, 2 February 1967, p. B13.

"Ibid., 20 September 1957. I' 194

1920s as the increase in the black population occurred.

Although some Methodist and Baptist Churches were founded during this period, the need for churches of varying denomiMtions was evidenced through the organization of churches that departed from the African Methodist Epis- copal and Baptist persuasions. Among the black churches founded and the approxi- mmte year in which they began were: Bethel Temple

Apostolic, early 1920s; Phillip's Chapel CHE, 1920; Bethel Seventh Day Adventist, 1920, Greater Bethel Baptist Church, 1920; First Apostolic Faith Church, 1922; United Baptist, 1922, Wooster Avenue Temple Church of God in Christ, 1922; New Canaan Primitive Baptist Church, 1922,

Providence Baptist Church, 1923; St. John CME, 1924; and Antioch Baptiet Church, 1924.'' Accessible records indicated that Antioch Baptist Church was organized when the Rev. William Crawford called together a mall group of fifteen people who had met as a mission. Some of the original members were- Mrs. Annie Me Jordan, Mrs. Lessie King, Mrs. Sarah Banks, and Rev. mrgan Smart. Services were held in a rented room on the second floor of 290 South Main Street. Subsequently, the church moved to 684 west Bowery

"The Church in Akron (Akron- The Reqional Church Planning 3ffice and the Council of Churches of Greater Akron, 1963). pp. 179-252 passm. 195

Street where it received the name of West Side Baptist Church and membership had increased to approximately fifty pmple. Following Rev. Mr. Crawford's resignation the church vas pastored by Rev. Mr. Beaumont until 1926, when Rev. m. Holly became the minister. Under Rev. Mr. Holly's pastorship the church moved to 655 West Bowery Street.

In September 1927 Rev. C. 8. Bluntt from Newton Pallo, Ohio accepted the call to pastor the church. After .._I<, consulting with the members, the name of the church was changed to its present name, Antioch Baptist Church. The pastor's family moved to Akron in 1928 and under the leadership of Rev. Mr. Bluntt, the church prospered both spiritually and financially and increased its membership.

AS the decade ended, a frame dwelling at the corner of Campbell and Bell Streets was purchased and converted to church quarters. The property was lost in the depression years and services were held in a storeroom at 713 West Bowery Street.' ' The black churches continued to grow and many ministers served their congregations for varying periods of time. Financial problems beset a number of the churches sporadically, but programs were developed to sustain them. One such program was the establishment of Wnnen's Day. The first Women's Day program to be held in

"'Program of Dedication of Antioch Baptist Church,. Akron, Ohio, 1962. 196 a black church in Akron was held at Centenary Methodist

Church in 1924. The idea was brought to Akron from Sampson Memorial Church in Virginia by Mary Horn and her mther." (Centenary Methodist was formerly Elvira Chapel.)

As the membership of AME Zion Church grew, the need for a larger church was evident. The members purchased the present site and old parsonage under the leadership of Rev. J. L. Black. Church recorda indicated that the property was once owned by the monarchy of England; was later acquired by the Connecticut Colony on 23 April 1762, and was purchased many years later by Simon Perkins." (Akron was once a part of the Western Reserve as noted earlier in the study.) In 1926 local architects, Wardner and Somerville, drew up plans for the new church and a Negro contractor,

Plato, was commissioned to build the structure. The church was dedicated on 12 Auqust 1928 under the pastorate of Rev. B. F. Gordon." The churches continued to serve not only as places of uorship, but also as meeting places for organizations and lecture halls for orators. Second Baptist Church hosted a number of prominent speakers who came to Akron to

".Forty-first Anniversary of Centenary Methodist Church,. 1959.

"Portions of these records appear in appendix 3.

"Wesley Temple, one Hundredth Anniversary, 1966. 197

deliver orations on the perpetual "Negro problem.. mong nome of the more prominent speakers were Dr. J. Silas Iiarris, James W. Johnson, and Judge William H. Harrison. Earria, with Booker T. Washington, helped to found the Negro National Educational Congress. Speaking as a guest of the Knight Republican Club, he told the audience that Americans had tried every conceivable plan to solve the 'Negro problem. except one and that was justice. He urged that Negroes be given the opportunity and liberty that others then had, the opportunity to develop." Johnson, executive secretary of the national NAACP, spoke to a capacity audience of both blacks and whites and asserted that blacks having good jobs, wholesome homes, education, and morals wuld compel recognition of their fitness for the rights upon which they insisted. He felt that the answers to racial problems lay in granting Negroes their rights of citizenship.1° Harrison, a black barrister, rose from the Hissis- sippi cotton fields to become assistant attorney general of Illinois. His message protested segregation and noted several significant points for blacks to consider. First of all, he suggested that inferiority of oppurtunity did not imply inferiority of individuals. Secondly, he

"Akron Beacon Journal, 18 April 1922. "Ibid., 4 May 1925. isa pointed out that good ancestry was fine, but what you were counted more than what your grandfather may have been. Thirdly, he explained that blacks must think because thought ruled the world and also ruled those who don’t think. Fourthly, Harrison suggested that blacks must be patient under stress and trial for that was God’s way of developing strength. Lastly, he asserted that blacks must have self-confidence and be willing to wrk and nave.”

Black organizations, new and old Early in the 1920s a branch of the United Negro

Improvement Associations (UNIA) was founded in Akron. It wan know as the Akron Division No. 215 of UNIA and

African Communities League. A portion of the organization’e preamble stated that it was . . . a social, friendly, humanitarian, charitable, educational, institutional, constructive, and expan- sive society, and is founded by persons, desiring to the utmost to work for the general uplift of the Negro people of the world And the members pledge themselves to do all in their power to conserve the rights of their noble race and to respect the rights of all mankind, believing always in the Brotherhood of Man and the Fatherhood of God.”

In 1922 W. L. Sherrill, high commissioner of the VNIA of Ohio, spoke at Mount Pilgrim Baptist Church and told blacks that the association did not stand so much for .back to Africa’ as it did the redemption of Africa for

”Ibid., 30 November 1925.

“Gordie, Negro Yearbwk, p. 37. 199

Negroes.” Marcus Garvey was also associated with the organization and came to Won during this period.” By the mid-1920s the first black college fraternity

in Akron bas establiehed. On 9 Kay 1925, the Alpha Tau Chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity was Organized by

founders Atty. Artee Fleming, Dr. Charles R. Lewis, and DI. J. w. Dunbar.” Attorney Fleming has claimed to be the only living Npha in the nation who has been a member of the fraternity longer than any other brother. He was an original member of the second chapter--Beta Chapter--founded at Howard University. All of the brothers of the first chapter are deceased.”

The Colored YPCA had been established in 1919 and

George Thompson was called upon frequently to address organizations for the purpose of enlightening them on the black man’s plight and how his conditions could be bettered. He spoke to both adult and children’s

“Akron Beacon Journal, 7 July 1922. “Interview with Leon Gordie, 1173 Fourth Avenue, Akron, Ohio, 8 November 1974. “William Threatt to Mrs. Shirla McClain, Akron, Ohio, 14 January 1975, Personal Files of Hrs. Shirla McClain, Akron, Ohio. “Interview with Atty. Artee Fleming, 139 Central court, Columbus, Ohio, 7 December 1914. audiences. "

In 1923 Thompson told the local real estate board that the one great need of blacks was opportunity along all lines and that the Negro could be an asset or a liability according to the attitude on the part of whites. That Mme year he assessed the racial situation nationally in a speech to a church audience at Grace Methodist Episcopal Church. In reference to comparative solutions of the North and South, Thompson asserted that the best minds of the South were attempting to solve the .Negro problem' whereas in the North, the migration of blacks to northern states had caused serious problems. A few years later, a youthful audience of the Akron Newsboys Club benefitted from Thompson's remarks on the topic, .Do Not Judge a Han by Ais Color.. one month later a conversation that dealt with the work which the YXCA had pioneered culminated in the formation of the Association for Colored Community Work (Accw) . The historical highlights follow. Mter the Colored YETA had worked on the social and economic development of Akron's colored population for six years, a committee, formed largely from the board members of the Negro branch of the YMCA, concluded that there was a need for some other type of social agency for colored

"Akron Beacon Journal, 12 February, 1 October 19231 7 February 1925. people. They met shortly thereafter with E. J. Larrick, executive of the Better Akron Federation--a forerunner of the Cornunity Chest--and several other prominent Akron

Citizens, notably: C. W. Seiberling, rubber manufacturing extcutiver Edward S. Babcock, publisher: Parke Kolbe, president of the University of Akron: and Thomas Fletcher, a Negro mortician. Plans for a meeting with Harvey s. Firestone, Sr. of the Firestone Tire and Rubber co. ensued. Said meeting resulted in Firestone's advancing-- through the Better Akron Federation--the first ten thousand dollars for the operation of the newly founded agency, known as the AssociatiOn for Colored Community Work (ACCW). The organization became affiliated with the National Urban League hediately and the first executive secretary appointed was George W. Thompson. The agency was instituted with two boards: a managing bard of directors which consisted of prominent Negro citizens and a bard of trustees comprised of prominent white citizens. Thomas Fletcher became the first board of director's president, and the first board of trustee's chairman was Dr. Parke Kolbe. Headquarters for the agency were set up at the corner of Perkins and Prospect Streets in an old frame house. The agency moved twice more, first to 193 Perkins Street and later to 199 Perkins Street, where it 202 operated for many years." Besides Fletcher, the other black members who were on the board of directors included: Dr. L. R. Johnson, Dr. C. R. Lewis, Dr. W. E. Mayo, Dr. P. 8. Strawbridge, Bks. Mary Upperman, Hrs. T. E. Gree?, MS.J. s. Clark, Mrs. Astee Fleming, Mrs. William Hardy, Dr. J. W. Dunbur, James E. Hiller, Edward G. Lewis, Bufford Eaton, and mbert Dandridge. Other members who served on the board of trustees were: Charles Herberich, C. W. Seiberling, Edward S. Babcox, J. 8. Huber, Homer Campbell, and Ernest

Clindinst. "

Soma of the local black organizations provided assistance to the new agency. The Ethical Culture Club furnished the restrooms; the Mount Calvary mdge equipped the game room, and the colored Knights of Pythias offered their assistance wherever needed. The library, although only partially equipped, was used daily and assistance vas provided to colored high school and college students.

Staff members included Hattie Is&] Bowie, fliss Wary Brown, a graduate of Wilberforce University, and

Chester Tisdale, a graduate of the University of Akron.'O

"Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc., .Historical Highlights,' Akron, Ohio, 1951.

5%k~~nBeacon Journal, 17 April 1925. "Ibid., 30 September 1925. L 203

In his new position as executive secretary of the ACCW, Thompson continued to be asked to address audiences throughout the city in order to educate both blacks and whites on the racial probleme. Typical of his appearances wethose at the local churches, classes at the Univer- aity of Akron, and the state Hi Y boys' camps." The first of a series of the agency's annual dinners was held at Kirkwood Methodist Church in January

1926. The guest speaker for the occasion was R. W. Jeliff, an Oberlin graduate and director of the Playhouse Settle- ment in Cleveland."

After thu years of work, the organization was involved with the public schools, the predominant industries, and the other agencies in the Better Akron Federa- tion. At its secord annual dinner all three groups vere commended by Thompson for their cooperation vith the

ACCW." Negro employment vas one of the agency's principal areas of concern, for jobs other than menial or domestic labor vere the exception for Negroes in the 1920s. Since the demand for domestics exceeded the supply, in 1929, the agency instituted a school in domestic service in order that Negroes might become more efficient household

''Ibid., 27 July 1925; 29 April 1926. "Ibid., _- 30 January 1926; / "Ibid., 15 January '1927. 204

employees. It was hoped that training and efficiency on the part of domestics would unquestionably raise both their standard of service and their compensation." Thompson, along with his committee, earnestly andeavored to be productive in several areas other than employment and industrial relations work. Recreational and group wrk; health and housing, and social adjustments of thousands of Negroes moving to Akron following World War I were also primary concerns. The leadership which the agency provided in getting Negroes accepted to a greater degree as community citizens was considered as possibly their greatest achievement during that period." The first youth group of the NAACP was formed in 1920 with ma. Percy Fleming serving as youth advisor and wins llary Holmes serving as assistant youth advisor. One year later, under the leadership of Atty. Samuel T. Kelly, the NAACP continued to confront racial segregation as it fought against lynching in the South and the Ku Klux Klan activities in Akron. Atty. Artee Fleming succeeded Attorney Kelly as president of the association as the decade came to a close." Several celebrities visited the city appearing as

"Ibid., 24 my 1929. '"cron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc., .Highlights,. 1951.

"Interview with hry Holmes, 4 January 1975. 205 guest speakers at programs given under the auspices of the local branch of the NAACP. Among them were. Dr. W. E. 8. DuBois, in 19211 Atty. Clarence Darrow, in 19281 and Oacar De Priest, in 1929. DuBois, an internationally prominent black figure, addressed a large integrated audience at the First Con- gregational Church on the inrmediate problems facing the tro races. A portion of his remarks follow: It is an old piece of foolishness that if the people below you once get above, you are bound to suffer. As foolish as to assume that if the man below you acquires an education, you yourself are to be less vise: as foolish to believe that if the man below you acquires a measure of prosperity, that that prosperity is to be directly subtracted from your own substance. It is possible by sympathy and social contact to answer the problem in Akron, and if in Akron, to answer it in the United States, and if in the United states, then in the vorld." Darrow, the noted white Chicago lawyer, spoke at

Central High School to a mixed capacity audience. Be was a somewhat controversial figure whose thoughts reflected his individuality. Among other notions which he expressed were the following- 1) that it was up to the white race to solve the .race problem,. but blacks would have to help: 2) that the idealism which once led to an abolition movement was currently lost in the North, and 3) that he was curious as to what muld happen if Akron's current citizens attempted to raise a fund to the memory of John

"Akron Beacon Journal, 31 January 1921. .. , 106

Brown--in the city in which he once lived. ne concluded his remarks by saying: It is a long cruel fight the colored race faces. Its pleasures cannot come in this generation. This generation must find its happiness in the glory of those who will come after It. No race has made the strides, in such a short length of tune, that it has. It is producing song- sters, novelists, poets, lawyers, the peers of their white fellows. That alone is answering the question of the .super for race. .'* Oscar DePriest of Chicago, the only Negro member of the Congress at that time, spoke to a capacity audience at Second Baptist Church. His observations, directed at racial problems in Akron, stated summarily, that there ought to be mre than one Negro policeman, some Negro firemen, Negro clerks at the post office, and Negro school

teachers, in a city of this size. Ea urged blacks to fight for their race regardless of their political affiliations and to utilize the block system--a system wherein blacks wuld obtain the political affiliations of people block by block.

In closing, DePriest commented that he was proud of

the Negro wmen for they had been the salvation of the

Negro race. He explained that his parents were slaves in Alabama who had no chance, no education and added, 'What

success I have, I owe to my mother:"

"Ibid., 21 February 1928. "Ibid., 27 Hay 1929. Throughout this period of time a number of noted persons were the house guests of Dr. and Ws. Charles R. Lewis who resided at 361 Euclid Avenue. Among their dis-

tinguished guests were: 13arcus Garvey, Dr. W. E. 8. DuBois, and Carl Diton.'O

Educational pursuits

Black persons in Akron, like black people throughout the nation, were recognizing the value of an education. For young black people the avenues of education were the public schools, their families, their organizations, and their churches. Of the four avenues open to them, it was felt that schooling, i.e., formal education, provided them the best opportunity. Am early as 1920 Negro leaders were aware of the .dropout. problem and the critical need for advanced education. One of the earliest projects developed to assist black youth was the formation of an organization consisting solely of Negroes who had attained high school experience. The purpose of the organization was threefold 1) to provide scholarships for students who had demonstrated marked intellectual achievement; 2) to place the Negro youth in an improved intellectual enviromentr and 3) to encourage young Negroes to stay in school.

Officers of the club were: Miss Sadie Glover,

"Interview with Ednah Lewis, 30 December 1974. 208

president; m. Chester Tisdale, vice president) and Miss Ethel Black, secretary." Unlike the black youth's situation, public schools

were not as readily accessible to adults. Many older

people had acquired a limited education in their youth and depended upon organizations, churches, or the media to inform them of current concerns and to extend their knowledge. '* One of the earliest attempts to educate and improve the status of the city's Uegroes--through the use of the media--vas accomplished through Akron's first black newspaper published by Amos Forman from 1921 to 1922. Forman, .with some assistance from his wife, was manager, reporter. printer, and editor of The Akron Informer, a four-page weekly publication.

The paper was printed at a p.-int shop owned by Alex mvis (which was later owned by Arthur Bolar) . Articles included church news and news items about coming events in

"ALron Beacon Journal, 9 July 1920.

'*An exceptional case was that of Amos Forman, a former deputy sheriff. Forced to leave school in Balti- more, Maryland and work at age nine, Forman had very limited schooling--a third-grade education. He earned most of his elementary credits through correspondence courses. Later as an adult, he enrolled in some adult high school classes at Hamel Business School and Central nigh School (in the summer) in order to further hlmself and obtain his high school diploma Forman eventually attended Akron Law School but financial problems termi- Mted his completing the courses. Interview with Amos Forman, 414 Pine Street, Akron, Ohio, 29 December 1974. -. 209 the black community, but Porman focused his attention on editorial comments about the conditions that prevented Akron's Negroes from advancing."

The Black and White Chronicle, a weekly newspaper, was the second black newspaper in the city's history. It ua.~published and edited for six years (from the summer of 1924 until April 1930) by William 8. Johnson. Other staff members were Mary Eolmes, William Byrd, and Ws. P. H. Strawbridge. Miss Holmes was bookkeeper, proofreader, and reporter for church and social news. Byrd assisted with the advertising and Ws. strawbridge helped with the mailing. Newspaper coverage included court cases, local, and international new. Copies were sold on the street weekly for five cents per copy or were mailed to advertisers and subscribers. The paper ceased publication during the depression due to lack of advertisement."

Another form of the media which was used to educate black residents in Akron was The Negro Yearbook Two such yearbooks were published five years apart during the 1920s. The first yearbook was published in 1922 by Leon Gordie.

It was the first attempt in the city to compile a reliable

''Interview with Amos Porman, 29 December 1974. ''.Black Newspapers in Akron," Philosophy, Religion, and Education Division, Akron Public Library, Akron, Ohio. 210 - - annual chronicle of the industrial, economic, and profes- sionnl achievements of Akron's colored people. The aim of the yearbook was to familiarize the business and professional workers, as well as the public, with the goals, programs, and practical achievements of Negroes in various fields of activities. The yearbook also attempted to enlighten the public on the thrifb, industry, and economy which was evident among black people in Akron. The second yearbook was edited in 1927 by Opie Evans. Its purpose was similar to that of the first Negro yearbook. The profitable enterprises in which black busi-

ness and professional people were engaged were not known

to the majority of the black citizenry. Consequently, they were not receiving from the public the respect due to them for their progress, and the yearbook provided a means of enlightenment. The publisher urged the readers to patronize the businesses advertised therein. As has been indicated, the academic pursuits of black students in the prior decade reflected an awareness on their part of the need for further education. During the 1920s. more black Akronites advanced to college. In 1921 mer Martin Lancaster became the first Negro student to graduate from the University of Akron." Other Negroes who attended the University of Akron during

"Idncaster, .Biographical Sketch.. --- 111

the years from 1920 to 1929 included: Daniel Thomas, Thecdore Plippo, Lloyd Taylor, Addison Spencer, Rufus Thompson, Chester Tisdale, Raymond R. Brown, and Phyllis Dyson. Spencer, Thompson, Tisdale, and Brown received their bachelor degrees from the university.'' Hiss Dyson

was the first black wmn to graduate from the University of Akron. Hiss Dyeon's mother, Capitola Robinson Dyson has been reported to be the first black female to graduate from Central Eigh School. In preparation for her graduation, she delivered a speech on Toussaint L'mverture.'' \ A few other Negro Akronites attended college outside of the city. Among them were: Henry Sparks and Robert Black (enrolled at Ohio State university); Charles Brown (enrolled at University of Syracuse), and Willa and Edith Player (both of whom graduated from Ohio Wesleyan university) .'*

~ Hiss nary Brown graduated from Wilberforce Univer- sity in 1925 and shortly thereafter took a position at the

ACCW. She has been an Akron resident for fifty years and is currently known to most Akronites as Mary Hogan Smith.

"Interviews with Raymond R. Brown and mer Lan- caster, Akron, Ohio, 20 February 1975.

"Interview with Edith Delaney Mitchell, Akron, Ohio, 10 February 1975. "Interview with Raymond R. Brown, Akron, Ohio, 22 February 1975. ,. 112

There were a number of black teachers who were in Akron during the 1920s. None, however, were granted positions in the Akron Public Schools--regardless of their former training or positions. Black women educators in *on had occupied all levels of administrative and teaching positions, namely, principals, speclal supervisors, city and county teachers, kindergarten work. special teachers in domestic science, domestic art, music and physical culture. mng those who had held such positions were. Mrs. F. 8. Strawbridge, Hrs. Harold Clark, Mrs. Mary upperman, Hra. George Thompson, Hrs. I. J. Bowie, Mrs. James Russell, Hrs. R. A. Jones, Hrs. A. Allen, Mrs. Idramore, Mrs. Frank Petite, Hiss Geraldine Dyson, and Miss Florence Gross.” Hrs. marguerite Fleming came to Akron in 1924 and having had a substantial background in music, attempted to join the public school teaching staff. She was denied the opportunity until 1957. Iier musical education began in 1905 when she started playing the piano in churches at nine years of age. However, her formal training had not begun until she was seventeen. Music lessons were provided at school and she learned other songs and hymns from hearing her father, a minister, sing.

”Gordie, Negro Yearbook, pp. 14, 21. ,_ -,

nrs. Fleming was accompanist for the glee club of her high school where she won a scholarship as valedictorian of her class. Due to a lack of money she was forced to decline the honor. MTs. Fleming spent five years working as a domestic before she could enroll at the University of Michigan where she completed four years of a seven-year course. Iier education was terminated because she lacked sufficient funds to continue." So outstanding have been her musical contributions to the religious, social, civic, and cultural development of the Akron community that Myor John s. Ballard proclaimed 28 June 1967 as narguerite Jamison Fleming Day."

The Depression Years Racial problem brought on by the rampant discrimination initiated two decades earlier continued into the

1930s. However, the economic decline which created a national depression overshadowed the racial concerns nationally and locally. Black persons in Akron, as well as throughout the United States, felt the most severe effects of the economic crisis. Although the racial issue was subordinated to a lesser concern, local black citizens continued their efforts to combat -icial preiudice and to further their

"Akron Beacon Journal, 12 Karch 1967, p. F3.

'IAcopy of the proclamation appears in appendix 3. 214 advancement. Prom available records, the writer has been able to document: 1) the general conditions that existed for Negro residents; 2) their individual attainments; and 3) mme of the accomplishments of black organizations during these years. Each will be studied herein.

General Conditions Among Akron's Black Citizens The effect of discrimination coupled with the economic decline resulted in the unemployment of many Negro Akronites in the early years of the depression. By the end of 1930, anumber of unemploled persons were being fed twice weekly at Wesley Temple AME Church." The special problems that Negroes faced in Akron were beginning to be analyzed at a conference on race relations held in 1931 at the First Congregational Church.

A Cleveland pastor, Rev. Russell S. Brown, spoke on "A New Approach to Race Relations. and pointed out in particular the employment of Negro teachers in Cleveland's public schools as an important step in the elimination of race prejudice there. Following the minister's address, neven discussion groups considered the problems of race relations in Akron and discussed, among other issues, the employment of Negro teachers and the exclusion of Negroes from hotels and

@'Akron Beacon Journal, 27 December 1930. other places." Although black teachers were employed by the government's Works Projects Administration (WPA) to teach classes to adults who had limited education, no black teachers were hired in the Akron Public Schools. WPA classes were limited to fifteen adults and vere housed in churches and some of the schools.''

By 1934 the fact that Akron's Negroes had suffered more in the depression than any other group in the city had been documented in a federal report. statistics released by the Federal Relief Administration indicated that Negroes constituted 20 percent of the total population on relief although comprising only 4 percent of the city's population. Blacks were the first to be laid off and the last to be hued.'' Suffering under the double handicap of racial discrimination and limited opportunity for employment, black families had the awesome responsibility of motivating and encouraging their children to seek an education to prepare themselves for advancement. Black speakers, black organizations, and black churches were instrumental in assisting black families with their task.

"Ibid., 16 February 1931. "Interview with Virginia Threatt, 644 Rainbow Drive, Akron, Ohio, 28 December 1974. "Akron Beacon Journal, 8 February 1934. 116

In 1936 Elmer A. Carter, editor of the National Urban League's Opportunity (their national organ), visited Akron to speak to various audiences at diverse sites, namely, the city's business and professional executives at the Akron City Club: an economics class at the University of Akron, a mass meeting at AHE Zion Church, and an assembly at Garfield Kigh school. Be explained that the greatest problem that beset his race vas .throttled inspiration,. i.e., that feeling that every colored boy and girl must have as he or she neared the end of common school education--what is it all for?*' Black organizations were beginning to motivate black youth to aspire to higher levels of education tlkough the development of educational programs. Typical o'f organizations which designed educational program assistance were the Negro Elks who held an annual oratorical contest and an annual observance of National Negro Educational Progress Week. The Elks national oratorical contest provided high school students with an opportunity to learn the art of oratory and to win a college scholarship if they were a winner at the regional [or national] level."

**Lbid., 22 April 1931. *'Tbid., 16 April 1939. 217

At the observance of the National Negro Educational Progress Week, speakers were invited to inform the public about the Negro's progress in education.

According to Judge W C. Heuston [&I, Grand Director of Education of the Negro Elks in America, who spoke in Akron at the fourteenth annual observance of that went, the purpose of observing the educational week's program was to encourage blacks to further their education.

It was believed that educating Negroes to care for themselves as much as possible muld help to alleviate the black man's economic plight."

A few more opportunities had been extended to blacks in terms of employment during the 1930s. Most of the black city employees were garbage collectors, but a few had local government positions such as sheriffs, patrolmen, a probation officer, ad a court bailiff. Jack

Beeman, James Hiller, Emmer Lilncaster, and Amos Forman were appointed as deputy sheriffs (in subsequent terms); ma. M. Alberta Banks served as a Summit County probation officer; Hosea Lindsey worked as a court bailiff, and

David Oglesby and Henry Hunford were patrolmen. By the close of the 1930s black businesses had increased. Blacks were engaged in a wide variety of bus=- ness enterprises which included ownership or management of

"Ibid. 118

photograg f studios, hotels, restaurants, night clubs, coal companies, dance studios, cleaners, grocery stores, laundries, moving companies, automobile establishments, radio and sound recording, business, barber shops, beauty shops, funeral homes, printing companies, and service stations."

Churches continued to increase and five new churches were organized in the 1930s. Ht. Lebanon Baptist Church (1931) : the Church of God in Christ (1932), True Vine Church of God in Christ (1936): Mt. Calvary Baptist

Church 11937); and Good Hope Baptist Church (1939) .Io

Although some churches had quite a few ministers who pastored their churches throughout the years, Second Baptist Church was an exception. In 1934 the church held a recognition ceremony to mark the forty-first anniversary of Rev. R. A. Jones' pastorship. Over one hundred persons, black and white, were in attendance to honor Rev. m. Jones. * ' Church activities grew and absorbed total families. Representative of such programs was the young adult fellowship program organized in 1931 by Rev. s. M. Riley at Centenary Methodist Church. The program provided both

'*Kingsberry. Akron Ne , pp. 25-27. "The Church in Akron, pp. 189, 234, 252. "Akron Beacon Journal, 10 March 1934. 219 religious and social activities to men, women, and children of all ages. Under the pastorship of Rev. G. G. Morgan, leadership classes in religious training, baseball teams, and scouting were instituted."

As the decade drew to a close, Akron's Negro leaders were preparing to meet with city council to have their demands for the creation of a federal housing project in North Akron addressed. The area in question was the East North, Spring, and Stuber Streets section of

the city. Deputy Sheriff Amos Forman, an active advocate of the plan, circulated petitions favoring the project.

Forman pointed out that the government, through the WPA, had spent thousands of dollars beautifying Elizabeth Park which was situate3 near a heavily populated 'shack center: It was felt that demolition of the inadequate, unhealthful housing and replacement of it with modern sanitary homes facing the park wuld rid the city of an eyesore and advance the living conditions of the area's residents. " In spite of the hard times, black citizens maintained their sense of humor and implemented activities for amusement and diversion. During the 1930s the Cleveland

"'Forty-first AMiversary of Centenary Methodist Church.. "Nuon Beacon Journal, 14 September 1938. 120

Call and Post, a black newspaper sold in Akron, held elections to select a 'mayor. of Akron's Harlem (the Howard Street business distrlct). In 1935, Willie P. Taylor became the first "mayof" when he von a landslide victory. He held the post a year." By 1939 Jimmy Clark became the fourth mayor of Akron's Harlem (Taylor, William Prymas, and Tom Smith had held the office previously). Runner-up in 1939 was Herbert Dix. The Cleveland Call and Post contributed twenty-five dollars to the winner and Mayor schroy presented Clark vith the badge of office. The inaugural ball, held at the Elks Hall on Howard Street, clinaxed the year's campaign."

Individual Gains: Academics, Athletics and Aesthetic Accomplishments Pcrhaps one of the highest academic honors which was earned by a black student in the 1930s was the one vhich HacNolia Cox received when she von first place in the Akron area Spelling Bee sponsored by the Akron Beacon Journal. MncNolia Cox, a thirteen-year-old eighth grader at

Colonial School, was one of the thirty-seven toys and girls chosen in the final selection of entrants."

"Ibld., 4 May 1973. "Ibid., 9 December 1939. "Ibld., 4 April 1936...... 121

Judges for the contest were Prof. Richard H. Schmidt, registrar at the University of Akron1 Hrs Stanley mitt, president of Pkron Council, Home and School League,

Judge Oscar A. Hunsicker, juvenile court judge1 and Father Joseph M. Gallegher, pastor of St. Vincent's Church. Mlsa Cox spelled her way to the championship on 23 April 1936 before the largest audience ever in attendance (three thousand persons) at the Akron Armory. She received a twenty-five dollar cash prize and the spelling bee crown after correctly spelling 'sciatic'--the word misspelled by the runner-up--and then correctly spelling

'voluble.'*7 The Akron Beacon Journal's coverage of the event I merited several letters of commendation from local and I national figures. The local president of the NAACP, Emmer \ Lancaater, praised the newspaper for its 'very generous ard impartial treatment of MacNolia's victory,." and T. M. Fletcher, a local black mortician, lauded the newspaper for its 'fair play and encouragement offered to the young lady.'" National reactions to her victory came from the

National Urban League office and from black and white

"Ibid., 23 April 1936. I "Ibid., 28 April 1936.

"Ibid., 29 April 1936. \ /' 212 members of Congress. The secretary of the National Urban League, Eugene K. Jones, applauded the Akron Beacon Journal for their "liberal public spirit in affording children of the community, regardless of race, creed, or color, the opportunity to demonstrate their capacity..1o0

Rep. A. W. Mitchell, a Harvard graduate and onetime

Office boy for Booker T. Washington, extolled Miss Cox's victory and envisioned it as a credit and a help to the Negro race. Be sought to inspire her to further endeavors through a verse by Laurence Hope that he (Mitchell) had inserted into the house record in Miss Cox's honor. The verse read: Hen should be judged not by their tint of skin The gods they serve, the vintage that they drink, Nor by the way they fight, or love, or sin But by the quality of thoughts they think.'O' Rep. Daw Harter of Akron also extended his congratulations to Miss Cox saying that her victory was s tribute to her race and to her school. Her homeroom teacher, who assisted her, was Miss Cornelia Green. Hrs. Blanche V. Boyd was her principal. Hiss Cox resided with her mother and stepfather, Ilr. and Hrs. Alexander Key at 1884 First Street, Sw in

Kenmore. Key was a WPA worker.

At the time that Miss Cox went to Washington, D.C.

'"Ibid., 1 My 1936. "'Ibid., 23 April 1936. she was one of two Negro girls to ever reach the finals. She finished fifth in the national Spelling Bee when she misspelled the word 'nemesis."'" On her return to Akron, the Akron Council of Negro women (with Hrs. C. I. Brazel- ton a8 program chairman) welcomed her home with a parade from the Union Station through downtown Akron to Colonial School. Her mother and teacher rcdo with Hiss Cox in an automobile covered with banners. Hundreds of automobiles formed A caravan to participate in the parade."' The motivation of blacks to rmain in school and 8ecure an education was reflected in the decrease in the

.dropout' rate. Consequently. there was a mark& increase in the number of blacks who attended high school. when Negro social work began in 1919 at the colored YMCA, there were only thirty-five Negro children attending high school. Twenty years later the figure had risen to 654 black high school students."' Although the economic and racial picture was grim-- and particularly grim for Negroes--black families and black organizations persevered in their attempts to see to it that Negro children received the necessary schooling. According to Knepper, Akron had only a small Negro elment

~~~ '"Ibid., 26 Hay 1936.

'"Ibid., 29 May 1936. '"Association for Colored Community Work, "Report of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting," Akron, Ohio, 1939 .,

214 in a city whose composition was predominantly white and of recent eouthern origin. Analyzing the racial and educational circumstances for blacks in Akron at that period in the city'n history, Knepper stated in sum that. The Xu Klux Klan was an active force in Akron. Such Negroes as may have hoped to get a college education locally my well have thought twice because of the backlash such action vould trigger. In the 1930s few Negro families could secure the funds needed for fees, books, clothes, and the other expenses of going to college. Admission requirements from 1923 to 1945 uxked to the disadvantage of children who came from educationally deprived im~kgrounds.~~'

AmDng the few black students who were enrolled at the University of Akron during the 1930s were James Turner, Robert Burton, Stanley Junius, and Edith Delaney. Turner attended the university's Business Administration School for one year before leaving school to work at Firestone. Burton wrked odd jobs and with some financial assistance from the Elks organization was able to complete his premedical training. Junius was one of the early black football players at the college. Hiss Delaney had the distinction of being the first black woman to have graduated from the university's Teacher's College. she graduated in 1933. Several other Negroes who pursued degrees during this decade attended Wilberforce University in Wilber- force, Ohio. Some of the students were natives of Akron

"'George Knepper, New Lamps for Old (Akron: Uni- versity of Akron, 1970). p. 233. and others were residents of other cities, but they came to Akron to live shortly after graduation. Among those vho were enrolled were: Virginia Wilson, Bennett Chestnut, Nathan Martin, Marguerite calloway, John Jetton, Henry Uunford, Beatrice Turner, Winona Turner (an Elks Oratori- cal contest winner and recipient of a full four-year echolarehip), Thelma James, and Ruth Anderson.'o'

Rev. G. Lincoln Caddell (who had the longest tenure as pastor of Akron's St. Paul AME Church--1957-70), was graduated from Payne Theological Seminary in 1934 with a B.D. degree. Two years later he received a B.A. in History from Wilberforce university, graduating cum laude. ' O7 Three Negro youths whose athletic ability had been aptly demonstrated to Akronites during the 1930s also attended colleges out of the city. They were James Craig, Horace Bell, and Andy Averitt. Craig had been a football player and a wrestling star at East High School. After graduation he followed the advice of hia cousin, "Big Bill" Bell, and enrolled at Ohio State University. After one year, Craig transferred

"'Interview with Mary Hogan Smith, Akron, Ohio, 1 December 1974, Interview with Beatrice Turner O'Rourke, Central State University, Wilberforce, Ohio, 5 December 1974.

lo'Interview with Rev. G. Lincoln Caddell, 901 Baughman Street, Akron, Ohio, 28 December 1974. 226 to West Virginia State College and played every varsity game his sophomore year. He was declared ineligible in Ns junior year due to a technicality in his transfer status. In Craig's senior year, he left college, came to Akron, married and began working for the city."' EOraCO Bell, younger brother of .Big Bill. Bell, also attended East High School and graduated in the 1935 class. Despite the fact that his father had died in 1926 and his mother's death occurred eighteen months later, Bell's family felt that he should be afforded the chance to further his education. Bell's older brother, Bill, financed his tuition to the University of Minnesota from a depression year's coaching salary of nine hundred dollars; his sister paid young Bell's fare to Minnesota."' Ball, known to many as Worse,. had several honors to his credit. He had played on the University of ninne- mota's football team which mn a national title in 1936, and during hie varsity season, the team won Big Ten championship8 from 1936 to 1939 Bell also had the distinction of being the first Negro to play in the All-star

Classic at Chicago's Soldier's Field."' In subsequent years he was a premedical student for tm and a half years at Butler University before earning hie medical degree at

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 15 October 1967, p. E3. "'Ibid., 18 October 1965, p B7. "'Ibld., 19 February 1959. r

117 the University of Indiana in 1952."'

While a number of fine athletes resided in East Akron, there were also talented athletes from the opposite side of town, one of whom was Andrew (Andy) Averitt. Averitt had gained- recognition as a football and basketball star at West High school in the early 1930s. but basketball was his forte. He was selected to the All-

Tournament Team twice during his high school years and subsequently played amateur basketball with Woolcock Plumbers in 1934. Averitt attended Kent State University for a short time before enrolling at the University of Toledo. His athletic and college career were terminated due to

illness. ''I In 1933 another well-known black made a contribution to Akron's citizens. J. C. Wade, a former resident who had gone to New York and achieved stardom as a tap dancer, had returned to Akron and opened a dancing studio.

Kis first studio was at 324 Gold Street, and he taught both ballet and tap dancing. The success of hls instruction forced hm to seek larger quarters and late in 1935 he moved his business to Howard Street. wade had a celebrated background for he was an

'"Ibid., 18 October 1965, p. 87. '"Ibid., 17 October 1966. 128 exceptionally talented dancer. When his contract was terminated with Olson and Johnson, he was offered a job as partner and chief instructor with Joe Price--an instructor whose students were stage and screen stars. In his Akron studio, Wade taught both black and white students lessons in all types of dancing. Among hia former students who achieved stardom were: Alvin Leslie,

Dora llae Bixson, Billie Parsons, Lorrainne Baker, and

Billy Carmichael (nephew of Hoayy Carmichael) .I1'

Wade's local shows included his annual dance recital; the J. C. Wade Night Club Review, and personal appearances in night clubs, theaters, and benefit shows."' Be held his first annual dance recital on 21 June 1935 and vas billed as Akron's only colored teacher. His night club review, sponsored by the Goodyear Colored Club, consisted of an all-Negro cast of radio and stage artists. One particular beneflt show in which Wade appeared was

Goodyear's Annual Charity Carnival which provided aid to needy Goodyear families. Night life in Akron during the years of the depression were quite exciting according to DeWitt Pitman, a self-taught drummer and entertainer who worked in Akron's

"'Akron Inforner, 10 September 1949.

""First Annual Recital of the J. C. Wade Dance Studio,. Akron, Ohio, 1935, (Akron) Wingfoot Clan, n.d ; (Akron) Winyfoot Clan, 30 October 1935. p. 1. 229

night clubs. There were several clubs then--The Little

Ritx, The Speedway Inn, and the Grandview Inn--which throbbed with jazz.

Pittman, the son of a sharecropper, had come to

Akron in 1931 seeking a better life. He soon came to realize that the only employment that he could find was as a porter--part-time. ne started sitting in as a drummer with a local group and eventually became good enough to team up with four other musicians to form .The Society Five: Their first job at the Palmer Inn paid one dollar per night. Several years passed before Pittman found employment in the rubber plants, but in the meantime he became well known as a jazz drummer in Akron's night club circles."'

I Diversified Black Organizations The growth of the black population was reflected in the increase of black associations. Year by year, the black cornunity had developed black organizations to meet its diverse needs-political, social, educational, economic, religious, civic, and cultural. Through such bodies Negroes had made great strides in being absorbed into the Akron community and in combatting its racial hostility.

Wst of the black organizations which were existent

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 31 December 1972, p. D3. 230

- in the 1930s carried on the programs for which they were originally created. Although some of the earliest ones had gone out of existence, new associations had been

formed to meet new demands. l*ro organizations--the ACCW and the NAACP--grew in prominence as they addressed most of the Negroes' needs. This segment of the paper will

examine the foci of the ACCW and the NAACP and will investigate the newly created black organizations.

The ACCW's programs The ACCW continued to have its annual dinner and engaged speakers who discussed the problems and possible

solutions to the racial problems in America. Two of the areas to which the agency gave considerable attention were those of employment and vocational

opportunity. As early as 1930 the ACCW sponsored a voca-

tional Opprtunity campaign and invited Dr. H. 0. Bouse- field of Chicago, vice-president of the Supreme Liberty and Life Insurance Co., to address a group of local men at the Akron City Club regarding the Negro's opportunity for employment.

Bousefield declared that even though the Negro was given the worst jobs and the warst places to live, the

black man was coming up in the world more rapidly than

other groups through the development of social responsibility. Bousefield suggested that the Negro's greatest contribution to the wrld had been his labor from the days of slavery hence. He added that the general level of the entire nation could be elevated by raising the standards of Negroes because they too wuld have buying power if given a job."' Nine years later the ACCW was still persevering in ita attempts to prepare black youth for various vocations ahould the opportunities be extended to them. The topic of .Negro Youth in the World of TomorrowD was the central theme of a week-long conference in Elarch 1939. mer tw hundred black students from northeastern Ohio cities convened in Akron to discuss racial problems of colored people. The purpose of the convention was to unpress black youth with the idea that despite the obstacles and hardships that existed there were definite opportunities for Negroes to perform services and earn a livelihood One of the features of the conference was a debate between the Akron and Canton high school students. The question for debate was .Resolved, That Negro Colleges and Wniversities Prepare Students Better for Life's Vocations Than Nixed Colleges and Universities " Allen Killings, Percy Fleming, and Wanda Jones were members of the Wesley Temple team which debated the Canton team."'

'l'Ibid.r 24 April 1930.

"'Ibid., 25, 26, 27 Elarch 1939. An editorial in the Akron Beacon Journal commended the ACCN for showing initiative through its efforts and stated: It need not be stressed that the lot of the Negro in depressed times is not a happy one. Generally in the lover income bracket anyway, the Negro finds avenues of employment normally open to him closing under depression. Idtent race prejudices become active. Because it is difficult for the Negro to make himself heard, the plight of the Negro goes unnoticed.'"

TK, other activities of the ACCW during the 1930s were noteworthy. One was the memorial service to Harvey S. Pirestone held at Second Baptist Church Sponsored in conjunction with the Council of Negro Churches, the service vas held to pay tribute to the assistance that Pirestone had provided for the Negro race. Speeches were preeented by Robert A. Taft of Cincinnati, Atty. mer mncaster, and Dr. George E. Haynes. Music was furnished by a fifty-voice choir and two soloists: Ednah Lewis, president of the Ohio Baptist Association Woman's Auxiliary, and Nercer Bratcher, a former Pirestone Tire and Rubber Co. employee."' The secord activity of note was the observance of

Uegro Aistory Week which was jointly sponsored by the ACCW and the local chapter of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority. In 1935, Hiss Edith Delaney, assistant girl's secretary of

"'Ibid., 25 March 1939.

"'Ibid., 30 March 1938. 233

XCW, was chairman of the ninth annual celebration pro-

gram. An exhibit was held daily at the ACCW headquarters

throughout the week. Teas and discussion hours augmented the celebration, and the public library, through the cooperation of Librarian Will c. Collins, featured daily literary displays.''0

RARCP programs - The RARCP activities during the 1930s were under the leadership of the president, mer Martin Idncaster, I for most of the decade (1928-37). During has term of office, the Lancaster Scholastic Trophy, named in his honor, was initiated. The award, which he presented annually from 1936-40, went to the Negro high school graduates who attained the highest grades during their high school careers."' In June of 1937 forty-five graduates of Akron high echools and tw universities were honored. Miss Kathleen Thomas, an East High School graduate, was the recipient of the Lancaster Scholastic Trophy. Swanson Shaw, also an East High School graduate, received special recognition."' Lancaster's administrative years were quite productive. In addition to instituting the Lancaster

"'Ibid., 9 February 1935. '"Lancaster, 'Biographical Sketch..

L1'Akron Beacon Journal, 21 June 1937. 134

Scholastic hophy, his leadership led to other accomplish- monte. Ee wan instrumental in getting Atty. Clarence Darror to speak in Akron in 1928; he fought segregation in

the public schools--particularly ih the school choirs;'" and he assisted in starting an annual concert of Negro music in which vocal groups, orchestras, soloists, and choruses participated.'''

Eosea Lindsey succeeded Idncaster as president in 1937. During his administration William Pickens, Negro author and a Phi Beta Kappa graduate from Yale University, returned to Akron for a second tune. Pickens, director of the national NAACP, addressed an audience on education and racial problems. In a similar speech, six years prior, he told his listeners that there was no such thing as .Negro crime,' a .Negro death rate; or .Negro education.' He Lltated that what did exist were the crime rates and death rates for people who lived under the conditions which Negroes were forced to live. Likewise, Negro education was not distinct from other education--that there wae no such thing as Negro physics, Negro math, etc."' In the fall of 1937 the outstanding accomplishments of the organization were lauded and four of the six

"'.NAACP Freedom Fund Dinner Souvenir Program," Akron, Ohio, 1974.

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 7 August 1933. "'Ibid., 4 February 1937, 9 December 1931. . 235 officers were reelected. Three of the NAACP's attainments that year were. 1. The creation of a spirit of cooperation among the entire Negro population of the clty

2. The placement of the association on a firm financial basis 3. The securing of a membership roll ten tames larger than that of recent years"' One final MteWrthy act was executed by the local

branch of the NAACP during the 1930s. In September of

1937, the NAACP made application for a Carnegie medal to

be awarded to patrolman John Suddieth in recognition of his heroim in saving the lives of seven passengers in a burning car. Suddieth raced to the overturned car and

dragged three children who were sprayed with gasoline through a broken window. He then assisted the men out of the front seat and with their aid extricated the tvo women

passengers as flames swept the car. In recognition of his

bravery, city council passed a resolution commending

Suddieth on his

New organizations Several other organizations were formed during the

depression years, namely- Rubber City Lodge No. 233 of

"'Ibid., 9 October 1937.

"'Ibid., 16 September 1937. 23 6 the I.B.P.O.E. of W.t the American Legion John Pulton Post No. 2721 Alpha Rappa Alpha Sorority Beta Beta Chapter) the Negro Twenty-five Year Club: the Council of Negro Women8 the Negro Art Club;-Veterans of Foreign Wars Rhine River Post No. 36181 and the Frontiers of America. The Delta Lodge 149 of the I.B.P.O.E. of W. had dissolved when property purchased for its headquarters was lost during the financial crash of the 1930s. but a new lodge was established in 1932 under the name of Rubber

City Lodge NO. 233. Dr. P. H. Strawbridge was installed as Exalted Ruler and J. A. Banks was elected secretary."' The American Legion John Pulton Post NO. 272 was granted its charter in October 1932. J. L. Suddteth was commander and J. A. Spratley served as adlutant. Other officer8 included L. S. Sheeler, chaplain and Wayman Cruse, sergeant-at-arms. The names of the original members according to the charter were, Thomas L. Sampson, Harry L. Jones, George W. Denrison, A. 0. Brazelton, J. L. Larri- =re, L. B. Peebles, John Alvis, Frank Price, F. D. Fisher,

8. Cooksey, Harry W. Thomas, Ray Wimberly, S. D. Turner,

Mses Awry, Simerel D. BOWles, Eddie Bird, 0. c. Campbell,

William E. W. EWlng, Thomas E. Flnley, A. J. Douglas, Espie Glenn, William R. Hardy, Harry Helm, Harry Xing, Henry HDQeS, S. D. Parnell, Thomas Saunders, Edward S.

"'wSouvenir Program of the I.B.P.O.E. of W.," 1951. 237

SDNggs. noses Sneed, Prank Stewart, Robert T. Stone, Elder Tripp, Edward J. Walker, James c. white, Barney

Earris. I "

Akron's first black college sorority was the Beta Beta Chapter Of Alpha Kappa Alpha organized in Cleveland, Ohio in 1932. Mary Hogan, who was instrumental in the chapter's being founded, served as its first president. other founders were- Juella Thompson, willa Player, Geraldine Dyson, Susan Lyles, and Virginia Wilson.

Although a mall chapter in terms of numbers, the sorority entertained the Great Lakes Regional Conference in 1934."'

The first pledge (Ivy Leaf) was Edith Delaney who was initiated and became a soror on 4 play 1933. Members present at the first initiation were Sorors plary Hogan, Virginia Threatt, Susan Lyles, and Juella Thompson. Visiting 8orors, Phyllis Dyson, Carolyn Lancaster, Beatrice Woolridge, and Caroline Lattier were also in attendance."'

"'Charter of the John Fulton Post No. 272 of the American Legion, Akron, Ohio. Said charter is at John Pulton Post No. 272. 65 North Summit Street, Akron, Ohio. "'Alpha Kappa Alpha bok containing the historical highlights of the sorority. Among the historical records of the sorority in the possession of ms. Frances Lame Howard, 541 Hoye Avenue, Akron, Ohio.

"'Alpha Kappa Alpha, Beta Beta Chapter (Akron, Ohio), Minutes of the Meetings of the Sorority, meeting of 4 March 1933, p. 12. Among the historical records of the sorority in the possession of Hrs. Frances Idbe Howard, 541 Hoye Avenue, Akron, Ohio. In the mid-1930s a civic organization, the Negro Twenty-five Year Club, was established for social and con-

structive purposes. Comprised of Negroes who had resided in Akron twenty-five years or more, the group was founded at the American Legion Hall. Officers who were elected were' Mrs. John Clark, president; Harry Hailstock, vice- president, J. R. Jackson, secretary, HIS. Mattie Steele, assistant secretary, and as. Carrie White, treasurer.1a'

By its first anniversary, the club had a membership of sixty-four and eighteen honorary members, seventy years old or older. The oldest member was George Prince. Some of the more prominent members of the organization were: Rev. R. A. Jones, Mrs. Roberta Black, E. w. sims, ~rs. Ella Christian, Mra. lauise Wilson, Mrs. mnda Mountain, Mrs. Libby Byers, Rev. J. H. McMullen, Mrs. Sarah Dand- ridge, Mrs. M. Heath, Mra. Esther Williams, Mrs. Julia Pinn, Mrs. Ella Chapman, Mrs. Mary Tillman, Mrs. Matilda Baines, Mrs. Maria Anderson, Rev. William Branch, me. Capitola Dyson, and Mrs. Susie Cudgel.

Those who served as officers for the organization were: Mrs. Julia Clark, president; Mrs. Martha Hailstock, first vice-president; Mrs. Cora Christian, second vice- president; Mrs. Cora Dandridge, third vice-president; Mrs. Carrie white, treasurer; and J. R. Johnson, treasurer

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 21 March 1935. - *, a39

[el. Guest speakers were Mrs. Otis Hower and C. W. Seiberling . yy Probably the largest contribution which the Negro Twenty-five Year Club made to the city was the presentation of the John Brown Memorial on 25 September 1938. The idea for establishing the memorial had been conceived two months prior when at its regular meeting the members of the club decided that in keeping with their purpose and to perpetuate the name of the Negro Twenty- five Year Club, they would sponsor the dedication and' erection of a memorial to pay tribute to the memory of ~ohnBrown. Atty. mer Lancaster was selected as chairman of the John Brown Memorial committee, the committee which brought the plans to fruition."'

The presentation ceremony at Perkins Woods included addresses an3 speeches by many prominent people: musical selections; the unveiling of the memorial by Doris Brown, third grand-niece of the famed abolitionist;"' and the presentation of colorful flowers and wreaths by local black organizations."' It was a memorable occasion for

l'lIbid., 20 April 1936. "'The resolution authorizing Atty. Emmer Lancaster to negotiate with the City Planning Commission for the erection of said memorial is included in appendix 3.

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 26 September 1938. "'The printed program of the dedication services is included in appendix 4. both black and white citizens.

Another civic organization, The Council of Negro . Women. established in 1932, became an active force in kpproving the Negro cornunities and the city in general. The council grew out of a nucleus of two block clubs which were organized in the Elizabeth Park area. As more neighborhood clubs were established throughout the city, the sister clubs saw fit to organize the council as a parent body. The ACCW provided assistance in establishing the council into a main body which consisted of twenty-one block clubs and became LMm as the Council of Negro Women. George Thompson, Raymond Brown, and Mary Hogan assisted in the organization of the group and meetings were held at the ACCW. The neighborhood clubs, which met in homes prior to the formation of the council, were organized for the pur- posa of: l) beautifying and consolidating black cornuni- tieei 2) inspiring the black cornunity to higher education, and 3) building black pride. The neighborhood block clubs followed the area of the neighborhood schools. The Council of Negro Women lent r7- support to the various PTA groups in the neighborhoods and "2 helped to develop Elizabeth Park and Elizabeth Park homes. mre than one thousand -men were members of the organization which encompassed clubs in Akron, Barberton, 241

and Twineburg."' Three of the programs of the Council of Negro Women wre the National Negro Health Week activities: a campaign to raise money to build a gymnasium for Negro youth: and a program to teach Negro children Dlack history. In 1935 the activities to cornemorate National Negro Health Week were scheduled as follows: 1. Sunday--Speeches by ministers at the various local black churches regarding health

2. Monday--Addresses on health by physicians and nurses 3. Tuesday--Housewives were scheduled to appear 4. Wednesday--Presentation of a sketch on the value of life insurance

5. Thursday--An address by Ws. L. L. Kinsey, chairman of the beautification committee of Akron and smit county's Garden ~orum"~ The following year the organization raised $704.35 for the construction of the gymnasium."' Because students were not taught black history in achool, the Council of Negro Women sponsored a contest to teach black children about their heritage. Hobart Briggs

"'Interview with Mary Eagle, Akron, Ohio, 9 Jan- uary 1975. "'Akron Beacon Journal, 30 March 1935. "'Ibid., 25 June 1936. won the Contest in 1939. His prize-winning entry had -_ articles and pictures of toth locally and nationally prominent Negroes. The student's families helped them locate materials for their tooks.'" - A Negro Art Club, organized in 1937, was the first organhation in the city to present a gift of art trea-

mes to the new Akron Art Institute. The $125 gift, purchased through funds collected from the Negro community, was a collection of carvings and agricultural pieces created by the Bush Negroes in Dutch Guiana, South America. The scheduled presentation ceremony consisted of the presentation of the collection and a concert of music by the mere Singers: soloists, Mercer Bratcher and Jessica Brazilr and Mrs. Edith Brown, pianist.l" The Veterans of Foreign War, mine River Post NO. 3618 received its charter on 6 July 1937. Charter members, having served honorably in the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps of the United States of America in its foreign wars, were: Lester Sheeler, George McCullough, Lewis Buchanan, Wilbur Watts, mett Payne. Gordon Kiser, Robert Wrton, Aron

Bryant, William M. Wheeler, Thomas L. Sampson, Lee Wellons,

Henry WSeS, William Idley, Fmbert Hardy, Harrison Johnson,

"'Wiss nary Holmes has among her personal records the black history took which she helped her young cousin, Hobart Briggs, compile. Interview with mry Holmes, 4 January 1975. '"Akron Beacon Journal, 10 December 1937. I . 24 3

Blrie Fortune, George Booker, IVY Grozar, Conley Harper, Archie J. Reaves, and Elder Tripp."'

The Rontiers Club, a national service club comprised of Negro business and professional men, was organized by Atty. Astee Fleming in 1939. As the first national chairman of the constitutional conunittee, Fleming wrote most of the constitution for the national organi- ration. " ' The purpose of the association was to serve members of the Negro race and the community. Officers included: Atty. Artee Fleming, president; Henry Sparks, vice-presi-

dent; Raymond R. Brown, secretary1 and Dr. B. L. Thurston, treasurer. Other members were Atty. mer Lancaster,

Dr. P. 8. Strawbridge, Dr. George Dunbar, mitt Hogan, Mercer F. matcher, Daniel Thomas, Atty. S. T. Kelly, and George W. Thompson.'''

sumnary The decade of the 1920s witnessed black residents resisting the racial oppression that began in the prior

decade. They responded both individually and through

"'Charter of the Veterans of Foreign Wars, Rhine River Post No. 3618, Akron, Ohio. Said charter 1s at Rhine River Post No. 3618, 1414 Copley Road, Akron, Ohio. '*'Interview with Atty. Artee Fleming, 7 December 1974. i '"Akron Beacon Journal, 25 February 1939. organized attempts in order to establish their equality. Politically, black candidates seeking public office8

Were just beginning to emerge, and Negro citizens unified to bring about the political power that resulted in the appointments of blacks to positions in local government. Civicly, blacks protested the racial slurs against them by engaging speakers to enlighten whites abut Negroes, and they demonstrated their pride in blackness through participation in the city's first observance of the anniversary of the Fmancipation Proclamation. In terms of economic advances, more black professional people had come to the city and a variety of black businessea were in operation. There were four physicians, three dentists, five attorneys, and two additional pharmacists by the end of 1929. Both men and women had entered into business operations which included. under- takers, salespersons, barbers, musical studios, contractors and builders, hotel owners, restaurant managers, grocers, printers, beauticians, dressmakers, designers, laundry operators, nurses, real estate agents, insurance agents, caterers, decorators, bakers, millers, and typists. TO assist Negroes in their economic development, a Negro business league was formed which consisted of men in businesses and the professions. Although some black families were making economic gains, the vast majority of Negroes could not attain any 215

economic progress because of the racial discrimination i that prevailed. Since blacks were judged by class rather than on individual merit, Negroes were offered only the jobs that called for menial labor regardless of their educational qualifications. nuther endeavors to assist themselves economically

remlted in the formation of a black finance company in order tn help Negroes obtain loans. The company existed for approximately five or six years. The social environment of Akron's Negroes encompassed cultural, athletic, religious, community and educa-

tional activities. A minute number of individuals were beginning to excel in the fields of music and sports. Bower, most Negroes were able to uplift themselves through their church activities, community organizations, or affiliations with civic enterprises. Churches served in a dual capacity as places of wrahip and as lecture halls for orators vho sought to educate audiences about the racial situation locally and nationally. Organizations attempted to develop programs to

uplift blacks: to ameliorate their social conditions, to improve their employment status: and to fight discrimination.

In regard to education, methods to educate all blacks--school-age youngsters, adults, and college 246

students--were being implemented. Black families were

I becoming increasingly cognizant of the value of an educa- 1 tion, and concerned adults developed organizations and programs to encourage Negroes to stay in school. Since most adults had limited educations and could not attend classes, black leaders in the community attempted to

educate the masses through black newspapers and through the publication of Negro yearbooks.

Limited numbers of Negroes were able to acquire a college education at this period of time, but a fer families were able to send their children to institutions of higher learning. Black organizations assisted students whose families were unable to meet the expenses that attendance in college incurred. The depression years were particularly difficult years for Akron’s Negro families. Suffering under the double handicap of being black and poor, Negro residents continued to face the unenviable task of motivating their

1 children to remain in school--to complete their education. Black churches, speakers, and organizations maintained their supportive role of aiding families in meeting that , challenge.

A few more political appointments to positions in local government, an increase in business enterprises, and

the implementation of church activities that strengthened family ties were among the brighter side of what vas generally a gloomy environment for Negroem. Notrithntanding the severe hardships that they had to encounter daily, individuals continued to earn distinctions for themselves which reflected credit to their race. mre black athletes were commanding attention and respect8 many more Negroes were attending high school: and a few mre blacks were ersolled in colleges. perhaps the greatest single honor that was earned locally by a Negro in the 1930s was the victory of HncNolia Cox when she placed first in the Akron area

Spelling Bee. Ber victory was applauded locally and by leaders in other parts of the nation

The ACCW and the NMCP became the prominent black Organizations which addressed most of the problems of

Negroes. The ACCW focused on programs to promote the social welfare of, employment opportunities for, and the educational progress of Negroes The NAACP, while developing programs to further the education of blacks, stressed programs aimed toward the eradication of discrimination. . other associations were founded which fostered social cohesiveness, enhanced cultural opportunities, and

provided service to Akron's black residents.

TK, civic organizations were established in the 1930s--the Negro Twenty-five Year Club and the Council of Negro women. The Negro Twenty-five Year Club, established for social and constructive purposes, dedicated a memorial to John Brown in Perkins Woods in 1938. The Council of Negro Women, formed from a group of neighborhood block clubs, aimed to beautify and consolidate the black community; to inspire the black community to higher levels of education; and to build black pride. Among its civic activities were the observance of National Negro Health Week; a campaign to secure funds to construct a gymnasium for Negro children, and a contest to teach black history to Negro students. .- r^ I,

~ . I-,.

CHAPTER V

ADVANCEMENTS THROUGH EUPIPLOYUENT,

CIVIC PRIDE, AND EDUCATION: 1940-1959

A Decade of Hope 1940-1949 Advancement Through Unity Pmployment opportunities for Negroes

The racial barriers which stifled the progress of the black man were most obvious in the lack of equal opportunities for employment. Given the most degrading types of wrk with the lowest incomea, black Akronites became cognizant of the need to raise their standard of living by fighting for better lobs.

Early in the 1940s the Future Outlook League (9.0.L.) founded in Cleveland, Ohio by John Holly, had an active chapter operating in Akron. The purpose of the organization was to improve the Negro's position in America. Its procedures to uplift the black man, economically and socially, were implemented through affirmative action tactics to gain employment for Negroes and to increase their wages. The F.O.L.'s activities during this period were successful in ending discrimination against Negro women at

249 250

the local telephone company. Loeb's account of those

successes in Akron stated that, 'A militant, young crusader, Uarion Dixson, directed this group." Dixson served as chairman of the P.O.L.'s State District Con- ference, and Fred Eaves was president of the F.O.L.'s Akron branch in the late 1940s.' Another organization, the ACCW, had worked to secure jobs for blacks since its inception. However, it asable to improve its services following several imprtant changes after twenty years of operation. In

1945 the agency underwent a metamorphosis that resulted in three major alterations in the structure of the organization and plans for a larger facility. First of all, an interracial board of trdstees consisting of twenty-five members vas established. second, the agency was incorporated under a new name--the Akron Community Service Center (ACSC)--having new goals and new responsibilities. Third, staff and committee duties were realigned and personnel were added to meet the enlarged scope of the agency's programs. Finally, a building fund campaign cornittee was organized to set goals for the construction of a new physical facility. Raymond R. Brown became the executive director of

'Charles H. Laeb, The Future is Yours (Cleveland: The Future Outlook League, Inc., 1947) , P. $8 and section of photographs. 251

the ACSC following the death of George W. Thompson. Under Brovn's leadership, the agency accomplished many of its goals through ita various departments, focusing on youth, industrial relations, recreation, and wmen's and girls' activities.'

The 1949 annual report of the ACSC detailed how that agency's Industrial Relations Department vorked

arduously to secure employment for Negroes.' Through strategic procedures--group conferences, interviews, research, and correspondence--the ACSC enlisted community support to persuade employers to increase their labor efficiency by hiring competent Negro wrkers. Toward the decade's end, some progress had occurred, but the agency was still striving to convince the local department stores and the telephone company to hire blacks in other

than menial capacities. In addition to developing programs to persuade leaders in business and industry to change their anti- Negro hiring policies, the ACSC also developed programs to prepare blacks for jobs. By the close of the 1940s. three projects were underway which aimed to advise and Inspire, recruit, and train Negroes for employment. They were

'Akron Community Service Center, 'Annual Report United We Build,' Akron, Ohio,1945. 'Akron Community Service Center, 'Twenty-fourth Annual Report," Akron, Ohio, 1949. 252

1) a vocational guidance project! 2) a pilot placement project! and 3) a nurses' training project. In the vocational guidance project, high school students were interviewed and referred to those agencies which vere equipped to address their specific needs regarding occupational data and counseling. since employment other than low-level jobs--regardless of Negroes' levels of education--were difficult for blacks to obtain, a pilot placement project was created. Through the project, job applications of Negro Akronites rho had. professional or technical training were circulated to the National Urban League (which acted as a clearing buse for blacks throughout the nation). Negroes who were unskilled, semi-skilled, skilled or domestics continued to

obtain employment through the ACSC's placement service. The nurses' training project worked to enroll black wmen in the nurses' training programs of the local hospitals. Project efforts met with no success, but one hospital promised .consideration. of Negro applicants in

the fall of 1949 on the positive side, the Akron Public Library had worked for many years to promote racial understanding in the city. The library was one of the first institutions in Akron to participate in Negro History Week activities and to welcome black youth and adults as additions to their staff. - 253

The American Legion, John Fulton Post No. 272 bad established an employment committee to wrk on a job drive to obtain better positions for Negroes. Their first victory occurred when in 1949 they were able to secure a job for Clarence Harris as the first Negro milk truck driver for a local milk company.' Finding better jobs for blacks was also the prhry concern of a political group of wmen--the Republican

Nomen's Progressive Club--organized by Ws. Sadie Smith in the early 1940s. The organization sought to uplift Negro women through the acquisition of jobs in governmental positions. Among the early members in the club were:

Geraldine Fisher, Anna PlcMullen, Millie Hutchinson, Betty Franklin, Leona Jones, Deborah McClain, Essie Collier,

Rose Culver, Emra Hale, Mary Adams, Evelyn Harlis, and

AIIM me Culver. '

The black social environment In terms of religious and spiritual growth, black congregations had suffered many losses during the depression years, yet each congregation persevered in its efforts to bard together and support its church both spiritually and financially. The 1940s were years of

'Picture at the American Legion, John Fulton Post No. 212 at 65 North Sununit Street, Akron, Ohio 'Interview with Sadie Smith, 21 March 1975, Akron, Ohio. greater reward to black congregations as new churches formed8 more stability in pastorships occurred; organira- +ions within the churches sprouted; buildings were completed and mortgages were burned. Black organizations continued to increase and those already established strived diligently to bring about greater equality and prosperity for their race. MDst .ocial organizations served as social outlets for Negroes, giving them an opportunity to develop leadership and to anjoy fellowship among friends. One such organization was The Benevolent, Protec- tive Order of Reindeer, Pride of Akron, Lodge No. 27, which was granted its charter on 1 May 1940. The next year on 16 March 1941 the women's auxiliary to that lodge, Iona Chapter No. 21, was issued its charter. The members of the organization who had attained a third degree constituted another group known a8 The Past Most Noble Queen's Palace, Waddell Palace No. 7. Their charter was granted on 5 July 1944.' Some of the organizations, created for fellowship and humanitarian purposes, provided financial assistance or other services to the black community to advance their educational levels. Illustrative examples were the Elks organization and the American Legion, John Fulton Post

'Interview with Mrs. Melzola Weeks, 895 Mercer Avenue, Akron, Ohio, 13 February 1975. 155

NO. 172. The Elks held their annual oratorical contest and awarded financial assistance to its winners to further their educational pursuits. Among some of its winners during the period from the late 1930s through the 1940s were Robert Burton, Sterling Tucker, Ambrose Brazelton, and Kenneth Mundy. All of them advanced beyond the local level. ' The national contest which helped many young blacks locally, had also provided scholarship aid to prominent national figures who Participated in their local oratorical contest in their youth, namely, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and James Farmer.' The American Legion, John Fulton Post No. 272 provided services to the community through its program for civic education which sent boys to Buckeye Boys' State.

An early as 1938 Martin Chapman, Pay Dove, and Thomas

Raspberry represented their schools--Garfield, East, and

South Eigh Schools, respectively--at the meetings in

Colwnbus, Ohio. Among the young students who were sent in

the 1940s were Walter L. Sanders in 1947 and Earl Bruce Tate, Jr. in 1948. The purpose of Buckeye Boys' State was to expose

'Interview with Mrs. Aerieal Fuller, 1316 Hardesty Boulevard, Akron, Ohio, 30 December 1974.

'Elks News, June 1965, p. 8. 156 eleventh graders to a mock government environment. A week's activities were programmed which provided the students with the opportunity to run for office, be appointed to governmental positions, and learn how the state government functioned ' By the mid-1940s Negroes who were coming to settle in Akron were being received more hospitably. On 13 Peb- nary 1944 a mass meeting to welcome black newcomers was scheduled to be held at Second Baptist Church under the auspices of the Negro Advisory Committee of Akron's War mnpover Commission. Mayor Slusser and representatives from labor, industry, the War Hanpower's Commission, the public schools, civic, and fraternal groups were scheduled to attend the meeting. Negro churches were also to participate in the welcome through their deliverance of aemns on the topic of "welcoming newcomers:" Nevertheless black veterans returning home from service, faced the ever-present racial hostility that existed prior to their departure. The World War I1 servicemen encountered problems similar to those which confronted black veterans returning from any of America's previous wars. As early as 1917 a letter to the editor defending Negroes stated.

'Interview with martin 0. Chapman, Akron, Ohio, 9 Mrch 1975. "Akron Beacon Journal, 12 March 1944. It is needless to recount the part played by the negro in building the Anerican history, for every man and woman knows that upon the fields of every war in defense of American liberty, the negro has bared his bosom to the raking storm of shot and shell and that he has enjoyed that liberty, gained only by drenching battlefields with his sacred blood, less than any alien that has pressed the sod of American soil.11 Similar remarks were echoed in the press several years later when an Akron Negro protested: In world war you gave me a chance and a good one. You taught me that I was an American citizen and that the enwy's shot and shell were made for me just as much for you. Yes. it was very good of you, of course, because you put my dug-out just as close to the firing line as you did yours. But it is a shame to push me back at home now. . . .I2 Twenty-five years later black veterans still met inequality when they returned home. The discrmination in employment; the segregation in housing: and the racially- biased treatment throughout the city permeated the envir- oments in which blacks survived.

Advancement through civic enterprises Rousing was a particular concern of Akron's black residents for they were forced to reside in the city's wrst districts. Although the Akron Hetropolitan Housing Authority, established in 1938, was created to assist the community in slum clearance projects, it met many obstacles before its plans could be realized. As Grismer

"Ibid., 29 play 1917.

"Ibid., 27 November 1924. has noted. Prom its inception, the Authority encountered bitter opposition. A group of Akron real estate dealers, spurred on by owners of substandard homes occupied by Negroes and poor whites, did everything within the= power to prevent any slum clearance projects from being started. They insisted that the project would create a housing surplus and depress real estate values, and they branded the proposal as %ocialistic :' ' Grimer described the fight which the Authority had before succeeding with its plans to build its first project--a housing development just east of the North Hill viaduct. Re stated: This district, covered with dilapidated houses vas inhabited mostly by Negroes and had long been notor- ious as a breeding place for crme and disease. Akron civic leaders had talked for many years about doing something to mprove conditions there--but all they did vas talk. The Authority on the other hand, got action. Properties along North and Spring Streets were con- demned and razed, ad on April 10, 1940, work vas started on Elizabeth Park Hcmes. . . . James Hiller, one of Akron's most respected Negroes, was made manager of the homes. Under his direction the prolect became a deldevelopment." Negroes had been adamant in their objections to living in criminal surroundings. Thus, in the fall of

1941, a series of meetings, sponsored by various colored groups in Akron, vere held to protest vice conditions in black communities.' '

llGrismer, Akron and Summit, p. 511. "Ibid., pp. 511-12. "Akron Beacon Journal, 23 October 1941. 759

The Akron Council of Negro Women was conscious of the serioua problem of inadequate housing for blacks and in 1941 acquired an eleven-room house at 369 Wwster Avenue in order to provide a residence for black working girls. The council had no outside financial aid in purchasing the property and planned to continue its rnain- tenance through voluntary personal donations. The home vas administered similar to that of the YWCA residence, having definite rules and a house mother. The members of the organization firmly believed in the doctrine of self-help and their motto was .Lift as we climb: Hrs. T. M. Fletcher was the organization's first president and served tm years in that capacity. nrs. Wry Eagle, chief organizer of the council, man president of the organization at the time that the home was obtained. Other officers at that tme included: Hrs. Pearl Christian, first vice-president, Mrs. Belle Williamson, second vice-president; Hrs. Ethel Ashby, secretary; and Hrs. Mary Powell, treasurer. Trustees vere ms. Eva Perrin, Hrs. A. J. Terrell, Hrs. Frank Scruggs, nrs. Carmen Jackson, We. Lela Taylor, Hrs. Georgia Bush, ms. Florence Hinson, and Mre. Eula Goban."

A few years later, the association attempted to curb juvenile delinquency among Negro youth. Two

"Ibid., 25 May 1941. 260 recreation projects for black children were planned by the council at the organization's home- a playground for smaller children, to be directed by staff members of the city's Recreation Department, and a soda bar and recreation morn in the home's remodeled basement, for the use of older children. The funds for the projects were made possible through a five hundred dollar gift from an anonymous donor and a one hundred dollar donation from the merican Legion, ~ohnFulton Post NO. 272." By the late 1940s the housing problem of Akron's black population had become very acute. The ACSC reported that: mre than 12,000 new Negro citizens have come to Akron since 1940, svelling the race population to over 15,000. Only 75 new homes have been built and occupied by Negroes during that period, although about 3,000 houses of all kinds have been purchased." Although the NAACP had fought bigotry in all areas under Sam Shepard's direction at the close of the 19308. the organization focused its battle against police brutality and discrimination in housing throughout Leon

Gordie's administration in the 1940s."

Civic enterprises to educate Negroes through publications involved two undertakings: A Negro directory and

I7Ibid., 14 May 1944.

"Akron community service center, .Annual Report for 1947.. Akron, Ohio 1947. "NAACP, .Freedom Fund Program." 1974. 261 a Negro newspaper. The Akron Negro Directory, published in 1940, provided Akron's citizens with diverse information on the city's black population. Somewhat similar to the city's annual directory, it listed Akron's black residents, their occupations, and place and length of residence. Statistics concerning Akron's Negro citizens included- their tax assessment; their annual expenditures1 the number of Negroes who were registered voters; and the number of Negroes on relief, on WPA, in private industry, etc. The black businesses, lodges, and organizations were also listed." The need for a black newspaper to inform the black citizens of events which were pertinent to their lives motivated a small group of World War I1 veterans to begin publication of the Akron Informer, late in 1946. Those eventually involved in its publication were Dumas Mams. Ben Works, Elvin Brown, Willie Smmons, and ~hyBlack. One year later, Samuel R. Shepard took over publication of the eight-page tabloid. Although he catered more to high schwl students, and organized a press club among high school girls, reporters were both university and high school students. Coverage included national and local news, church and club activities, editorials and a

"Kingsberry, Akron Negro, pp. 1-128 passim. 262

gossip column. Circulation was approximately two thousand and newsboys and newsgirls sold the paper weekly."

Individual Accomplishments Black Akronites had been engaged in many pursuits-- civic, cultural, athletic, political, educational, and philanthropic--throughout their history. Their significant deeds were often accomplished in the face of intoler- able treatment yet they contributed notably to their race and mankind in general. Some of the individual attainments and the interest which they pursued during the 1940s

will be documented herein. ,.

A black philanthropist

3 One of Akron's Negro philanthropists who bequeathed the city a large sum of money was Gearge Stevens. Born to parents who settled in Akron in 1857 after fleeing from slavery, Stevens was a fair-complexioned Negro who was easily mistaken for Caucasian. In his childhood years,

Stevens was a playmate of C. W. Seiberling and they sailed boats on the Ohio Canal. Later in his life, he attended Buchtel College, but dropped out of school because of financial problems. He began working in a stove company,

became acquainted with O.C. Barber,& subsequently worked for him as an engineer in his Strawboard Company. By age

"'Black Newspapers,. Akron Public Library, Axron, Ohio. -_ 263 thirty-five, Stevens was fire chief in Barberton's Fire Department. - Stevens began passing for white and as the years passed, he settled in Hartford, Indiana where he took a position with the Fort Wayne Corrugated Paper Company. Living in a hotel room for forty-nine years, his life style became very reserved and equally private.

Be gradually amassed a fortune and was noted for his benevolences to various Negro funds. When he expired in 1940, at eighty years of age, he was Hartford's wealthiest citizen.

A delegation of Hartford's richest residents traveled to Akron's Billow Chapel to pay their final respects to Stevens. It was only after the funeral that they learned-Lto their great dismay--that the Negro members in attendance were members of Steven's family." Hartford's richest citizen left a sizable amount of money in a trust fund in Akron. Steven's will specified that the income from the fund was to be divided among various members of his family during their lifetimes. Following their deaths, the money was to be utilized, through the Akron Poundation- . . . to aid and assist charitable and educational institutions, to promote the health, happiness, comfort, progress, and morals of Akron's people, to

"Akron Beacon Journal, 23 October 1973, p. 81. 264

minister to human wants and needs; and to alleviate suffering of persons unable to care for thanselves."

Black educators and black college students In the year 1940 the Akron Board of Education hired its first black teacher, Herbert R. Bracken. Among its other outstanding civic contributions, the Council of Negro Women is credited with being successful in its attenpts to have Bracken hired."

The outstanding educator had distinguished hmself while still a student at the University of Akron when he wan the Ohio Intercollegiate Oratorical Contest in 1938-39 and went on to place second nationally. According to xnepper : Bin topic 'The Economic Color Line. reflected certain problems of the Negro community of which he was a part. As the first Akron winner since "Bob" Tucker in 1890. Bracken was honored at a student assembly where he received the praise and commendations of his fellow students and President Smons." Education had always been important in Bracken's family, and he used to walk six miles a day to elementary school and later, ten miles round trip to acquire a high school education. He commuted by train forty milea a day to complete two years at Tennessee Agricultural and

"Ibid., 11 April 1940.

"Ibid., 25 Hey 1941.

"Knepper, New Lamps, p. 235. 265

Industrial College, for he believed the message his grandfather had instilled in him, "Get your education. It's the one thing nobody can take away from you.""

Bracken taught elementary school and had been a former principal in the South before coming to Akron and working at Pirestone Tire and Rubber Company as a janitor. During hie professional career in Akron, other assignments included teaching at East High School and Akron Night High School. Chosen in 1970 to present the canmencement address at East High School, he received a atanding ovation.''

The next black educator who was appointed during the 1940s vas John Ervin, who taught at Hove School. A few years later Mary Xate More ]oined the public school staff in 1945. she vas the first black woman teacher, and she taught music at Leggett and Miller Schools." The efforts of the ACSC and the Frontier Club were reported as being influential in getting Negro teachers hired during 1947." That year Wallace Berry, Wilma Covens, Abbie Willacy, and Martin Chapman joined the

~ ~~ *'Akron Beacon Journal, 20 February 1966, p. H3. 'hgistory of Bezaleel Consistory No 15," A.A.S.R., 1906-1971, n.p., p. 133. "Cleveland Call and Post, 29 September 1945. z'Akron Community and Service Center, "Annual Report, 1947.. ~ - 766 public school staff. Chapman, assigned to teach physical aducation at Bryan School, became Akron's first black coach when he assumed the position of assistant football coach to .Hike* Krino at East High School that same year." It was also in 1947 that Esther Spruill, a black teacher, pioneered in the area of preschool education when she opened a day care center on Perkins Street. According to a 1973 nevs account, day care was virtually unknown among blacks during the 1940s. and Hrs. Spruill had difficulty in finding children whose parents would enroll them. Unaware of the benefits of day care service, it was the practice of vorking mothers to leave their children with relatives or neighbors. Thus, Hrs. Spruill closed her business after a short the and taught in the public school system. Eleven years later she resigned from the public schools, and when she opened a day care center-- cupid's Nursery School--some Akronites wishing her services had to be placed on a waiting list. Many people consider her to be the .mother of Akron dal care.n1L Increasing numbers of black students were seeking a means to go to college during this period. Struggling black youth not only received financial assistance from some of the black organizations, but the Knight Memorial

"Interview vith Martin Chapman, 9 March 1975. "Akron Beacon Journal, 13 my 1973, pp. HI, H6. 267

'educational Fund also enabled a few blacks to pursue college degrees.

The fund was established in 1940 by John S. Knight, president and editor of the Akron Beacon Journal, as a memorial to his father, C. L. Knight, a noted Ohio editor. The purpose of the fund was to aid needy young persons rith special aptitudes to obtain an education. It embraced all fields of education, the arts, sciences, and professions. Tw Negroes--Jessie Kirk [Jessica Brazil] and I&kt Burton were among the first of the twenty-eight recipients to be assisted. Mrs. Kirk, daughter of ELI-. and ms. Hathew Brazil, was born in Akron and graduated from West Eigh School prior to attending Wilberforce University for two years as a music major. she had been studying voice on a scholarship in New York City and planned to enter the Cleveland Institute of Music in the fall of 1940.

Robert L. Burton vas one of eight children of Hrs.

Vivian Burton. Although his mother was financially pressed, she was education-minded and determined that all of her children would go to college. Three of her eight children were in college by 1940 Burton had graduated from South High School and the University of Akron and planned to enter Meharry Medical college at Nashville, Tennessee. He was able to complete his undergraduate work with the assistance of his mother, 268 the National Youth Administration (NYA) and odd jobs.” (Burton’s brother Johnathan received a Knight scholarship in 1952 which enabled him to pursue a medical degree at Northwestern University.)”

Abut two weeks after Mrs. Kirk and Burton had been awarded scholarships,the Mary Exalted Temple No. 95 and the I.B.P.O.E. of W., Rubber City Lodge No. 233 sponsored a parting reception in their honor. The Rubber City Lodge No. 233 had also provided funds to assist Burton when he pursued his undergraduate degree at the University of Nuon.” ~rs.Kirk and Burton also were Knight scholarship recipients in 1941 and 1942.

As more black students realized the importance of education, they aspired to become better students and to demonstrate their abilities. Thus, other deserving Akron blacks received Knight scholarship assistance during the 1940s. Their names, fields of interest, and choice of colleges follow Etta Beatrice Kmball (a 1939 South High School graduate), undergraduate work at Talledega College,

Percy Fleming (West High School graduate, valedictorian, and vomnhood cup winner), journalism at Howard University, Lucimarian Tolliver, social administration at Howard

“Ibid., 1 September 1940. “Ibid., 20 January 1952. “Ibid., 12 September 1940. 269

University, Spurgeon Moore, music major at the University of Akron; Julia Perry, music major at Westminster Choir College; Mary Rate Uwre, music education at Columbia Uni- versity, James Carter, art major at Western Reserve Uni- versity, Normal Purnell, pre-law courses at Ohio State University, and Paula Sanders, psychiatric social work at the University of Hinnesota. mat black Akronites l$ft the city to pursue their education and/or to practice their profession. Only a fev atteded the University of Akron, for as Knepper has indicated:

Not until World War I1 brought a large Negro migration to Akron, and the G.I. Bill provided funds for schooling, did the campue have a substantial number of Negro students."

Black musicians In the field of music, the talents of a few black Akronites received national fame. Two who received such , recognition were Jessica Brazil and Julia Perry. Miss Brazil, a Negro soprano, began her musical career as a soloist, choir dzrector, and pianist at the munt Zion Baptist Church in Akron, Ohio. During her studies at the Cleveland Institute of Music under the direction of We. Nevada Van Der Veer, Miss Brazil had the

"Ibid., 22 June 1941; 31 Hay, 11 october 1942; 6 October 1946. 14 September 1947.

"Knepper, Nev Lamps, pp. 233-34. J70 honor of singing for ELarian Anderson--the famous Negro contralto--at a reception given in Miss Anderson's honor. '' National stardom was achieved when Miss Brazil appeared on Broadway in Carmen Jones." Singled out in preference to competitors from all over the world, she was chosen to star in the role of Frankie, the fortune teller. The talented soprcno also made recordings for Decca

Records and appeared with Deems Taylor and Ginny Shson an NBC Radio Hall of Fame broadcast." so outstanding was her performance in Carmen Jones that in 1973, Hiss Brazil was selected as a part of a wrld-wide survey and requested to send a resume, photographs of herself in the play, etc., to the University of Wichigan to become a part of a permanent .Collection of Black Artists. at the university. '' Julia Perry, a Negro composer. gained her love of music from her two older sisters who were both talented musicians. She began her serious study of music in Akron during her high school years and began to excel in several

".Souvenir Program of the Youngstown Symphony Orchestra, Seventeenth Season, 1942-43, Third Progrm; Youngstown, Ohio, 10 December 1942. "Kyle chricton, .carmen Jones," colliers mgazine, 15 January 1944, p. 15. "The Akron Buchtelite, 17 October 1950. "ma Jessye to Jessica Woods, Ann Arbor, 2 January 1973, Personal Files of Jessica Woods, Akron, Ohio. 271 competitions. Early in high school, she won a superior rating in violin and voice in a regional contest held at Water College in Ohio. By her senior year, she had wn a scholarship to Cleveland Institute of nusic, but declined the honor and attended the University of Akron for one year. Hiss Perry studied at the westminster Choir College in Princeton, New Jersey, toured with the choir, and sang frequently in New York's Carnegie Hall. Her first composition, a spiritual entitled .Lord, What Shall I m?. vas planned to be featured by Nan Uerriman of the Uetropolitan Op-eZa Company and the Negro soprano, Ellabelle Davis, in their concert appearances. 'I

Black persons in government

In the political field minimal changes had occurred as only a few more blacks were given opportunities to fill governmental positions. One who advanced politically was Emmer Lancaster, who left Akron in 1940 to accept an important federal government position as Advisor on Negro

Affairs to the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Com- merce.

At the local level a few more Negro patrolmen were hired during the 1940s. namely, Callie McCombs, James

Craig, Nathan Martin, Archie Bullock, and Joe Thomas.

"Christian science Monitor, 4 August 1949. _-

171

As one of Summit County's deputy sheriffs, mos Poorman received training in the FBI's fingerprinting school and became an expert in the field. He has been credited with the development of Summit County's finger- print department. In 1944 he became head of the Bureau of Identification for the Summit County Sheriff's Office, directing that department until his retirement."

An Akron Informer article said of his expertise: . . . Forman is in complete charge of this department and is a recognized authority in the science of dactyloscopy and has a rating of a captain in the criminal division.b' Perhaps one of the most Lnportant political appint- mente of a Negro to a position at the local level of government occurred in 1947 when Atty. Luther R. Johnson, Jr. became the first Negro assistant law director. Johnson had been active in the community for a number of years serving in positions of leadership civicly, politically, and in the local unions. A testmonial banquet was given to honor hm on 27 January 1948. Testimonials included those of Roy E. Browne, Akron's law director: Atty. Alexander Russell, the regional director of the National Bar Assoclation: presentation of token by George Milliron, president of Goodyear

"Cleveland Call and Post, 7 July 1956, 21 Septem- ber 1946. "Akron Informer, 16 October 1948 173

Loca11 and GeOrg- R. Bass, president of Goodrich mal No. 5, URW-CIO. W. 0. Walker, editor of the Cleveland Call and Post, presented the address."

Akron's first black nurse AlthDugh racial discrimination existed in the city's hospitals and black and white patients were not permitted to share the same rooms, a major breakthrough toward the gradual elimination of the hospitals' discrlmi- natory policies occurred in the mid-1940s when Hartha Averett became the first Negro nurse to wrk in any of Akron's hospitals. She joined the staff of Akron city Bospital in 1946, being promoted to a position of a super- vising nurse--in charge of an entire floor--nearly ten years later."

The stamina and aspirations that MIS. Averett possessed as she grew up in the ghettos of Washington, D.C.; the determination she demonstrated as she worked to acquire an education, and the competence that she exhibit& when she became the first Negro nurse in an Akron hospital vere only a part of the attributes of her character. Since becoming an invalid in 1959, she has continued to improve conditions for Akron's citizens and in 1974, she

''wSouvenir Program of the Testmonial Banquet Bonoring Luther R. Johnson,' Akron, Ohio, 1948. "Akron Beacon Journal, 29 may 1966, p. 83. 17 4 received the governor's Comunity Action Award."

Other interests and pursuits

Tho versatility of Akron's black population and the breadth of their interests has been reflected in many ways, i.e., through culture, athletics, politics, education, religion, etc. However, three of Akron's Negro residents-Margaret McClain, Herman Poole, and Opie Evans- have pursued interests that have brought them hours of pleasure and gratification and have smultaneouely contributed to the knowledge of others. Early in the 1940s Margaret McClain took an interest in genealogy and began to trace her lineage while avaiting the arrival of her firstborn." She had known a part of her heritage for a number of years and had taken particular pride in that heritage. Her great grandfather, Peter Bruner, had been a former slave, and he later served in the Civil War. Bruner, who could neither read nor write anything except his name, dictated the story of his life as a slave to his fourteen-year-old daughter, Carrie, Krs. McClain's grandmother, and his adventures were later printed in a

"The (Akron) Reporter, 19 October - 26 October 1974.

"A copy of the genealogy of Margaret McClain's family appears in appendix 5. ai5 book in 1938." In the introduction of his book, which Bruner dedicated to his children and grandchildren, he stated. In this book I have given the actual experiences of my own life. I thought in putting it in this form it might be of some inspiration to struggling men and wmen. In this great, free land of ours, every person, no matter how humble or great seems the handicap, by industry and savings, can reach a position of independence, and be of service to mankind."

In the fall of 1941 Herman Poole, a brilliant Uegro inventor, utilized his spare time for a period of three mnthr to build a motorized scooter which he called a .frictiomatic' vehicle. Poole, employed in the janitor service of General Tire and Rubber Company, developed the mtorbike from an assortment of odd parts which included the following: a frame from a water pipe, a motor from a twenty-year-old motor: a gas tank from a portion of an auto air horn: fenders from a 1936 spare tire cover: the clutch throw-out from an auto, and an exhaust pipe from the handle of an old sweeper. The mechanics of the scooter were also very unique. The clutch and brake vorked on the same drum (clutch on the inside and brake on the outside) : pressure on the foot pedal automatically released the clutch and applied the

"Interview with Margaret McClain, 1161 Smithfarm Avenue, Akron, Ohio, 29 December 1974.

"Peter Bruner, A Slave's Adventures Toward Freedom (Oxford: n.p., 1938). 176

brakes! and the vehicle had no transmission. The machine could travel twenty-five miles per hour and ran one

hundred miles to a gallon of gas." Poole called his motorbike "Herpo.--taken from the

combination of the first part of his first and last names.

An article about his vehicle also appeared in an issue of General-ly Speakinq which was circulated to England and

south America." Opie Evans, who has been the first member of his

race to pioneer many ventures in Akron, became the first Negro projectionist in the city when he was named as projectionist for the Ritr Theater." One year prior Evans I I had filmed the first news televised from Akron, a $250,000 fire in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio. His pictures were used as a headline on the 8 00 P.H news broadcast at the WEWS television station in Cleveland, Ohi0.l' Evans also was the first Negro to read commercials

on an Akron radio station. In the mid-1940s. a program

broadcast on radio station WJH featured a black gospel quartet. Evans was the master of ceremonies and read the announcements and commercial advertisements for the

"*on Beacon Journal, 16 November 1941, p. ~10. 5'Interview with Herman Poole, 1345 Chippewa Avenue, Akron, Ohio, 10 March 1975

I'Akron Informer, 16 April 1949.

"Pittsburgh Courier, 21 February 1948. a77 program. "

Accomplishments within families

Other irdividual attainments occurred within families in the 1940s. Members of the More family were anbarking on noteworthy careers or individual pursuits and members of the Robinson family made history in the city's Spelling Bees. In 1942 Urs. Bertha more founded a Democratic political organization, the Tea Time Study Club, in order to assist Negroes to grow politically, to get Negroes elected to governmental offices, and to make blacks more conscious of the city's government. The name of the organization has an interesting background. Urs. more, an ardent civic worker, reflected one day upon the plight of black Americans having no representation in their local government, and she paral- leled their circumstances with those of the Americans prior to the Revolutionary War. She recalled that the Boston Tea Party had aroused the English and made them aware of the gravity of the American's sentiments. She felt that Negroes too needed to .dump some tea: she also believed that it was important to study the conditions that would effect Negroes lives if certain politicians

I* Interview with Opie Evans, Akron, Ohio, 24 March 1975. 178

were elected. Therefore, she named the organization,

which she founded, The Tea Time Study Club.”

Some of the early members of the organization were8 Clara Cornell, America L. Perry, mttie Chapman, Annie Easley, and Alice Johnston.

Nthough plrs bore was active in civic and political affairs she,with her husband, Dalmaa, had reared three children and provided them with musical backgrounds. Their eldest child, Spurgeon, had graduated from Central

nigh School and was enrolled at the University of Akron, majoring in music early in the 1940s. He vas also very active in community affairs, participatlng in Negro

Eistory Week activities and directing the thirty-five voice junior choir of Second Baptist Church.” Moore enlisted in the army in 1943 and completed his military cazeer in 1966, being discharged with the rank of Lieutenant colonel. Their daughter, Mary Kate more, graduated from Central High School and the University of Akron, serving as accompanist for the choral group and orchestra at the latter institution.” She enrolled at Columbla University to pursue graduate work in the field of music and

“Interview vith Bertha more, 327 Spicer Street, Akron, Ohio, 30 December 1974 ‘‘Akron Beacon Journal, 7 February 1943 ”Cleveland Call and Post, 29 September 1945. 17 9

subsequently was a featured artist with the Langaton Uni-

versity A Cappella Choir at Langston, Oklahom, where she taught for five years."'

Kermit Moore, youngest son of lk. and lks. Dalmas more, was a brilliant cellist early in his life. At age fifteen, he was first cellist for the University of Akron, and he had yon a full course schoiarship to the Cleveland Institute of Music when only eighteen years old. In 1947, a John Aancock Scholarship enabled him to advance his -. study at Tanglewood under Dr. Serge Koussevitsky, the great cellist and conductor. An award from the Boston Symphony Orchestra provided him the opportunity to study an additional year at Tanglewood." The members of the Robinson family who made history in the Akron area Spelling Bees were three sisters--Faith, shirla, and Sheila-daughters of Hr. and Mrs. Dumas Robinson. Representing Seiberling School, Faith Robinson, a thirteen-year-old eighth grader, became the second Negro

to win an Akron area Spelling Bee when she won the WAKR spelling title in 1947.'' Although she received a trip to

""more in concert," university of Akron, Akron, Ohio, 31 July 1955. "Dick Campbell Concerts, "Kermit Moore, Cellist,. New York, n.d. 'pAkron Beacon Journal, 20 April 1947, p. Al. Washington, the winner of that contest did not participate in the National Spelling Bee. The little champion had participated in the Beacon Journal Spelling Bee the year prior and had won the hearts of the audience. An account of the 1946 Spelling Bee noted: She was hardly tall enough to reach the microphone and had to stand on her tiptoes. When she went down on the ward panacea, audible sighs of regret were heard throughout the auditorium."

Almost a week after Faith had won the WAKR spelling crown, all three Robinson sisters were among the thirty- four youngsters in the Beacon Journal Spelling Bee. According to a 1947 news article: For the first time in the 20-year history of the bee, three sisters were finalists. Faith Robinson and her twin sisters, Sheila and Shirla, of Seiberling School were enthusiastically acclalmed by the audience." One year after Faith's victory, Sheila and Shirla appeared on the Akron Armory's stage in the twenty-first

Beacon Journal spelldown. Of the thirty-seven participants, Shirla placed second and her twin sister, Sheila, finished tenth."

"Ibid., 1 Hay 1946.

"Ibid., 26 April 1947.

'81bid., 10 April 1948. A Decade of Change 1950-1959 Background Information Early in the 1950s patterns of overt discrimination -re evident in housing, employment, medical services, and

public accommodations. Although the Negro population had I increased nearly 100 percent from 1940 to 1950 (26,510 in 1950). available rental properties were minimal. The pro- hibitive factors of stiff credit restrictions and limited listings Lnposed barriers which prevented blacks from buying in particular areas of the city. Opportunities for mproved employment status were just beginning to be extended, and only then under pressure from black organizations and well-intended, determined white citizens. With the exception of the local telephone company, there were no opportunities for Negroes in utility companies, trucking firms, or mass transportation. One cab company hired Negro drivers. In the rubber industries, blacks had not yet attained white collar Jobs, but they were beginning to be elevated to a few positions other than ~anitorialand menial jobs. Institutions for banking and finances, as well as real estate and insurance cornpanles, did not employ blacks in any capacities other than custodial laborers. In terms of educational, cultural, and municipal government, the racial hiring practices varied. Black . 282 teachers constituted approximately 1 percent of the educators in the public school system, the public library exercised a policy of hiring regardless of race, and radio stations practiced merit employment. (They also provided time for discussion of race relations.) The majority of the city's governmental departments did not wpl_oy Negroes, and only seven of the city's 257 policemen were black. No Negro nurses were hired as public health nurses. Other indicants of discriminatory policies were the fact that all hotels except one discouraged Negro patronage, and tw of the city's seven cemeteries refused Negro burials. ' '

Black Progress Organizational efforts to effect changes on 1 nay 1950 the ACSC began its operations in a new facility at 250 East Market Street (current site of the agency). The new building, designed to serve the community through more extensive programs, housed a larger staff as well. Diverse departments met the various needs of the Negro community, and throughout the decade, particular emphasis was placed upon increasing employment opportunities for blacks.

"Ibid., 8 November 1952. In order to realize changes in hiring practices, the ACSC, through its Industrial Relations Department, surveyed and studied problems: educated leaders who were in palicy-making positions of business, industry, and government: and enlisted the cooperation and support of the local schools. By 1951 the ACSC had identified three specific economic problems which the Negro community encountered. 1) inadequate ]ob opportunities for women above the domestic service level; 2) lack of opportunities for apprenticeship training in the skilled craft trades: and 3) insufficient white collar and office positions for young ~egromen and -men." Massive educational programs through negotiations, institutes, and workshops, were conducted throughout the

1950s. The annual reports of the ACSC revealed the following procedures were implemented by the agency's Industrial Relations Department in order to obtain lobs." In 1951 a committee worked to establish the

"Akron community Service Center, "Annual Report: For the Record,. Akron, Ohio, 1951. "see Akron Community Service center "Annual Report POI the Record," 1951: "Annual Report. In the Center of Progress,. 1952; .Annual Report: Pulling Together," 1953, .Annual Report, Thirty Years of Inter-racial Progress in Akron,' 1954: .Annual Report," 1955, "Annual Report. Open to All; 1956, .Annual Report. The Future IS . . . ,. 1957. .Annual Report strengthening the Family for Opportuni- ties,' 1958, Akron, Ohio. opportunity for Negro medical graduates to intern at the local hospitals. In the fall of that same year, the agency sponsored an Industrial Relations Institute which

=de possible for the first time in the history of this Community, for management representatives to get together in a series of meetings designed specifically for probing factors perpetuating racial barriers in employment." Three years later the ACSC vas involved with negotiations to open the way for Negro employment in public transportation; distributed vocational handbooks to churches and schools; and presented occupational displays at the agency and in the Akron Public Library. A special guidance service for high ability boys has instituted in 1955. Recognition of the need for vocational preparation led to the formation of the Junior Frontiers Club--a career club project for junior high school toys. The club was created through the cooperative efforts of the ACSC / and Akron Frontiers Club. By 1957 the rgency began a deliberate talent search among high school students to give them special vocational counseling. Eighty-three field visits to inform school administrators and counselors of the rapidly increasing opportunities for black Americans reflected the ACSC's concern and efforts to help black youth.

''~kron community Service center, 'For the Record,. 1951. During the next two years the agency continued its institutes and wrkshops, formed a Tomorrow's Scientists and Technicians Project for senior high school boys and girls, and prepared a series of pictorial briefs on Akron's Negroes whose Buccess in diverse occupations was little known. The brochure, entitled They Prepared, was officially presented to the Akron Public Schools in 1958 by the ACSC's president of the board, Dr. H. E. Parris. At a time when negotiations were frequently and consistently met by outright refusals ard recalcitrance, the agency's accomplishments were major breakthroughs. By 1951 Negro nurses were accepted as trainees in one of Akron's hospitals, two black graduate nurses were working in that hospital, and Negroes were employed as telephone operators atI the local telephone company. Through the assistance of the Akron Frontiers Club and the Dnployment Service, the ACSC was able to set the stage for the employment of tw maintenance electricians at a rubber factory. They were the first Negroes to be hired by that firm in ten years.

A major victory occurred when Negro sales clerks were hired in the department stores after three years of effort by an interracial committee headed by Dr. Noble S. Elderkin, retired minister of First Congregational Church. In the next three years more advancements were made as Negroes were employed as clerks in retail groceries, .. 286 \ variety stores and offices. For the first time rubber industries hired and started to train Negroes for mana- gerial and technical employment, and a black research chemist worked with one of Akron's rubber firms. All of the local hospitals had accepted Negro nurses and nurse trainees: a large store and two hospitals hired Negr- pharmacists: and two major department stores employed four permanent sales clerks. prom the mid-1950s to the close of the decade, other occupational advancements for Negroes included: the opening of stenotype training to blacks; the employment of a Negro as a toll collector (by the Turnpike Commission): the hiring of a receptionist (at a major rubber company)^ the employment of a meat inspector (for the city of Akron); the placement of a typist and a stenographer (each employed as the first Negro in a business office). In 1956 the Akron Transportation Company employed the first Negro bus driver, and by 1957 two other utility companies hired Negroes above the level of porter or laborer. Four Negro women were clerks at the Ohio Edison

Co., and Negro men worked on construction and repairs for the East Ohio Gas Company. In addition, two of the major rubber manufacturers employed their first Negro secretaries. The ACSC had worked diligently to revolutionize the thinking of Akron area employers and to meet the challenge . of Dr. Eli Ginzberg's message. For the Negro population to be able to compete on an equal basis for professional, scientific, mana- gerial, skilled, and other desirable lobs will require a revolution in all levels of Negro education, and beyond this, in the values and aspirations, the living conditione, and the community environments of large groups in the Negro population. ~llof this in turn depends in large part on opportunities of Negroes to earn larger incomes." The leadership provided by Raymond R. Brown, executive director of the ACSC, and his competent staff encouraged Negroes to aspire to higher levels and fostered improved race relations. Brown also served the community in other capacities during the 1950s. He was president of the Adult Education Council and a board member of the Akron Public Library. In 1957 Brown became the first Negro to be Mmed to the library's board." One other concern of the ACSC involved adequate

housing. In 1951 the ACSC's annual report stated that a .positive factor in race relations in Akron has been the integrated neighborhood found throughout the city, thus making for better understanding on both the adult and youth levels."o Five short years later the agency's

Annual report noted that many of Akron's Negroes had moved

"Eli Gintberg, The Negro Potential, quoted in Akron Community Service Center, "The Future Is . . . ,. 1957.

"Cleveland Call and Post, 23 November 1957. "Akron Community Service Center, "For the Record," 1951. 188

to the southwest section of the city and that the majority wore buying homes built in the 1920s and 1930s." Perhaps some of the integrated housing patterns evident in the early 19508 were due i? part to the NAACP's fight against discrimination in housing during the prior decade. In the 1950s the NAACP investigated segregation in semi-private accommodations in local hospitals and bigotry in other areas, but needing finances to maintain and enlarge its operations, the organization directed some of its efforts toward the creation of fund raising activities. During the years from 1950 to 1959, the association

had several presidents, namely, Rev. U. S. nunnerlyn,

Atty. Samuel Dashiell, We. Esther Spruill (the first yoman to be president), Rev. William C. Upshaw, Dr. Hil-

fred 8. Bozeman, Jr., and Willis shaw. Rev. Eh. Ilunnerlyn's tenure witnessed the formation of tvm important fund raising committees--the freedom fund committee and the life membership committee. During Mrs. Spruill's term of office she directed untiring efforts

toward terminating alleged segregation in schools, police brutality, and segregated swming pools. The organira- tion also acquired its first office at 224 West Warket Street under Hrs. Spruill's leadership.

"~kron cornunity service center, .Open to AIL,* 1956. 189

The first freedom fund dinner was held during Rev. Hr. Opshaw's presidency. The occasion came to be an annual event and the major fund raising project of the local branch. The inception of a third fund raising program, fashion fairs--which brought celebrated models to Akron-- occurred during Dr. Wilfred B. Bozeman, Jr.'s tenure. The famous model, Marguerite Bellafonte, came to Akron to present a fashion show while Willis Shaw presided over the organization." In terms of fighting racial prejudice, both Bozeman and Shaw directed their attention to alleged segregation in the schools." The black political organizations, active in the 1940s. persisted in their attempts to gain more representation in local government through employment of Negroes and appointment of blacks to decisron-making positions. Two Democratic organizations, the Tea Time Study Club and the Tiretom Democrats, were instrumental in the placement of Negroes in supervisory and clerical positions in governmental offices and as meter readers in the Municipal

Water Department. A Republican organization, the Women's

Progressive Club, was also effective in obtaining jobs for mmen, generally as clerical workers in governmental

"Interview with Mary Holmes, 4 January 1975. "NAACP, .Freedom Fund Program; 1974. 190 positions. Blacks were becoming increasingly aware of political pover; were working in the booths during elections: and were succeeding in having black candidates elected or appointed to office. In 1954 Atty. Rufus Thompson became the assistant law director. Three years later Edward - Davis set a precedent when he was the first Negro to be elected to Akron's city council. ne began serving as thM ward councilman in January 1958. Davis became president of city council in January 1970 and currently serves in that capacity. , Akron's black churches Apon's Negro churches continued to grow both in members and in the number of new churches. Some were integrated churches, but most were totally or predominantly black. Typically, the black churches expanded the scope of their activities to include: total family programs, building improvements, fund raising projects, and civic pursuits. New organizations within the church were formed to foster fellowship or to unprove efficiency in the administrative operations of the church. Two ministers who provided leadership both to their churches and the black community arrived in Akron during the 1950s. Rev. William C. Upshaw accepted the call to pastor Antioch Baptist Church on 3 December 1950, after 191 the death of the former pastor, Rev. Mr. Bluntt, and Rev. Eugene E. Mrgan, Jr. came in 1953 to pastor Wesley Tanple ME %ion Church. One of Rev. Dr. Upshaw’s first jobs was to lay the cornerstone to hanor Rev. Mr. Bluntt as builder of the church. The latter pastor had died suddenly, three week’s prior to the churches’ completion. Rev. Dr. Opshaw worked right alongside of his congregation to complete the church building and to beautify it. Multiple building improvements were made and an abounding fellowship developed. The devoted pastor has served his congregation faithfully and has inspired them to attain higher heights. Be instituted a program of religious education to make his members better informed about the Baptist church and their

Christian responsibilities.”

At Wesley Temple AME Church, Rev. Dr. Uorgan provided the type of leadership which met the needs of his total congregation. By the close of the decade he had developed programs to serve the youth, instituted the Cathedral Choir for young adults--primarily young married couples, and formulated plans for a Christian Education Building.” In 1951 St. Philips Episcopal Church--the only

“gPrograrn of Antaoch Baptist,. 1962. “Wesley Temple ‘One Hundredth Anniversary Brochure.’ 192

Negro Episcopal church in Akron--vas founded. It vas

begun as a mission in 1924 by Bishop Keeler in response to the need among aome of AJuon's Negro population. For several years the congregation met at St. Paul's Episcopal Church on East Mrket Street. The onset of the depression Caused the church to become moribund, for it lacked funds and leadership. Some twenty years later, a mall group of people petitioned Bishop Tucker for the reorganization of the miesion. On 27 June 1951 at a formal meeting at St. Paul's Episcopal Church, St. Philip's was reorganlzed. The Rev. Irving Myson came to Akron to serve as priest of the church and services were held at the ACSC. Eighteen people convened to worship at the first service of the mission." mong the original members of the church vere Dr. and Mrs. John W. Dunbar (Hr6. Dunbar vas instrumental in having the church reorganized), Susie Mcbeth, Carolyn Lancaster, Leah Lancaster, PLarcella Robinson, Hr. and Mrs. Earl Bruce Tate. Sr., E. Bruce Tate, Jr., Mr. and Hrs. Oeville Campbell, Walter Campbell, Charles Campbell, Hr. and We. Ernest DeSett, and Mr. and Mrs. Clayton DeSett." By the late 1950s a building had been erected at

"-Canterbury Player's Souvenir Program of The Man who Came to Dinner," Akron, Ohio, 1959 7'Intervievs with Elinor Dunbar, Carolyn Lancaster, and Mrcella Robinson, Akron, Ohio, 29 March 1975. - 193

1130 Mercer Avenue and the congregation worshipped in its new edifice. One of the organizations within the church, the Canterbury Players, evolved during the mid-1950s. It was a dramatics club which developed from an idea of Mrs. Earl Tate, Jr. and operated under the sponsorship of the Woman's Auxiliary of the church. Hembership included both menhers and nonmembers of the church. The following persons comprised the Canter- bury Players in 1959: Pauline Berry, Sheila Berry, Habel Brom, Ronald Bland, Nancy Clark, Jane Craig, Mr. and Mrs. Earl Driskill, Earry Holcomb, Halissa Hurt, Chauncey Jeffries, Leah Lancaster, Edward Lander, Ellie Lewis, Mr. and Mrs. Henry McClain, Charles McDonald, Rev. and Mrs. Irving Wayson, Rruna Jean Nutter, George Shadie, Mr. and Mrs. Eaynes Robinson, Mr. and Mrs. E. Bruce Tate, Jr., Joe Tarewell, LaRue Thomas, Fred Wilson, and Aubrey Willacy.

Individual Accomplishments

As Negroes persevered in their struggle against racial discrimination, they overcame many obstacles through the help of organizations, churches, and the strength of their families. HDreover, there were a few whose own inner strengths and determination demanded recognition an3 nerved as an inspiration to others. This segment of the study wlll investigate those 294 f black Americans in Akron who made life a little richer during the 1950s.

Biographical sketches The individual accomplishments of Akron's Negroes were beginning to be acknowledged in the local newspaper's .Biography in Brief' as early as the 1950s. Fmong those persons who were selected for that weekly feature were Negroes engaged in civic work, union employees, lawyers, ministers, Bocial workers, and businessmen.

One of the earliest biographical sketches was that of Mercer F. Bratcher, an active community and civic leader. During that time, Bratcher was employed at the Ohio State Employment Service as the agency's employment specialist in charge of minority group services. He was lauded for his quiet professional approaches to combatting interracial pre]udices--at wrk or in the community." In 1957 Bratcher won the annual Brotherhod Award sponsored by the Akron Area council of Churches and related groups. An account of that event stated Nearly four hundred guests witnessed the citation bestowed upon Bratcher for his contribution to inter- cultural, inter-racial, and inter-religious brotherhood in Akron during 1956 and throughout his life."

During the nut three years, three Negroes were

'*Akron Beacon Journal, Hay 1951, p. B3. "Ohio Informer, 16 February 1957 recognized for their wrk with the unions and as leaders in the black comunity. William E. Fowler's biographical sketch praised his Mrk with the UAW as an international representative and later as subregional director. detailed his civic work; and noted his musical tJackgrouFd* a At the the that James E. Turner's biography was written. he was in charge of the URW'S Fair' practice Department. The newspaper commended his ability to negotiate through diplomacy and the utilization of his sense of humor. His active memberships in many civic and community organizations reflected his serious concern to improve friendship and understanding among Akron's citizens." woodie Calvin's biography. like Fowler's and Turner*s. described the civic work with which he was involved and praised his bargaining powers-whether as a union burker. in civic enterprises. or eliminating racial barriers." Atty. Samuel T. Kelly's brographical sketch appeared in the newspaper in 1950. He was known as a fighter for ClVil rights since his arrival in Akron in

1920. As president of the NAACP he combatted the Ku KlUX

'*Akron Beacon Journal. 13 January 1952. p. 83 "Ibid.. 8 February 1953, p 83. "Ibid.. 4 July 1954. p. D3 296

Klan, and later he focused on the elimination of racial discrimimtion-in public housing.” The Samuel T. Kelly award, in his honor, is presented annually by the NAACP to the person who has contributed unselfishly to the promtion of civil rights. Another attorney, J. Franklin Spruill, was recognized for his capability as a lawyer. Spruill, known throughout the black community and the courtrooms for his extensive vocabularyi his perpetual sense of humorr his booming voice: and his keen mind, was described as an attorney who always managed to retain his composure and grin when others were shouting furiously. The hardships he endured to obtain an education: his football abilities: and his memberships in diverse organizations were also noted. I’ An account of the life of Atty. Rufus L. Thompson related data regarding his religious, educational, and anployment background and cited a particular military experience that reflected his sympathetic concern for others. Thompson was assistant law director, a dedicated church mrker, and a member of many community organi- aations. ’

“Ibid., 24 December 1950, p. 83. “Ibid., 28 February 1954, p. D3. “Ibid., 26 September 1954, p. F3. 197

The biographical sketch of Rev. U. S. Hunnerlyn, a past president of the NAACP, detailed the obstacles which the minister encountered during his early childhood and as a young teenager working to support his mother and four younger brothers ani sisters. His ministerial vork and his leadership to Akron's black community were lauded. The sketch noted that Munnerlyn considered his highest honor that of being asked to present the baccalaufeate address at Garfield High School in 1948. His addreas was entitled .The Art of Successful Living.." Earl Bruce Tate, Sr. came to Akron 15 October 1945

as the executive director of the Glendale Branch of the m. The Glendale Branch, organized primarily for Negro youth, became a vital program under Tate's guidance. His biographical sketch extolled his leadership capabilities after ten years of Ymwrk in Akron and a total of tventy-five years with the YMCA program. A testimonial dinner, organized by the Glendale Branch,was given in his honor in the fall of 1954." The versatility of one of Akron's Xegro businessmen,

Opie Evans, was reported in the local newspaper in 1956. The biographical account reported the various enterprises

in which Evans had engaged in the past and those in which

*%bid., 29 March 1953, p D3. "Ibid., 8 May 1955, p. D3. he was then involved. Curing the 1950s Evans ran a sound equipnent business; conducted a weekly broadcast over radio station WKR; and built and bought homes for rental property to provide decent housing for mwbers of his race. Some of his past ventures included- publication of a Negro yearbook and a weekly Negro paper, The Akron Vindicator; a door-todoor salesman; a printing business, janitor at

Pkestone Tire and Rubber Co.; head of the motion picture department of that same firm; and a huckster with a mobile concession stand. * *

Varied accomplishments The 1950s witnessed several other individuals receiving honors, recognition, or making advancements in their given occupations. All have enriched the lives of Akronites and have been a credit to the black race. In the field of music Julia Perry and Kermit Moore had become internationally famous for their talents. Hiss Perry, a recognized Negro musician and composer, had performed her composition, Stabat Mater, in October 1951 at Central High School in Akron, and some months later presented a recital of her compositions in Europe. She sang the soprano part in Stabat Mater and received the follov- inq-commendation from one critic

"Ibid., 13 my 1956, p. D3. Not since the war has any serious American work received so enthusiastic a reception in Italy Hiss Perry has a great gift for the setting of words to music and a delicate sense of the meaning of the Latin text."

KmitMoore, a young cellist, was gaining fame abroad as he traveled throughout Europe performing in concert and lecturing on merican universities and on all aspects of American folk music.

-re, a baritone, discovered that audiences abroad loved Negro epirituals and he sang several spirituals after devoting the first prt of his recitals to cello works of noted classical cOmp0sers--Beethoven, Brahms, etc. The talented musician performed before Belgium's dowager Queen Elizabeth at her chateau at laeken near Brussels. By the late 1950s Moore had also played on several radio and television programs in Europe and at the

World's Pair in Brussels."

A third noted black in the field of music during the 1950s vas Jesse Owens, a baritone, who was acclauned by audiences at bandmaster Horace Heidt's Youth Opportu- nity broadcasts. One week after graduation from high school, Owens' rendition of "Glory Road. drew a thunderous ovation from an audience of 8.800 and captured first prize--$250--in Heidt's contest early in 1950."

"Ibid., 6 July 1952, p. A16. "Ibid., 8 September 1958.

"Cleveland plain Dealer, 30 January 1950. 300

Owens took top honors in Milwaukee on Heidt's broadcast and qualified for the finals later that year. Be had risen to national fame in a little over two months." He later traveled with the Heidt troupe over- seas and became a recording star. Owens had worked his way through East High School a8 a shoe shine hy and graduated with bnors. He studied Voice for three years under Miss Nora McGonnell and frequently practiced in a cold garage." In the field of education, a bright pupil distinguished himself, and tw black public school educators made major advancements. Early in the 1950s a young black student became a champion at Crosby School. As a member of a team which represented their school in the WAKR- Akron Beacon Journal Quizdown contest, Dale Perry and his teammates challenged King School competitors. Although Perry's team lost, he was the individual winner who accumulated the most points and was awarded a radio."

In 1956, George C. Miller became the first black counselor in the public school system when he accepted a counseling position at Thornton Junior Nigh School One

"Akron Informer, 24 March 1950. "Cleveland Plain Dealer, 30 January 1950. "Interview with Dale Perry, St. Paul, Minnesota, 11 March 1975.

"Interview with George C. Miller, Akron, Ohio, 15 February 1975. 3 01

year later, Martin 0. Chapman became Akron's first black administrator in the public schools when he was appointed as assistant principal of Thornton Junior High School ." Other changes were starting to take place in other fields. By the mid-1950s Laurita Sharpp, a black librarian, had advanced to the position of head librarian at Wooster Branch of the Akron Public Library. She was the first Negro in the city to hold that position. Mrs. Sharpp joined the public school staff am a librarian at Thornton Junior High School in 1957. Her appointment marked the first time that a black Akronite had held that post." Herman Poole, the Negro inventor who had built a rotorbike in his spare time during the 19408, continued to pursue his mechanical interests and invented a three- wheeled car in the mid-1950s. The automobile was unique in several aspects: 1) it was the only three-wheeled car in the state: 2) having only three wheels--two jn front

and a chain-driven power rear wheel--the "Pooley. was registered in the motorcycle class, at a cost of five

dollars; and 3) the car was amphibious. Although the wtor vehicle department issued Pwle five dollar license plates, they later requested that they be returned. Poole

*'Akron Beacon Journal, 29 July 1962, p. E3. *'Interview with Dr. and Mrs. Eldridge Sharpp, Akron, Ohio, 28 March 1975. 302

refused, wrote to ColUmpus, and wn his case. The car was able to run 50 mph on land; its engine had twenty-seven horsepower, and it covered three hundred miles on six gallons of gasoline. Poole singlehandedly did all of the designing and construction of the car including the shaping of all of the metal for the original body. It took him five years to build the car, wrking in the shop behind his home at 1355 Eonodle Avenue." Eie rather recent inventions include a heat retriever and a .lady-baiter.--the latter is a gadget that allows a person to bait a hook without touching the ~nn." EOMrs were bestowed upon tm outstanding Negroes in the Akron community early in 1957--Edward C. Lander and Atty. William Andrew Jackson.

Lander was chosen from twenty-six candidates to become Akron's first "Cornunity Ambassador' in a program

sponsored by the Akron Area Adult Education Council. He attended the Akron Public Schools before receiving a scholarship to Western Reserve Academy,1oo and in 1954 he became the first Negro to graduate from that institution."'

"Akron Beacon Journal, 2 January 1955. ''Interview with Hemn Poole, 10 March 1975. "'Akron Beacon Journal, 7 April 1957, p. A17. '"Interview with Norma Spencer, Akron, Ohio, 4 February 1975. 303

He spent tYo years at the University of Chicago on a scholarship before transferring to the University of Akron where he was enrolled at the time when he was selected.

As community ambassador, Lander spent ten weeks in Germany, living with a Gemn family. Before he departed from the United States he was trained in Akron history, economics, and culture so that he could better explain his bmetown. In one segment of his application Lander explained why he wished to become a community ambassador: The problem of futile wars between nations . . . stems from the .vars" between indivlduals. Thus the problem became why do negative attitudes, dislikes and hatreds exist among individuals? My answer to that question is, basically, lack of a desire on the part of most of us to understand and appreciate our fellow man. More comprehensively, nations must learn to love one another not for siml- larity of culture . . . but for differences."' Atty. William Andrew Jackson vas honored in 1957 when he received second honors and a fifty dollar prize

in the Akron Bar Association's Annual Grant Urnrial Legal

Essay Contest. His prize-winning essay, 'The Legal Effi- cacy of Interposition and Nullification,' was published in

the Ohio Bar, the publication of the Ohio Bar ASSOCia- tion.'O' Jackson wrote on the aspects of the Supreme

~~ ~ "'*on Beacon Journal, 7 April 1957, p. ~17.

'"Ibid., 1 February 1957; William A. Jackson, 'The Legal Efficacy of Interposition and Nullification," Ohio -Bar 37 (30 September 1957) 789-98. 304

Court's decision on desegregation and the efforts on the part of certain southern states to prevent its implementation."'

A second notewarthy honor occurred for him vhen in 1959 he set a precedent by being the flrst Negro to be elected as county commander at the Summit County Conven- tion of the American Legion. Jackson had been an active and devoted vorker in the American Legion, John Fulton Post No. 272 for several years. A news article regarding his new position stated that Jackson's election marked the first the in forty years that a Negro had held such a high position in Summit County veteran's circles.'0'

A graduate of Talledega College, he was later employed by the local Social Security office (and was known to many of his friends as .Social Security. Jackson). Be earned his law-degree from Cleveland-Mrshall Law School in 1953. As the decade closed another significant advancement for Negroes occurred when, in 1959, Dr. Edgar A. Toppin joined the college staff at the University of Akron as its first Negro faculty member hired on a full-tune basis. In his history of the University of AkroqKnepper described Toppin, an Assistant Professor of History, as an

"'Ohio Informer, 16 February 1957. "'Ibid., 30 My 1959. 305 extraordinarily talented and resourceful scholar, a great favorite, and one who made an outstanding contribution to the campus during the four years that he stayed in

Akron. I 'I

srumnarl

An the 1940s began blacks continued to experience difficulty obtaining employment above the level of domestic mrk or common laborers regardless of their level of education. Diverse approaches to secure positions resulted in: 1) militant, affirmative action tactics, 2) pereua- sive strategies involving group conferences, wrkshops, interviews, research, and correspondence; 3) employment drives; ard 4) political action. In the black social environment, churches continued to serve as religious institutions and social outlets for Negroes, and black organizatlons remained supportive of black families in working toward motivating youth to aspire to higher levels of education. Ceremonies were held to welcome black newcomers. but returning Negro veterans still experienced that lack of freedom for which they had fought--on foreign soil--to preserve. A few advancements were made through cornunity and civic enterprises, particularly in the area of housing.

A slum clearance project resulted in the development of

"'Knepper, New Lamps, p. 367. the Elizabeth Park Homes, blacks continued to protest vice conditions in black communities throughout the city: and the NAACP led assaults on discramination in housing. The Council of Negro Women assumed a monumental task which resulted in the purchase of a home for black vorking vomen. Subsequently recreational programs were also held at the facility in order to combat juvenile delinquency among Negro youth. Individual gains were evidenced through the advancements in education and employment. Black students rere receiving financial assistance from the Knight scholarships to further their education. Akron's first black teacher was hired in 1940, and a black nurse was vorking in a local hospital by the mid-1940s. Minamal progress was made in positions in local and federal government, and Negroes were pursuing careers as musicians, composers, and-vocalists. The 1950s witnessed advancements in employment opportunities which were formerly unattainable. Each gain, though small, was significant. Blacks were able to secure very token employment above the level of menial and custodial work. For the first time in the city's history blacks became employed in white firms as: sales clerks, telephone operators, secretaries, receptionists, bus drivers, clerks, repairmen with public utilities companies, chemists, and maintenance electricians. ~

3 07

In organizational advancements: 1) the NAACP emharked on major fund raising programs in order to continue its vital work; 2) political clubs pressed for wployment in local government positions; and 3) black churches were structuring programs to develop internal strength, negroes vere featured increasingly in biographical llLetches and other articles in the local newspaper for +heir accomplisbents in the fields of law, civic work, industry, ministry, social work, business, and music. .

t CEAPTER VI

LOCAL RESPONSES TO NATIONAL ISSUES: 1960-1975

- A Depiction of America - The National Scene

A number of events precipitated the civil rights mvement of the 1960s as black persons continued their struggle for equality. The Supreme Court decision of 1954 Id to the desegregation of the nation's southern schools and resulted in improved educational preparation of

Negroes--and violent opposition by whites. The Montgomery bus boycott of 1955 attracted national attention and brought about a victory for southern Negroes--and antago- nim on the part of southern whites. .Tent City. in Pagetts County, Tennessee highlighted the plight of the nearly one hundred dispossessed black families of tenant farmers who attempted to register to vote in 1960. It elicited the aid of people throughout the nation--to the dissatisfaction of mast southern whites. The oppression of black Americans was broadcast wrldwide as nations watched the frustrations of Afro- Americans erupt into violence in the streets of the United States. At the inception of the civil rights movement, the

308 i

309

black protests were nonviolent, and a significant mile- stone in black history Was the participation of college students in the movemeni. BlaTk. students were joined by .I white students a8 both pressed for eqbality for black Americans.

The period was a tumultuous one both among and between members of both races. Many older blacks and whites resented the demonstrative tactics of the younger generation and the consequences brought blacks against blacks, blacks against whites, and whites against vhites. The tactics of the student movements were largely moderate and nonviolent, yet formidable and effective.

They included sit-ins; selective buying campaigns: kneel- ins; voter registration campaigns, freedom rides, marches; task forces to organize backwoods, rural, illiterate people; workshops on nonviolent procedures; filling the jails; and black separatism.

The intransigence of whites was evidenced by their strategies to defeat the nonviolent efforts of blacks as they used police dogs, high-powered water hoses, beatings, clubbings, and tear gas to halt black progress. The

nation watched the atrocities as the mass media exposed to all of the world the horrendous treatment of American Negroes. By 1963 the nation's black citizens and many of its upstanding, responsible white citizens joined together I 310

in the massive Harch on Washington in 1963. By the mid-1960s multiple national anti-poverty programs were begun to meet the problems of the pernons in the lower socioeconomic strata of American society, and steps were being taken to protect the rights of Negroes. Federally funded educational projects were implemented: pograms to elwate the employment levels of the poor were being initiated; urban renewal programs were launched on a larger scale, and civil rights legislation was enacted as the nation took measures to create equality for all. The measures were rather tardy however, for about that same time, riots--on the part of America's black and poor--replaced peaceful demonstrations. The abuse of southern blacks had drawn the empathy of northern blacks and .by 1969 more than four hundred disorders of varying I degrees of aeriousness had occurred:' The rebellions vere generally spontaneous and unorganized, directed more toward property damage--looting and burning--than toward criminal acts against persons. The concept of black power emerged 4s the black revolution caused the nation's Afro-American population to become more conscious of their heritage; to take pride in their past; and to unify for their common purposes.

'Johnson Publishinq Co.. eds , Ebnv Pictorial History of Black America, -vel.. 3. Civil Rights Movement to Black Revolution (Nashville. Southwestern Co., 1971), p. 69.

, 311

The 1970s. however, have borne witness to a dis- mantling of some of the programs designed to help the poor, and economic cutbacks have terminated the employment of many of those for whom the programs were originally designed to assist.

mcal Responses to the Civil Rights HOvement Black Akronites Protest The maltreatment of southern Negroes evoked the wrath and indignation of blacks in Akron, and their response was one of empathy and action. A number of Akronites participated in the !!arch on Washington in 1963, and in 1965 black and white citizens congregated at munt Olive Baptist Church on Coburn Street before marching in a nonviolent protest in sympathy with events at Selma, Nabam.

As nonviolence gave way to open rebellion, Akron experienced six days of civil disorder, commencing on

23 July 1968. A report on Akron's civil disturbances indicated that the disorder was unexpected by both blacks ad whites, and .a kind of 'it can't happen here' attitude was comn:' The report offered the following explana- tion for the reaction. Akron's black citizens, however, have suffered the mame discrimination and experienced the same

'Akron Commission on Civil Disorders, .Report on Civil Disorders,. p. 7. prejudicial atmosphere as that which has Characterized American cities in general. Conditions contributing to the impatience and resentment of the black people toward their treatment were not significantly worse in July 1968 . . . But the possibility for trouble was greater . . . although many failed to realize it.' As the violent unrest continued, National Guard troops were summoned, a state of emergency was declared and a curfew was imposed before the disturbance could be quelled.

An account of the incidents that took place during the six days of disorder stated that- . . . a number of businesses were firebcmbed, hundreds of persons were arrested, including many young people, and there were innumerable confrontations between blacks and law enforcement officers. The lifting of the curfew . . . was in doubt until the last minute but the decision to do so probably averted a major confrontation and more violence. The evening ended with a street dance and a release of pent-up emotions on all sides.' The local NAACP focused on varying issues protesting- police brutality, alleged de facto segregation, and discrimination in employment and housing. Through its endeavors eight black firemen were hired in 1973. During those stormy years strong and capable leadership was provided through the presidential terms of Mary Holmes, Atty. Edwin Parms, Helen Arnold, and William L. HcMillan.'

When James Turner, retired director of URW's Pair Prac- tices Department, took office early in 1975, he became

'Ibid. 'Ibid., p. 8. '.NAACP Freedom Fund; Akron, Ohio, 1974. 313 the first full-the president of the Akron branch of the NAACP. He had served the organization in various other capacities for nearly thirty years.'

Fighting Poverty in Akron The war against poverty attacked one of the major problems of Akron's black population. Since blacks constituted a large and disporportionate percentage of the lower economic class, they stood to benefit from programs which emanated from the anti-poverty efforts. A number of organizations came into existence and diverse programs were developed to provide poor blacks and whites with jobs and opportunities to elevate their socioeconomic conditions. Tvo of the prominent organizations which were designed to uplift the poor were the Community Action

Council (CAC) and the Hodel Cities organization. Brief background data on the organizations will be provided herein. As the national war on poverty got underway in 1964, myor Erickson assigned Atty. Arthur Snell, assistant law director, to attend sessions in Chicago and Wash- ington where discussions were being held on the qualifications for the federal anti-poverty programs. Acting in the capacity of an unpaid coordinator, Snell devoted countless

'Akron Beacon Journal, 18 December 1974, p. c1. hours toward developing and launching a local anti-poverty program. As a result of his able direction, Akron's CAC was organized, and Snell was partially responsible for the receipt of the council's first $750,000 federal grant.' Ea resigned his position as unpaid coordinator only after the program was firmly established and the appointment of a director was irminent.' The first director of CAC wan Lois C. Scherer who accepted the post early in 1965.' Assistant director, AIwitcher, was appointed a faweeks later." The We1 Cities programs were developed to assist residents in the .We1 Neighborhood.--a 1,909-acre site located in Southwest Akron having the following charac- teristics: 1) about 10 percent of the residents were unemployed, 2) nearly 40 percent of the homes were substandard: and 3) approximately 50 percent of the residents received public assistance. In 1969 eleven me1 Cities programs--which Followed federal guidelines established in the Model

Cities Act of 1966--were developed to rehabilitate and revitalize the area. On 28 May 1970, Akron's plans were

'Ibid., 10 July 1967. p. A2; 11 July 1967, p. A6.

'Ibid., 8 March 1965, p. B1.

'Ibid., 31 March 1965, p. P1.

"Ibid., 20 April 1965, p. B1 -.-. 315 approved and 3.4 million dollars were appropriated to finance the first thirteen months of operation.'l Prom its inception the We1 Cities organization consisted of tW) segments the We1 Neighborhood Com- mission--the citizen's participation organization: and the City Demonstration Agency (CDA)--the city's arm of the organization. Willie mens was appointed as director of the nodel Neighborhood Commission's staff, and CDA was headed by Frank Lamax 111. Dr. Eldridge Sharpp served as chairma_n of the Elode1 Neighborhood Commission." The Akron Community Service Center and Urban League (ACSCCUL)" had worked from its inception to improve conditions among Akron's black population. Between 1963 and 1964 the agency restructured its programs and departments in order to provide more services to the cornunity and effectively meet the new needs of the 1960s.

When the Mideastern Regional office of the National Urban League was established in 1964, Raymond Brown, executive director of the ACSCCUL, was promoted to regional

"Ibid., 11 August 1971, p. El. "Interview with Dr. Eldridge Sharpp, Akron, Ohio, 28 March 1975.

"On 23 June 1958 the name of the local Urban League was appended and the official name of the agency became the .Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc: Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc..%nnual RepOrt Strengthening the Family for New Opportunities: Akron, Ohio, 1958. 316 director. He had given years of guidance and direction to Akron's Urban League program and staff since 1945. Vernon Mom, who had been program director and subsequently the associate executive director of the ACSCCUL, became the agency's new executive director in 1964. Cdom, a graduate of Morehouse University, had attained a master's degree from Atlanta University's School of social Work and was a man well qualified to meet the challenges of the 1960s. Under Cdom's directorship the agency moved to close the gap between those who have had,and those who have not had, the opportunity to be equal in American society. By 1968 the agency, in compliance with the National Urban League's policy, had devoted itself to addressing the unanswered cries from the ghetto which found expression through looting, burning, and general civil disorder. Thus,the agency redirected its efforts to stress social change rather than social service. The shift in philosophy became known as the .New Thrust. which sought to .build the internal strength and power of the ghetto while simultaneously accelerating the process of, and push for, integration."' Testimony of the strong and competent leadership

"Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc., .Forty-fourth Annual Report New Thrust Toward New Opportunities," Akron, Ohio, 1969. ._ - 317 which Odom provided during the challenging 1960s occurred In 1968 when he was named .Social Worker of the Year” by the North Central Chapter of the National Association of Social Workers.” The war on poverty brought about the creation of educational, employment, and economic programs as well as programs to improve social living conditions. Most of the programs were federally funded, but others were provided through private contributions and were not specifically designated as anti-poverty programs.

Educational programs Historically education has been perceived as a vital and positive means of abating poverty and of uplift- ing the poor. Several of the educational programs which / developed’in an attempt to break the poverty cycle were funded through CAC or Model Cities and were conducted in cooperation with black agencies, the public schools, black organizations, universities, and various community agencies. They have been numerous and only a few have been selected to serve as examples of the types of programs developed to assist the poor

As early as 1963 a tutorial proiect, which generally focused on elementary school students, had been instituted by t’K) Yale University students, Thomas

”Akron Beacon Journal, 7 March 1968, p. C1. 318

Roderick of Silver Lake, Ohio and Gary Piper of &on, Ohio. Roderick and Piper had been active in the Northern student Movement which had set up a tutorial project in the East. They began their project vith a volunteer staff in cooperation with the supportive efforts of the ACSCCUL. The project was continued in the fall and winter of that year by students Mary Paolucci and Linda Stein, and tw University of Akron professors, Dr. Walter Lehrman and Dr. Donald Henderson. IHendermn, a black educator, is currently Associate Provost of the University of Pittsburgh.) Gary Piper, a paid director in 1964, conducted the program with a volunteer staff. By 1965 the program was furadd through the Summit County CAC and cosponsored by the ACSCCVL and the University of Akron. It became known thereafter as the Akron-Summit Tutorial Program (A-STP).

The project was headed by James W. Gramantine in 1965, followed by Dr. Walter Lehrman's directorehip in 1966. Thomas Puhnnan was appointed as director of A-STP a year later and served for seven years until Karen James was named director in 1974. The program grew in effectiveness and by 1972 all University of Akron freshmen desirous of becoming teachers were required to take an education course which entailed tutoring for A-STP."

"Thomas Puhrman, .Special Information Report on the Akron-Summit Tutorial Program," Akron, Ohio, 1973, p. 1. -. . . 319 In the spring of 1965 prekindergarten programs vera initiated at centers throughout the city through the cooperative efforts of the Akron Board of Education and the local CAC. mat of the classes were housed in churches throughout the Akron area. The project--currently known as Head Start--has continued its attempts to

give preschool educationally disadvantaged children the necessary skills to ensure them of a more successful beginning in the public school system. Since the mid-1960s many educational programs, aimed toward helping lover socioeconomic families, have ken developed and implemented in the Akron Public Schools in order to offset the educational disadvdntages that are

Ti fOmmOn to deprived environments. Most of the proiects have focused on the prhry or intermediate grades, but mehave been designed to assist junior and senior high

school pupils and adults. The supplemental, federally funded programs in the Akron Public Schools are under the

direction of George C. Hiller, a black administrator, who serves as Director of Supplemental Services of the Akron Board of Education. In the summer of 1965 three black sororities, with * funding channeled through CAC, lointly conducted a tw- month Head Start program at three locations Wilcox School in Twinsburg, Ohio; United Baptist Church in Akron, and Eillwod Homes in Akron. The project director was ,

320 .\

Barbara Hhaley, and the sorority cosponsors included local chapters of Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta Sigma Theta, and Phi Delta Kappa s~rorities.~' The National Sorority of Phi Delta Kappa, Beta Iota Chapter had been active in Akron since receiving its charter on 26 March 1955." Prom its inception the black teachers' sorority had worked in various projects to upgrade the education of children. In the summer of 1970, bwever, the sorority responded in large measure to the needs of the community by contracting to serve as a dele- gate agency to the We1 Cities Day Care program Dedication of countless hours of planning and organization on the part of the sorority's eleven active members resulted in the opening of five day care centers and the appointment of Esther Spruill as director of the project. All five centers were located in churches. The first center was opened at 332 Trigonia Drive in August 1970, followed by a center at 401 Berry Avenue. By spring, three other centers--which opened at 784 Coburn Street, 732 Russell Avenue, and 292 East Wrket Street, respectively--were staffed and in operation. The program met two important objectives 1) it

"Akron Beacon Journal, 21 June 1965, p. B1.

"Charter of the National sorority of Phi Delta Kappa, Beta Iota Chapter, Akron, Ohio, 1955. < provided a service to vmrking mothers, and 2) it provided

preechoolers with a quality, well-rounded program through its provisions for adequate nutrition, social development, health services, and instruction in academic skills."

By 1972 the Hodel Cities Day Care Program had been extended to include an Infant Stimulation pilot program.

The program was an outgrowth of research on infant stimulation conducted by Sheila Berry over a seven-month period (December 1971 to June 1972). Mrs. Berry was appointed as director of the Infant stimulation component, and the program vas implemented on 1 September 1972. In its early phase, eight me1 Cities infants and their mothers constituted the population being served. The babies were enrolled at two weeks of age and continued until age three. Tvo home visitors, trained by Mrs. Berry, were taught how to instruct the mothers to stmulate the infant's senses for the development of all of the pre- requisite skills necessary for academic success.1o

At its inception the program was the only one of its kind in the state of chio," and has been visited by the rife of Gov. John Gilligan" and the state's attorney

"Akron Beacon Journal, 11 August 1971, p. El. "The National Sorority of Phi Delta Kappa, .Fifty Years 1923-1973," (n.p.), 1973.

"Ibid. ¶'Akron Beacon Journal, 20 March 1973, p. D3. ~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~ -. - ,. - --- I_. -. 322

~ .*- .A general, william Brown." In 1970 a special educational program was developed by tha ACSCLUL and funded by the Sisler-McFawn Foundation. The program was implemented in order to provide a person- alized instructional and tutorial service for secondary school youth, dropouts, and adults residing in the Wooster Avenue area. George C. Miller was appointed to direct the project. One of the program's greatest strengths has been its 'instant curriculum" or .cash approach.. Tutoring has been available for persons who have needed remediation in particular aspects of subjects thereby eliminating the need to enroll in night school courses. llany tutees have come seeking instruction amed specifically at helping them get a particular job they desired."

An educatioml program developed by the local graduate chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha, a black fraternity, began its operation in conjunction with the Wooster Branch of the Akron Public Library. (The library is located in a predominantly black area of the city.) The greatest thrust of the program--instituted in 1970 and named .Project Read"--was an attempt to motivate early use of the library. However, activities are programed for both

(Akron) Reporter, 26 October-2 November 1974. ''Akron Community and Service Center and Urban League, Inc., "An Educational Project," Akron, Ohio, 1912, p. 3. 323 adults and children.

Atty. Edwin Parms, chairman of the Alpha Phi Alpha Library Committee, has provided invaluable leadership to the project and has been instrumental in the program's mccess. In its initial operation, the fraternity formed a .Borrowers and Readers Club' for elementary students, and by fall of 1974 a junior high school organization was beiq fOrmed.2' Significant outcomes have been realized in the four years that the program has existed: 1) the summer's circulation increased fourfold;" 2) the project has shown that children can spend more time reading than watching television," and 3) seven of the top ten readers were boys (as opposed to the general belief that girls in elmentary schools are better readers)." Congressman John Seiberling visited the program in the fall of 1974." 'Project Read' has been financed by local private and business contributions. However, in the summer of

1974, a $75,000 two-year federal grant was appropriated. George Nichols, head of a special Alpha Phi Alpha

"Akron Beacon Journal, 15 September 1974, p. CE.

"Ibid. "(Akron) Reporter, 7 September-14 September 1974. "Ibid.

"Ibid., 28 September-5 October 1974. ,- 324 cmitteer John RebeMck. Librarian of the Akron-Summit County Public Library, Mildred Wright, head librarian of

WooSter Branch Library, Raymond Brown, a member of the Ohio State Library Board. and others of their respective groups were credited with wrking diligently toward efforts to obtain the grant.'O

The fraternity has also provided valuable financial assistance to deserving students seeking to further their education. co-chairmen Archie Berry and John Crooks headed the fraternity's 1974 scholarship committee. At a .Scholarship Awards. luncheon in the spring of 1974 Berry presented awards ranging from $400 to $1.000 to nine students. "

BeqiMing on 31 December 1973, the local chapter of the Kappa Alpha Psi, another black fraternity, initiated an annual New Year's Eve Ball and has donated all monies to the Akron Inner City Scholarship Fund. anployment and Economic Programs In 1964 the employment opportunities for Akron's blacks were seriously lagging. Although Negroes constituted 13 percent of Akron's population they comprised only 6 percent of its labor force. * Blacks who were

''Ibid., 15 June-22 June 1974. "Ibid. "Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc., .Fortieth Annual Report Revolution of Participa- tion,' Akron, Ohio, 1965. \- 325

professionally prepared or possessed a skill were still > encountering difficulty in being hir.d, and blacks who had little or no training met with even less success. In 1965 David Wilson, ACSCLUL'S job development and employment director, took measures to ameliorate a part of the problem through the implementation of a .Skills Bank Project. to centralize the professional, technical, and scientific skills of Negroes residing in the Akron area. Thus, the agency had an available pool of referrals for local business and industrial firms." Securing employment to elevate the economic status

of the poor was a part of ACSCLUL'S, CAC's, and We1 Cities' programs. Employment of personnel to staff and operate the anti-poverty projects provided many and diverse jobs for numbers of the unemployed or underemployed. Other attempts to provide opportunities for work were conducted through job preparation training pro-

grams. A few will be cited to indicate the types of programs in existence.

The on-the-Job Training (O.J.T.) Program funded by the Department of Labor was instituted in 1966 under the

direction of the ACSCSUL. The program led to the placement of over 340 disadvantaged persons in a variety of

businesses and industries from 1967 to 1968 and was reputed by government officials as one of the most

' Ibid . 326

BUCCeSSful O.J.T. programs in the nation." The ACSCCUL's Labor Education Advancement Program (L.E.A.P.) wan in operation by 1969. Its major purpose was to recruit black youth for apprenticeship training programs in the building and construction industry."

That Sam year a CAC program, the United Neighbor- hood Council Economic Developent Program (EDP) was implemented. It originated when citizens from diverse neighborhoods convened to create a program to promote economic development in Akron. The program has offered various business services to the Akron minority business community including: small business management training and counseling; management, technical, and economic assistance: and provision of an Akron's minority business directory." Two programs to advance blacks economically were developed in 1970 through We1 Cities." One program, the Career Opportunities Program operated by the Akron Board of Education, also sought to increase the level of education of its employees. The participants in the

"Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc., .Forty-thud Annual Repart NOW or Never,' Akron, Ohio, 1968. "Akron Community service Center and Urban League, Inc., 'Forty-fourth Annual Repart,"Akron, Ohio, 1969.

".NAACP Freedom FUC~,. Akron, Ohio, 1974.

"City Demonstration Agency, "Toward a Hodel City," Akron, Ohio, 1971. ~~ -.

321

program worked as paraprofessionals at schools in the We1 Neighborhood while continuing their teacher training courses at the University of Akron.

The Economic Development Corporation (EDC) became operational late in 1970 and consisted of three divisions--

,-.. manpower, economic development, and comunications. The manpower activities included involvement with other agencies or programs, e.9.. CAC's Sununit Training and Retraining for Increased Development and Experience

(STRIDE) program: the ACSCLUL. EDC Equal Employment-office, We1 Neighborhood Job Placement: and Ohio Bureau of Employment Service.

The economic development division provided: 1) a consumer protection agency: 2) buying and investment coop-

eratives: 3) a credit union: and 4) a University of Akron

coalition for Model Neighborhood Economic Development. A newspaper was published through the communication division. Prom the advent of the civil rights movement to the time of this writing many opportunities for improved employment have been opened to blacks. Negroes have obtained jobs in various types of business and financial establishments, governmental positions, educational, cultural, and medical institutions, social agencies, etc Although blacks have been hired in all kinds and levels of employment, some of their positions have represented mere 'tokenism." An ACSCLUL staff study, completed in 1973, indicated that .., \. 328 . Black employment progress in Akron business and industry durrng the period 1960 through 1970 was less than desirable especially on the high paying white collar classificatlon. (In 1970, Blacks held,:nly 7.1% of the white collar positions in Akron.)

studies of employment of blacks in Akron, conducted by the local NAACP, have also indicated that blacks have not yet been hired in many areas of city government in proportion to their numbers and qualifications." One of the more recent attempts to upqrade employment opportunities and employees' fringe benefits was not a part of the war on poverty per se, but has helped to improve the wrking and economic conditions of domestic workers. In 1971 the Akron Household Technicians, InC. was organized by Aerieal Fuller, the organization's president. From an initial group of four members, the organization had grown to a membership of over 120 by the close of 1974. nrhs.Fuller had a personal interest in organizing and bproving the wrking conditions for domestic workers, for as she has stated: No mtter how much educatlon you had at the time vhen I vas coming along, all there was to do was to go to wrk in someone's home."

"Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc., .Black Education and Employment Program," Akron, Ohio, 1974.

''.NAACP Freedom Fund,. Akron, Ohio, 1974. "Interviev with Aerieal Fuller, 1316 Hardesty Boulevard, Akron, Ohlo, 30 December 1974 329

She reared her children as a domestic vorker and later rmrked with the Summit County Welfare Department. Partially due to her leadership, effortn to include household technicians in the minimum wage leginlation reached fruition." Hrs. Fuller has conducted vorkshops to train the members of the organization in parliamentary procedures and legislative processes no that they could be knovledgeable about legislation affecting their working conditions.

Improvinq livinq standards of the lower socioeconomic ppuration Some of the programs which came into existence to fight poverty in Akron aimed to improve the general living conditions of the poor. Examples of such programs were Poor Peoples Readquarters, directed by Marian Hall:

Project ENABLE (Education and Neighborhood Action for Better Living Environment), cosponsored by the ACSCLUL and the Family and Children's Service society, the Urban League's Neighborhood Service Center, and the United services for All.

hro We1 Cities Programs, Neighborhood Development Corporation (NDC) and Guardian, were created to improve the general living environment of the Model Neighborhood area. While NDC hurked toward improving housing and

' ' Ibid . 330

providing auxiliary services through park development, relocation, rental, and architectural assistance, Guardian provided environmental services, i.e., weekly trash and garbage collection and rodent extermination."

A few advancements were also made in the area of housing since the civil rights movement. In the mid-1960s

the Akron City Council passed a Fair Housing Law and the Akron community lent their support." The need for improved low-coat housing among Akron's low econcnic population was met in part by the Akron Metropolitan Housing Authority's integrated multi- family housing developments and its high-rise complexes for senior citizens. One particularly successful housing

development was that of Channelmod Village. A 1973 booklet provided the history of that project '' The Channelwood Village Project was sponsored by

the local Chapter, Eta TaU LamMa, of Alpha Phi Alpha--the oldest and largest predominantly black fraternity in the country. It was the outgrowth of a response to the Federal Housing Act of 1963 which extended an invitatlon rn organizations to participate in building homes for low- and moderate-income families.

"City Demonstration Agency, .Toward A city,. 1971. "Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, InC., .Fortieth Annual Report,"Rkron, Ohio, 1965. "'Channelwood Village Brochure,. Akron, Ohio, 1973. 331

-. Because of the leadership of Atty. James R. Williams and the donation of countless man-hours in meetings and negotiations, ground was broken on 29 October 1971, and the construction of Channelwood Village began. Almost one year later, the development was completed, and dedication ceremonies were held on 21 October 1973. Ergo,

the fraternity had achieved two significant goals they had provided homes for Akron's citizenry and they had developed a mcially and economically integrated comunity. Three of the streets in Channelwood Village were named for fraternity brothers who were members of the local graduate chapter and who had served the fraternity nobly. The men were also noted for their comunity and civic contributions toward making Akron a better place in which to live. Tate Terrace was Mm4d in memory of Earl Bruce Tate, Sr., who was the former executive director of

the YMCA's Glendale Branch, Dunbar Drive was named in honor of Dr. John W. Dunbar, a local retired dentist; and Fleming Drive was Mmed for Atty. Artee Fleming, a retired barrister who currently resides in Columbus, Ohio.'' Residential segregation in Akron had increased from

"Three other streets have been said to be named for Negroes. Beverly and Mann Courts in North Akron are supposedly named for Beverly Mann--one of Akron's well-to- do black citizens In the early 1900s Black street is claimed to have been named for John Black who lived on Windsor Street (one street west of Black street) early in the 1900s.

.__.- .a.,._.... 1- .,.- 332

1960 to 1970 despite the legislation supporting open

housing. According to a 1972 study on residential segregation in the Akron area one of the conclusions indicated that the barriers had not fallen for 'Akron and its suburbs are more segregated in 1970 than they were in 1960.""

On the positive aide, however, constructive efforts have been made. The Pair Housing Contact Service, west Side Neighbors, Inpost, and the Lane Improvement Associa- tion have each made valuable contributions to the community. "

Black Pride in Akron

A. black power, black pride, and black history received greater emphasls during the 1960s and 1970s. more programs emerged and some former programs were updated.

Typical of the latter was the Elks Oratorical Contest in which etudents had been participating annually and encouraging black pride as early as the 1930s.

The local lodge of the I.B.P.O.E. of w. had been organized in the mid-1960s into the Pride of Rubbertown No. 1594 and the new lodge continued to hold the annual

'%I.P. Coye, Jr. and Robert McGraw, "Residential Segregation in the Akron Metropolitan =ea,. Akron, Ohlo, 13 July 1972. "Akron Comission on Civil Disorders, "Report on civil Disorders," p. 33. 333

contest. Although the majority of the subjects for orations wre related to the United States Constitution--and most of the former topics remained--the number of topics was increased to sixty-three and the contest was upaated. some of the following topics reflected the new content: The Anti-Poverty Program, the Negro, and the Constitution: a The Civil RlghtS Act Of 1960 and the U.S. Constitution; A Guarantee for Full Participation in the Anti-Poverty Program, Headstart, Adult Education, Medicare in Relation- ship to the Constitution; Open Housing, Vietnam and the uegro--Now and After; Passive Resistance; and Dr. Martin Luther King's Dream.''

Many of Akron's contestants who participated in the contest advanced to the state, regional, or national level. In addition to those mentioned in an earlier segment of

the study (p. 255) other winners who advanced beyond the local level included: Blanford Fuller, Albert Cox, and Kim Parker. Patricia Warren, formerly of Canton, Ohio, won the national Elks Oratorical Contest in 1970. She is currently a newscaster at Akron's radio station WAKR."

Blacks continued to celebrate the anniversary of

the Emancipation Proclamation and the one hundredth

"I.B.P.o.E. of w., Department of Education, .National Oratorical Contest, Rules and Regulations," Memphis, Tennessee, 1968, pp. 8-9.

"Interview with Aerieal Fuller, 30 December 1974. 334 observance, held at Central High School and sponsored by the Tea Time Study Club, was a memorable occasion. Mrs. Mary E. Allen had initiated the celebration in Won in the same manner as it had been observed in the South. After her death in 1932, the program was not commemorated until 1953 when the Tea The Study Club renewed interest in the occasion.'@ The observance ceremonies in 1966 began with a mtorcade--which included many civic-minded citizens: black and white professional and business people: representatives from black organizations: a Sunday School class, and many local government officials. The singing of the Negro national anthem, the reading of the Rnanci- pation Proclamation, musical selections, and an address by a prominent speaker comprised the program's activities." The interest in black history was evident in 1960 as both young and old persons enthusiastically responded to the excellent series of lecture-discussions on Negro History presented by Dr. Edgar A. Toppin, Professor of Eistory at the University of Akron, with Horace Stewart as ucderator. The program was attended by a multiracial

"'Souvenir Program of the One Hundredth Anniver- nary of the Emanclpatlon Proclamatlon," Akron, Ohio, 1963. ''gSouvenir Program of the One Hundred and Third Anniversary of the mncipation Proclamtlon,. Akron, Ohio, 1966. audience with an average of 250 persons in attendance." The topics presented by Professor Toppin at the

Negro History forums follow 1. Africans to the New World- Rescued from What? 1. The Plantation Slave Was He Content? 3. Freedom Through Civil War: On a Platter or Earned? 4. Negroes in the Reconstruction Legislature: Proven Unfit to Govern? 5. Washington-DuBois Controversy on What the Negro Needs: Who Was Right? 6. Supreme Court Decision of 1954: Revolution or Evolution? ' Further evidence of interest in black history and the manifestation of black pride occurred in September

1969 when the Tea Time Study Club began vorking toward the

reccqnition of 'Crispus Attucks Day.. The members' great

concern was .that all children know that the black Ameri- can fought, wrked and died to make this country free:" A few wnths later Mayor John S. Ballard issued a proclamation declaring 5 March 1970 as Trispus Attucks Day,. and ceremonies inaugurating the cornemoration of the event were held at South High School. Rev. I. T. Bradley, pastor of munt Zion Baptist Church, presented the address and William V. Wallace, Jr., of the Sununit County

"Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc., .Thirty-sixth Annual Report," Akron, Ohio, 1961.

"Akron community service center and urban League, Inc., 'Schedule of Third and Fourth Quarter Activities," Akron, Ohio, 1960. "Interview with Bertha more, 30 December 1974. 336

Eistorical Society, offered remarks."

Another manifestation of black pride was the initiation of the Miss Black Akron Pageant in 1971 spon- =red by Souls Reoriented. The winners of the annual contest were- Rose Ann Woods, 1971, Henrietta IlcDay, 1972: Delma Lucas, who wa8 also Miss Black Ohio, 1973; and GiM Uaddox, 1974." In the fall of 1974 William Threatt, Jr., president of the ACSCLUL'S Board of Trustees,announced the presentation of a nine-week series of black history programs to be sponsored by the ACSCCUL. Aimed at presenting a balanced and more complete view of the black experience, topics included- Black Studies, The African Heritage, Slavery: Black Poetry, Drama, and Literature; Black

Politicians, Black Business People: The Law and the Black Community: the Black Church and the Civil Rights Movement: and Black Education and ~~nployment."

Gains - Individual and Organized The gains that black residents made from 1960 to the present time were partly a result of their years of

"'Souvenir Program of Crispus Attucks Day,' Akron, Ohio, 1970.

"See Akron Beacon Journal, 9 September 1971, p. BlZ: 22 July 1972, P. B1. 20 August 1973, p. 81; (Akron) Reporter, 20 July-27 July 1974.

" (Akron) Reporter, 28 September-5 October 1974. 337

perseverance against oppression--which helped to set the

atage for the civil rights movement--and partly a result of events which grew out of the civil rights movement-- civil rights legislation. a heightened level of black consciousness on the part of whites and blacks; the con- i cept of black power, etc. Such gains were reflected in many areas of employment, as the competencies and abilities of Negroes were finally being recognized and respected (although some of that recognition was forced by legislation which required the employment of blacks). Thus, the opportunities for advancement followed many avenues that were once unattainable, and frequent hoks were increasingly bestowed upon Negroes. This portion of the study will indicate eane of the positions, honors, and everyday accomplishments obtained by Akron's blacks in various fields, either through their individual or organized endeavors.

Fields of Specialization Law and qovernment

As the 1960s began, Councilman Edward Davis was a member of the City Council, representing the third ward for a second term. Blacks were becoming more involved in political matters and whites were beginning to support

black candidates. By 1968 when Davis received the Brotherhood Award, he had been elected to his sixth term 338 of office. Davis, long active in community efforts to improve the city, received the honor because he had

.played a tremendous role in helping to close the gap betveen Negroes and vhites in the community.'" Two of Akron's elderly blazk barristers, Atty. Artee Fleming and Atty. Alexander Russell were recognized by the local press in 1963 when they were selected to be featured in .Biography in Brief:

Fleming had been a lawyer in Saint Louis, Missouri prior to coming to Akron in 1920. Re worked for a short the in the Miller Rubber Co. in Akron vhile he awaited bis attorney's license from the state of Ohio. According to his biographical portrait, Fleming believed that he was the first Negro attorney to practice regularly before the local Common Pleas Court and also the first Negro to carry a case to appeal." When Russell came to Akron in 1927, he found employment as a production wrker at Firestone Tire and

Rubber Co. For nine years he wrked as a laborer before entering Akron Law School in 1936. A year later he secured a position at the Ohio State Employment Service. Wpon graduation from Akron Law School in 1944, Russell took Ohio's bar examination and placed second out of the

"Akron BeacQn Journal, 9 February 1968, p. BI. "Ibid., 5 May 1963, p. F3. 339 six hundred who took the examination that year. He began his practice inunediately and soon afterwards went into the real estate business--which grew through the years to be larger thm his legal practice." The mid-1960s were marked by a few more advances for Negroes in positions in the city'e government Opie mans became the executive director of Akron's Civic Unity Council and served the citizens of Akron in that capacity for approximately five years." Atty. Arthur Snell had been employed as assistant police prosecutor as early as 1962. By 1964 he had been promoted through a series of positions before becoming first assistant to County Prosecutor James BarbutO. He served in that position until his untimely death in 1967.

~rr,yearn afterward8 a plaque was erected at the County Safety Building in his memory." As citizens were being relocated by urban renewal in the mid-1960s. Robert Brown was a very positive influence in lessening the trauma that frequently attended their moving. Appointed in 1966 as social service coordinator in the Relocation Division of the city's Urban Renewal Department, Brown supervised the survey's referral

"Ibid., 7 July 1963, p. C3. "Interview with Opie mans, 1164 Winton Avenue, Akron, Ohio, 29 December 1974. gaAkron Beacon Journal, 8 November 1969, p. ~1. program for the families and individuals in the Oppor- tunity Park area. He directed emphasis on solving the reaidents' social problems in addition to finding them new homes. Prior to that position, Brown successfully coordi- Mted lane Community School, a pilot program designed to upgrade the community through the provision of educational and recreational services to members of low-income families residing in the Lane-Wooster area." In 1967 three Negro attorneys received significant appointments and contributed substantially to Akron's growth and development. Atty. William E. Fowler, Jr. was named to the Board of Appeals and Review of the u.S. civil Service Comission and became the first Negro to serve on that board. In prior positions he had served as an assistant state attorney general, having left that post in 1961 to become a special assistant to the U.S. Attorney

G0n0ral Robert F. Kennedy in the organized crme and racketeering section.''

Atty. W. Howard Fort's appointment by Gavernor Rhodes to serve as a trustee of the University of Akron (then a state university) marked the first time a Negro had held that position." seven years later Fort was elected as

"Ibid., 5 October 1966, p. F1, 27 June 1968, p. E14.

"Ibid., 3 January 1967, p. 81. "Knepper, New Lamps, p. 310. +. - 341 chairman of the University of Akron's board of trustees." Re also had the distinction of being the first black officer-on the board of the Akron Area Chamber of Comerce vhen he was first appointed to the executive committee. Port served as president of that board in 1973." The third notevorthy appointment occurred when Governor Rhodes named Atty. Joseph D. Roulhac to succeed Judge Evan J. Reed on the Akron Mlnicrpal Court bench. mulhac thus became the first Negro judge in Akron's history." In the following election, he was elected to swe as municipal judge and currently serves in that position.

As the decade neared its end, a Negro was named as director of the City Demonstration Agency (C D.A.) and

Akron's second Negro councilman wan elected. Frank Lomax I11 assumed the position of C.D.A. 's director in 1969, and his broad experiential background was beneficial in helping him implement the Model Cities Programs. He had been an outstanding athlete, a teacher, a CAC employee, director of North Akron's Elizabeth Park Opportunity Center, and a planning associate in group wrk and recreation with United Community Council (UCC)."

"Akron Beacon Journal, 27 June 1974, p. C9.

"Ibid., 27 February 1973, p. C3. "Ibid., 26 Hay 1967, p. 81. "Ibid., 21 February 1971, p. D3. I I >, 341

<- Akron's second Negro councilman, Atty. James R. ad williams, was elected in 1969 to represent the city's fourth ward and continues to serve in that position. Williams has been active in community, civic, fraternal, and political organizations for many years and has received numerous honors. Some of his notable awards have included- 'Individual Achievement Award' from Akron chapter of the NAACP in 1967, .Outstanding Achievement for volunteer Service" from the UCC of sununit County in 19681 Akron Urban League's 'Outstanding Community Leadership

Award' for uork on Channelwood Village Housing Development in 19731 and YMCA service Avard in 1974.'O By 1970 Edward V. Brown had become the director of the Human Relation Commission for the city of Akron and presently serves in that capacity. In Brown's prior position at the ACSCCUL, his outstanding leadership as director

of Economic Development and mployment was instrumental in that department's developing programs that acknowledged the *New Thrust' and effected social change. Early in 1971 a black graduate architect, William M.

Threatt, Jr., became rehabilitation administrator in the. ~ City of Akron's Department of Planning and Urban Renewal, urban Renewal Division. Ais responsibilities entailed effecting rehabilitation of residential and commercial

".Personal Data Sheet, James R. Williams,. Akron, Ohio, 1975. 343 structures in urban renewal areas. Threatt's prior background had well qualified him for that position for he had been assistant to the school architect for the Akron Board of Education from 1965 to 1971 and had also mrked on a part-time basis as a graduate architect since 1967. In addition to his administrative responsibilities in local government, he was the codesigner and proiect coordinator for the new Second Baptist Church building currently under construction in Akron." For several decades there were very few black patrolmen or deputy sheriffs in the Akron area. In recent years mre black officers have been hired, and an Akron chapter of the Black Law Enforcement Officers Association was formed in 1972. William Ellison, who had been on the force four years prior, was elected president. According to a declaration of that organization The Black Officers in Akron, individual citizens and members of various social organizations of the Black community, are bound by a common goal: the building of a strong Black Community . . .72 The organization also seeks to promote relations that will benefit all people. Among its several am6 and goals are the following

"*Resume of William M. Threatt, Jr.,. Akron, Ohio, 2 January 1975. "*~eclaration of Black mw Enforcement officers Aseociation,. Akron, Ohio. ' 344

"0 insure fair and impartial law enforcement services to all citizens within the Summit County boundaries regardless of race, creed, or national origin. To elevate, enhance and maintain the .police ircage' of the Black Policeman, specifically. To wrk openly, for passage of better and more accept- -able federal and local laws, statutes, and ordinances that will provide law and order with iustice to all citizens, Black and white, and other minority groups."

A mjor accomplishment for the black community occurred in 1973 when eight firefighters were hired, namely, Stanley Anderson, Lee Bethune, Ronald woods, David Goodrell, Juacquine mnnie, William Stevens, Charles Gladman, and Waddell Jeffries. As far as can be determined, they were the first black firemen in the city. Tw Washingtonians, Atty. mer Iancaster and Sterling Tucker--both former Akronites-had become active in the government in posts in Washington. In the fall of 1974, Tucker was elected to city council chairman, the post second only in power to that of the city's mayor.

About the same time Lancaster returned to Akron after resigning from thirty years of administrative government wrk. (Ee left Akron in 1940 to become Advisor on Negro Affairs in the U.S. Department of Commerce.) Tucker, born in Akron in 1923, grew up shining shoes and selling papers. While a student at the Univer- sity of Akron, he was one of the first black busboys in

".Aims and Goals of The Black Law Enforcement Officers Association,. Akron, Ohio, 1971. one of Akron's most fashionable restaurants. Despite

Ohio's public accommodations law, it was the restaurant's policy to refuse to serve Negroes. One Sunday, on a day off, Tucker and a friend of his (another busboy who vorked with hh) took their dates to the restaurant for dinner.

Although the foursome was served, Tucker and his friend were fired. A University of Akron graduate, Tucker has been a civil rights advocate all of his life. He worked at the ACSCCUL for several years, then served as executive director of Canton's Urban League before becoming head of the Urban League in Washington, D.C. He has gained a national and international reputation in the area of civil rights--traveling abroad as a lecturer for the U.S. State Department. Tucker has also wrked as vice-chairman and one of the organizers of the 1963 March on Washington, am3 served as number tw, man to the National Urban League's Whitney Young. '' Lancaster, born in Akron in 1898, returned to Akron permanently and is active again in the Negro Twenty-five Year Club (which is currently headed by Florence Hinson). Be is working on a restoration prolect to have John Brown's Memorial restored in time for the celebration activities of Akron's Sesquicentennial. The monument was

"Washington Post, 26 October 1974, pp. D1, D3. --

346 dedicated by the Negro Twenty-five Year Club in 1938." The most recent political appointment of real significance acurred in Plarch 1975 vhen Vice-president Nelson Rockefeller appointed a black Akronite, Thaddeus Garrett, Jr., as his Special Assistant for Urban Affairs. The appointment of twenty-six-year-ald Garrett made him the highest ranking black on the vice-president's staff and the youngest assistant to either the president or vice-president. Garrett, the chief Assistant to Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm and a member of the Ohio State Board of Education, was ordained as a minister in the Zion

Church and has become associate minister to Rev. Eugene

Morgan at Akron's Wesley Temple ?NE Zion." Over a period of five decades, Leon Gordie, an Akron resident since 1917, had been active in politics and government. He had held positions in local and state government including deputy county auditor and atate liquor inspector in his younger years and had run for office twice. (In 1921 Gordie was a Democratic candidate for city council and twenty-seven years later he was a candidate for state legislature.) As the years passed he pursued his political interests and was active in the Tire

Beacon Journal, 19 November 1974, p. 83. "(Akron) Reporter, 29 mrch-5 April 1975. mwn Democrats. Duririg the 1960s. Gordie was honored on three meparate occasions. Plaques in his possession reflect the contributions he has made to the Akron community In 1960 he received an anrd from the Tire Town Democratic Club which read, .In appreciation of your leadership and unending efforts in behalf of all of Akron." A second plaque awarded to Gordie in 1966 by the ACSCLUL read, .In recognition of the valuable contributions you have made as a pioneer in the field of civil rights.. Hi8 third award-- the Samuel T. Kelly Award--was presented to him by the Akron Branch of the NAACP in 1968. Named in honor of the

Negro attorney, widely known as a fighter for civil rights in Akron, the Samuel T. Kelly Award is one of the highest awards presented by the local NAACP. The plaque read, .Presented to Leon Gordie for outstanding contributions in the area of civil rights: Gordie had long admired national black figures who had undergone hardships to elevate themselves and the black American. As testmony of that respect Gordie acquired two coins which are prized possessions. One is a silver half-dollar with the profiles of Booker T. Wash- ington and George Washington Carver side by side. It was issued in 1952. The other coin, a Booker T. Washington silver half-dollar, dates back to 1946."

"Interview with Leon Gordie, 8 November 1974. 348

Blacks in military careers

A few young black men in Akron pursued military careers as early as the 1940s and 1950s and by the mid- 1960s had attained high ranking positions--for blacks at that time. Among the Akronites, or the former natives of Akron, rb retired from U.S. Army military careers and their ranks at retirement were: Felix UcDavid, colonel, Spurgeon -re, lieutenant colonel: Dan Thomas, major: and Laurence Wallace, captain. HcDavid was one of the first black Akronites who became a comissioned officer," and more received the Army Commendation Medal for twenty-four years of military service." TWO former residents of Akron who are presently engaged in military careers are Ronald Baskin and Clarence Thompson. Baskin has attained the rank of lieutenant colonel in the army,"and Thompson is presently in the air force. I

Blacks in business and industry By the early 1960s only a few opportunities existed for Negroes who sought employment other than

"Interviews with Spurgeon Moore and Uary Chapman, Nuon, Ohio, 4 April 1975.

"Akron Beacon Journal, 4 Kay 1967, p. B11. "Interview with Spurgeon Moore, 4 April 1975. 'L(Akron) Reporter, 12 October-19 October 1974. 349 factory work. One black who set his sights higher and dared to be different--to resign from the relative aecurity of a steady, well-paying factory job--was william mnillan, a graduate of the Akron Art Institute. Re vent into industrial designing and began as a deeigner apprentice with Scherr and McDermott, the only Akron firm-which would give him the opportunity to demonstrate his ability. Mcnillan, the first and only Negro designer on the firm's thirty-man tea, was instrumental in making his colleagues conscious of the consumer potential of the Negro mrket. The talented creator used his unusual ability to originate ideas, transform them to the drawing board, and produce concrete designs. The Oriental motif of the bar at Yanko's restaurant, a creation of McMillan's, exemplified that talent."

Another area of industry in which few blacks had pioneered before 1960 was the field of engineering. HOW- ever, as the decade began, blacks were enrolled in engineering courses at the University of Akron and, as far as can be determined, in 1962 Walter Head became the univer- aity's first black graduate in mechanical engineering. One year later Archie Berry and Leroy Bronner attained

".Industrial Designer,. Ebony Magazine, April 1961, pp. 39-40. 350 bachelor of science degreeslin electrical engineering." By the mid-1960s George W. Plathews, who knew the harsh realities of an impoverished childhood, had become

On0 Of Akron's wealthiest Negroes. Uathews, born on a cotton farm in 1887, was the eldest of ten sons. He was poorly educated, for he was only able to attend an elementary school five miles distant for about three months a year. High school was virtually inconceivable. Poor economic conditions forced Hathews to leave

Inme at age twenty-one and seek employment in Montgomery, Alabama. Unsuccessful in securing a job, he became ertremely destitute and was compelled for some time to depend solely upon food from garbage cans in order to

Wive. As time passed, Hathews worked as a stockboy and liubsequently as a hotel porter before saving enough money to invest In a restaurant. In 1920 he attended the Dempsey-Willard championship bout in Toledo and stopped in Akron on his return trip South. Witnessing the prosperity in Akron--a growing city--he declded to remain.

As the years passed Hathews conducted several successful business enterprises: an eleven-room boarding house, a hotel, a barber shop, and a beauty parlor. Early in his business ventures, his request for a loan was

*'Interview with Archie Berry, Akron, Ohio, 4 April 1975. 351 denied by a bank in which he later owned stock." mny years of personal sacrifice and service resulted in substantial prosperity and, in 1964, Hathews generously contributed $25,000 to the University of Akron to establish an endowment fund for students demonstrating ability, potential, and financial need. S. H. Brightman, executive vice-president of the First National Bank and Dr. Edgar A. Toppin, Associate Professor of History at the university of Akron, counselled Mathews in arranging the gift. Thus, his noble gesture insured for others the educational opportunity which he himself had been denied." Horace St. John Stewart, another black businessman, was also vitally concerned about the education of Akron's citizens. Although photography was his profession, he devoted an almost equal amount of time to community affairs. Stewart had opened his photography studio in 1934 at 114 North Howard Street and operated his business there until his death in 1968. He participated frequently in news photography courses at Kent State University and won awards at national conventions. His professional work had been displayed at O'Neil's and the Akron Public Library. Some of his participation in community activities

"Akron Beacon Journal, 2 February 1958, p. D3. "Ibid., 19 February 1964, p. Al. 352 involved presenting lectures on Negro history and leading discussions in the Akron Public Library's Great Books Program. He was recognized throughout the community as a scholarly .educator,. ard in 1968 he became Akron's only Negro to have a school named in his honor. In action taken on 1 April 1968 the Akron Board of Education adopted a resolution to name the school located at 1199 Wooster Avenue, Rorace St. ~ohnStewart Primary school." one year later the concern of eleven black men regarding the unrest prevalent among Akron's black youth led them to take actions toward a civic contribution that wuld simultaneously foster black pride and promote racial harmony. The men--employees at Goodyear Aerospace--discussed Akron's racial conditions during their lunch breaks and decided that the best contribution that they could make to effect change wuld be to provide both black and white citizens with information on black history and culture. Thus. a mare enlightened public could work toward racial accord. In addition, two other equally important goals rere to provide a business incentive to black youth and to encourage them to seek materials on their heritage. Thus, mmconbeac, Inc., a black retail store, was established.

*'.Akron Board of Education, Resolution 168-32." A framed copy Of the resolution 1s located in the office of Rev. Eugene E. Morgan at Wesley Temple AHE Zion Church, 104 North Prospect Street, Akron, Ohio.

'i 353

Joseph Hiller of the First National Bank; Vernon mom, executive director of the ACSCLUL; and Dr. Wilfred B. Boleman lent their assistance and support to the praise- wrthy endeavor. The company's name came from using parts of the corporate's slogan and goal Whatever the mind of man can conceive and believe, it can achieve. Company officers in 1972 included: Thomas J. Spencer, president; Carles Bill, vice-president; Rayfield Wade, treasurer; and Edward West, secretary. The business, opened in March 1969, was the first successful all-black-owned and black-managed retail store in Akron, and its clientele was 50 percent black and 50 percent white." Blacks had made some progress in terms of advancements in industry as in other areas. At the close of 1914, the resignation of one of Akron's prominent black leaders in the later unions resulted in the promotion of another black as his successor. In December 1974 E. James Peake was appointed as the new director of the Fair Practices Division of the United Rubber Workers Inter- national. Be replaced James Turner who retired and assumed the full-time presidency of the local NAACP. Peaka had assisted Turner for three years and also wrked as a special union representative for pensions and

".An Experience in Brotherhood,' Goodyear Aero- space Profile, Spring 1972, pp. 8-9. 354

insurances. His new responsibilities entail protecting IJRW members from discriminatory practices."

Blacks in mass media In the field of journalism, Negroes had published black newspapers sporadically over a period of fifty years or more. For tvo years in the 1960s (1963 through 1965) Opie Evans published news regarding Akron's black popula-

tion in The Akronite. It was initially a newspaper, but changed to a magazine format in 1964. When Evans ceased , its publication in 1965, he presented the news about Akron's Negroes on his weekly television show, .Eighlights

in Brown,' broadcast on television station WAXR." In addition to publishing a newspaper and broad- casting, Evans has written several noteworthy articles. One which appeared in Motor Travel, a publication of the Akron Automobile Club, was prefaced by the following comments from Roger T. UcCloskey, vice-president-manager:

In place of my regular comments this issue I am publishing a letter mitten by one of our members, Opie Evans, 1164 Winton Avenue, Akron, to hi8 son upon the son's receiving his first driver's license. The riedom of Mr. Evan's thoughts and remarks concerning safe and responsible driving is excellent, and could well serve aa a model to guide other rents with sons and daughters coming of driving age. *B"

"Akron Beacon Journal, 24 December 1974, p. B2. '**Black Newspapers in Akron. Ohio.. "wE(anagement's View,' Motor Travel, August 1970, PP. 2, 8. .

i 355

mans also collaborated with Dr. Louis Carabelli to compose the 'Dentists' Creed. which appeared in the Bulletin of the Akron Dental Society.''

On 30 September 1969 another black newspaper, Reporter, was published, with Atty. William R. ellis serving as editor. The newspaper, published weekly, is circulated to the public high schools in Akron, Barberton, ' and Kent, and to a number of colleges which include: Central State University. University of Rlskegee, Wilber- force University, University of Pennsylvania, Ohio state Unfveraity, and the University of Akron. The paper's policy is to report factual news; to play down crime, to Unify people, to communicate through the newspaper; and to include current history."

On the local newspaper staff of the Akron Beacon JourMl a black journalist, Albert Pitapatrick, currently holds the position of managing editor. He joined the Beacon Journal staff as a reporter in 1956 after being graduated from Kent State Unrversity. In 1973 Pitapatrick

was honored by the university when he was named ]our~lism alumnus of the year.'' He also received a very high honor

when he was selected as one of fifty editors to screen the

".The Dentists' Creed," Bulletin of the Akron Dental society, March 1966, p. la. ".Black Newspapers in Akron,. and Interview with Walter Arms, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio. 29 April 1975. "Akron Beacon Journal, 20 October 1973, p. BE. . 356

1975 Fulitzer Prizes."

Black educators and students Black educators have asplred to a number of positions over the past fifteen years--teachers, principals, directors of special programs, school psychologists, and college professors. More black teachers have been hired in the public school system, and black educators occupy some administrative positions. Since 1960 black educators in the public school system have also been featured in .Biography in Brief. in the local press. Tw of the earliest to be honored thusly vere Martin chapman and Ambrose Brazelton. The biographical portrait of Chapman detailed his early life. Born and reared in Hilledgeville, Georgia he resided there until completing the eighth grade when his parents brought the family north for a better opportunity in life. Be worked at assorted odd jobs while obtaining

his high school education, graduating from Garfield in

1939.'5 Chapnan attained a bachelor's degree from the Uni- versity of Akron before embarking on a teaching career. After serving an assistant principalship at Thornton Junior Aigh and principalships at Crouse and Margaret Park

"Ibid., 2 January 1975, p. A24. 'IIbid.. 29 July 1962, p. E3. - 357 schools, he became Akron's first black junior high school principal in 1972, being assigned to Goodyear Junior High School. The tolloving year he became Akron's first black senior high school principal when he accepted the position at Garfield High School. The 1974 senior class of

Garfield High School was the first class in Akron's history to graduate under a black principal." Three accolades have been bestowed upon Chapman in the past few years. In 1972 he was honored by the citizens of Akron when he wan chosen to receive the Diatinguiehed Citizen's Award, presented by Hayor Ballard and approved by City Council. The award is presented for outstanding service to the Greater Akron community.

chapman wan also awarded the Freedom Foundation Avard--one of the highest educational awards-in 1972 during his principalship at Crouse Elementary School. One year later he was presented with the University of Akron's Alumni Honor Award. The award honors graduates who have distinguished themselves in their specific fields of endeavor and for rendering service to the Greater Akron community." Ambrose Brazelton, known to his friends and colleagues as 'Braz,' began teaching in 1952 at Bryan

"Interview with Hartin Chapman, 9 Harch 1975.

"1bid. 358 tlementary School. He soon distinguished himself as a physical education teacher who was concerned not only with the child's physical well-being, but with his total development--social, emotional, and academic--as well. Under hia able direction, excellent drill teams and tumbling teams vere developed. Brazelton was known to dispense one dollar for each .A. on the report cards of his former students who returned from junior high school to see him on report card day." Unlike most physical education teachers, he has trmphasiaed self-competition rather than competitive sports. Regardless of the child's height, weight, or color, Brazelton's philosophy has been to help each child develop into his own best self. In all of the many activities in which he has participated, he has provided valuable leadership to youth. Such activities included participation in the Touchdown Club's Pun vs. Vandalism campaign, the ACSCcUL's evening recreation program, Wesley Temple's Sunday school classes

(he served as superintendent) i and the annual soap BOX Derby. '* Brazelton, a Freedom Foundation Award winner in

1963, joined the Ohio State Department of Education two

"Akron Beacon Journal, 25 November 1962, p. E3. "Ibid. 359

years later as supervisor of elementary physical education. In 1971 he was appointed by Ohio's State School

Superintendent Martin W. EsseX to direct the model Cities Technical Assistance office.lo'

A current resident of Columbus, Ohio, Brazelton has become a nationally prominent educator who has lectured and given physical education demonstrations throughout the country. Still, some of his most cherished memories are wents that occurred in Akron 1) the Bryanorama--a special program put on by the Bryan students at the AtSCcUL on a Sunday afternoon: 2) a .This is Your Life. program-- a program dedicated to him prior to his leaving the Akron school system; and 3) tvo Bryan School drill team perform- ances--one for a North Akron regional PTA meeting and another for an Ohio State Physical Education convention. One of his most recent rewarding experiences was having the privilege of addressing the International Con- vention of the Association for Children with Learning Dieabilities. He was particularly gratified because 1) he vas a black man delivering a keynote address to an audience of 3,500 people, and 2) he was asked to speak by an association that vas academically oriented rather than oriented toward physical education

looInterviewwith Ambrose Brazelton, 2311 Garden- dale Drive, Columbus, Ohio, 6 December 1974.

I I Ibid . 360

- In 1964 a biographical portrait of Abbie Willacy's life indicated that she had taught in Washington, D.C. before coming to Akron. It was in her assignment there that Ilss. Willacy realized for the first time that there were children less fortunate than ehe had been. Years later, as a member of the staff of the Akron school syetem, she continued to help the lees fortunate and was known for her positive approach in aiding children to build their lives. Mrs. Willacy vas appointed in 1964 as a resource teacher for a special services program directed toward terminating the cultural lag prevalent among children raslding in inner-city districts.' O2 Subsequently, she wao promoted to a principalship at Crosby School and is currently the principal at Barber Elementary School. Dr. Willa Player, a former Akron resident, received a federal appointment in 1966 when she was named as director of the Division of College Support in the U S. Office of Education. Prior to her appointment Dr Player me the president of Bennett College, having served in that capacity since 1956. She had been on the staff there since 1930. The distinguished educator was Akron's first and only mman to become president of a college, and she was

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 22 November 1964, p. B3. 361

the first =der of her race and sex in the city of Akron

to earn a doCtorate."' She received an Ed.D. degree from Columbia university in 1948."' Dr. Oscar Ritchie, active in community affairs in the Greater Akron community, was an outstanding educator

wlm made significant strides in his own education and in

educating others. He rose from a pxter in a Cleveland theater to become the first Negro to serve on a faculty at a state university in Ohio. Dr. Ritchie, a sociology pro- feasor, began teaching at Kent state University as a

graduate assistant in the mid-1940s. After completing the first year of his doctoral courses at the University of

Wisconsin in 1949. he returned to Kent State University as an as~istantprofessor. His doctorate was conferred at New York University in 1958.'" Edith Ritchie, widow of Dr. Ritchie, was one of the originators of the Portage County Head Start Program."' she has taught in the Akron Public Schools at the elementary, junior high and senior high school levels and currently teaches English at North High school.

'"Ibid., 8 March 1966, p. Bl.

"'Robert C. Cook, ed., Who's Who In American Education, 19th ed. (Nashville Nho's Who in American Education, Inc., 1959-60), p. 1169.

'"llkron Beacon Journal, 17 June 1967, p. BE.

"Ibid. Since 1970 a black band director, a black counselor, and tw black administrators of educational programs

vmre among those honored in "Biography in Brief: Spurgeon more, a former army officer, pursued a second career after retiring from military service. His musical background and training were put to advantage when hs decided to become a music instructor at Central High School. Later, as band director at South High School, he d-nstrated his leadership, not only in establishing a first-rate band, but in enlisting community support to provide the band members with new uniforms and instruments. ' " < more is presently an assistant principal at North nigh School. and is active in civic and community organizations. Comn themes throughout all of his endeavors have been his respect for people, his support of an integrated society, and his maintenance of high standards of performance. In 1971 George C. Miller was promoted to Director of Supplemental Services of the Akron Public Schools. Prior to his attaining that position, Hiller had been a teacher, Akron's first black counselor, Ncron's first black elementary school principal, and the Director of

South High School's Skills Center.

"'Ibid., 25 July 1971, p. 03. 3 63

Ha has always been an educator who believed in children and considered teaching an act of faith."'

Hiller, an innovator, has reputedly been an unorthodox and successful educator. His rare insight has enabled him to perceive needs and assess strengths and weaknesses almost instantly. He has demonstrated that ability both in the school system and at the ACSCLUL where he has tutored and counseled in evening sessions for over twenty years. Horn Marcere, formerly a counselor and school psychologist with the Akron Public Schools, has written several articles regarding racial prejudice. One of her noteworthy articles, .Genteel Violence,. appeared in -Good Housekeepinq several years ago. "Thanks for the Hemories. --the story of her life as one of the first black residents in North Canton, Ohio--is one of her unpublished articles. She has also written accounts of her problems in acquiring employment and her experiences as a black

person in white restaurants. Ips. Marcere's character has been indicated in some

of her writings as well as her thoughts as reflected in two of her remarks which follow- Schools should start training courses for parents. When I look at other geople, I think about smilar- ities, not differences.' '

"'Ibid., 7 May 1972, p. D3. "'Ibid., 9 December 1973, p. E). 364

Lata in 1974 a biographical sketch on Andrew

Bradley HcClain noted that the young black educator was the director of the Upward Bound program at Western Rassrve Academy. He had formerly vorked in the Akron Public Schools at Hilltop House--a program to help youngsters who had difficulty in adjusting to the regular daily educational program. llcclain had also wrked in Upward Bounds for several surmners and was particularly concerned abut high- ability students who had reached high school status with m real educational foundation. He believes that basic educational skills are crucial prerequisites to successful lives. His ability to understand and believe in the less fortunate may stem partially from his family background. His great-great grandfather had been a slave and was influential in setting an example of courage, industry, and pride. HcClain has taken pride in his heritage and, like his ancestors, has made his life productive. (An account of his ancestry has been noted in a foregoing section of the study regarding the lineage of his mother, Margaret HcClain on pp 274-75.) The young educator, whose father died when he was only six, paid tribute to his mother as being an incred- ible person who kept his family going after the death of -

365

his father."' mother has taught in the Akron PP iC Schools for many years and is currently a remadial reading teacher at Lincoln School. For several decades black college students were not generally recognized by many organizations other than black

fraternities and sororities. In recent years, however, they have been inducted into various campus organizations at white colleges and have been honored as nominees to e'sWho Among Students in merican Colleges and Univer- sities. In 1974 two black Akronites--Margretta K. More and Randy J. Edvards--were among those so honored. niss more, a student at Kent State University, was one of thirty-one students from that university to be selected on the basis of scholarship, leadership, participation in academic and extracurricular activities, citizenship, and service to the university.

she was a senior, majoring in music. Her other activities included- membership in the Black United Students: participation in cultural planning and affirmative action programs in the Human Relations Department: giving piano instruction to children residing in Ravenna's Skeels-McElrath area: and participation in residence hall government. ' I I

"'Ibid., 29 December 1974, p. E3.

'"JAkrOn) Rewrter, 1 February4 February 1975. 366

Randy Edwards was graduated from the Ohio State

School for the Blind before taking smer courses at the university of .Evansville (Evansville, Indiana) and enrolling at Central State University in the fall of 1972. adnrds, a political science major, would have graduated in 1975, but met his death early in 1974 after a short illness. After suffering the loss of his vision through tuo separate accidents early in his teens, he fought to overcome his handicap and went on to attain honors in both high school and at college. During his high school career he was selected the mst Valuable Track Athlete and achieved the National High Jump Record for the

Blind in 1972. Edwards was one of the first twa blind students to attend Central State University and in 1974 reeaived the university's Male Student of the Year Award. In some of his diverse college activities Edwards served as president of Circle K--a service organization: secretary and public relations director for Alpha Phi Alpha: business coordinator of student government, student senator: president of the Dormitory Council, member of the Gospel Choir: treasurer of the Political Science Club, and editor of the Political Science Newsletter.'"

"'Data Sheet in the Personal Files of Georgia Edwards, mother of Randy Edwards, Akron, Ohio.1975. \ 367

Black athletes A number of black Akronites have been outstanding athletes--in high school, college, semiprofessionally, or professionally. To single out their individual attainments wuld necessitate another study. Therefore, only a few will be documented herein. Those selected for Illustrative examples were the black athletes inducted in the Summit County Sports Hall of Fame and a participant In the Olympics. To date fifteen black Akronites, selected from a variety of sports, have had the distinction of becoming members of the Summit County Sports Ball of Fame. In 1957 Gorilla Jones was selected for his outstanding boxing career as Indicated in an earlier portion of the study (p. 193). Three years later Fritz Pollard, the outstanding halfback from Brom University, received the honor (pp. 165-66) documented Pollard's accomplishments). The contributions of William Bell (pp. 191-92) and his brother, Dr. Horace Bell (pp. 226-271, inducted in 1965 for their football prowess, have also been noted in earlier chapters of the study. In 1966, Andrew .Andy" Averitt was chosen for membership because of his earlier talents on the basketball court (p. 227). The athletic records of the other inductees and =me of their remarks regarding their various accomplishments follow. Although Alex Adams had demonstrated his ability in football, basketball, and track at Garfield High School, his outstanding collegiate and coaching record in basketball and track were the basis for his being selected for induction in 1968. Some of his various honors throughout his college career included: 1) being named to the UP All- American basketball team, 2) being an NCAA high jump cham- pion8 3) being All-Ohio 100- ad 220-yard dash champion in 1961: 4) being chosen as the University of Akron's most valuable player in basketball for twu seasons8 5) earning the coveted nike Gregory Mtanorial Award: and 6) with Climon

Lee, being named as co-Zip Athlete of the Year in 1961. Adams taught in the Akron Public Schools for a few years and became Akron's first black head coach of both a minor and major sport. Be was named head track coach in 1964 and head basketball coach in 1966, coaching both sports at Pirestone Eigh School. Under Adams tutelage the cross country team wn four city and four district cham- pionships, and one city series basketball championship.

80 is currently an assistant basketball coach at the Uni- versity of Akron."' Don Clark, known for his brilliant football career in high school, college, and as a professional player, was selected as an inductee in 1969. Clark, a Central High

'"Akron Beacon Journal, 18 October 1968, p. 84: Interview with Alex Adams. Akron, Ohio, 18 February 1975. 369

School athlete, had been named to the All-City team four times in high school and was honored as Beacon Journal Player of the Year and a member of the All-Ohio team in 1954. His collegiate record was also impressive. His sur performsnce,which led the Ohio State University team to an undefeated season and a Rose Bowl victory in 1957, resulted in his being voted to the All-American teams by virtually every wire service In his professional career with a Canadian team, the Montreal Alouettes, Clark waa (Ielected as an All-Pro and set a league record with a 106-yard touchdown run."' A baneball star, Bobby Nash, and a distinguished football player, Lu Wims, were inducted in 1971. Nash, a former all-around athlete at West High School, won fame as s pitcher in the amateur ranks in the late 1940s. His unusual ability was demonstrated in 1948 when he pitched the Borden Auto team to the American Baseball Congress finals by hurling thirty-three scoreless innings and allowing only three hits. He was named the tourney's outstanding pitcher that year."' Dr. Lu Wims was honored twice in 1971 when he was

enshrined in tw Halls Of Fame--the College of Wooster Sports Hall of Fame in the spring of the year, and the

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 12 October 1969, p. 83. l"Ibid., 30 May 1971, p. B3. 370

Summit County Sports Hall of Fame later that fall. Wins had starred in three sports at South High School (football, baaskctball, and track). before progressing to an outstanding athletic career in college. He was a two-time ~ll- Ohio Conference defensive end in football; named to the conference's second team in basketball: and set two track records--an indoor shot put mark of 48-7 and the outdoor disclrs throw Of 163-24."' In remarks regarding some of his educational accom- plislments, he credited three persona in particular with helping and encouraging him to attain his aspirations. a teacher, Mrs. Lois Saperstein; his sister, Sara, and a WOOster College benefactor, Charles McDermott.L"

Winas became head basketball coach at South High School in 1969 and coached,the team to a city aeries championship in 1971. Re is currently Athletic Director and head basketball coach at Central State University. Blmore Banton, a noted trackman, and ~omyDingle, a football star, were among twelve others enshrined in the Surmnit County Sports Hall of Fame in 1972. Banton, an

Ohio University alumnus, had a phenomenal collegiate cross country record which included some of the following honors: a two-time All-American; a two-time All-Ohio individual

"Ibid. "'Ibld.. 28 September 1971, p. A22. 371

championr the Hid-American champion, NCAA individual cham- pion8 and athlete of the year at Ohio University."' The

former Central High School graduate had won a scholarship to college and thanked two people for their special

interest in bun--his sister, Alberta, who .drummed' it

into his bead to go to college, and his college coach *who took a chance on a 130-pound weakling."11'

Dingle, a tremendous record-breaker at Wooster College, was also the recipient of the Hike Gregory Award.

At the the of his induction into the Hall of Fame, Dingle held ten football records at Wooster College. Recalling how he got his start in football, he talked about his childhood experiences of playing football and cited his older brother, Willie--an end and a good player--as being an inspiration and guide to hm. (Rodney Dingle, his younger brother, was also an outstanding football player.) Dingle's credits also extended to high school and college teammates and coaches at East High School and Wooster. He described his enshrinement as 'his finest hour:"' Three notable athletes, Martin Chapman--a football player; Harry Smpson--a baseball player, and Ronald

"'Ibid., 27 September 1972, p. c3. "'Ibid., 17 October 1972, p. D4. "'Ibid., 26 September 1972, p. D9; 17 October 1972, p. D4. 372

Delaney--a boxer, were inductees in 1973.

Chapan had received All-Conference and All-Ohio

Innore as an end on the University of Akron football team in the 1940~.~'~An account of his induction parallelled his determination on the football field with his determination to acquire an education.

Chapman cited several people as being influential an3 instrumental in helping him set his sights toward becoming an educator or giving him moral support in life.

Be indicated that his mother had been a great inspiration to him and on her advice he had aspired to become a teacher. In a comparison of black pride during his childhood and black pride in the 1970s. Chapman stated.

They talk about the black revolution now. I knew I was somebody way back then. My family told me so, my church told me so and I had black teachers who told me so in my home town of Nilledgeville, Ga."' Chapman also commended Uike Krino, the first head coach to accept a black assistant, and the Garfield PTA-- which offered him money to buy shoes and a graduation suit --as being among those unforgettable people who helped him."' Simpson, a former major league pitcher with the Cleveland Indians, the Kansas City Athletics, and the New

l'lIbid.r 29 July 1962, p. E3. "'Ibid., 12 October 1973, p. 69. ' '' Ibid . 373

York Yankees, came to Akron after retiring in 1959. He began his career in 1946 with the Philadelphia Stars in 1 the Negro National League. Five years later he signed a contract with the Cleveland Indians and remained in pro-

fessional baseball until retirement. simpson was employed at Goodyear Aerospace at the time of induction into the ~~11of Fame."' Ronald Delaney, a former West High School athlete, was an undefeated boxer in his three-year career as an < amateur, and hie professional record stood at fifty-three victories, three defeats, and four draws. His most publicized fight took place in February 1955 at the Akron Armory when he defeated Johnny Saxon, the welterweight champion, in a nontitle bout. The fight which Delaney considered most memorable, bwever, was his defeat of Holly Mims at Madison Square Gardens. In 1954 Delaney was ranked fourth nationally in the middleweight division, and that same year Ring Maga- -zine named him as Fighter of the Month "' In 1974, Gus Johnson was enshrined for his basketball prowess. During his outstanding career he was a five-time All-Pro with the Baltimore Bullets and a member

"'Ibid., 9 October 1973, p. D9.

"'IbU., 5 October 1973, p. B6. 374

of the 1970-71 World Championship finalist team.'" Johnson had attended Central High School where he was a key player early in his high school career. Le8 Carney, a star trachan at Ohio University, came to Akron after graduation in 1959 and became employed at O'Neil's as an assistant buyer. Intent on representing

the Vnited States in the Olympic games in Rome, he continued to train and practiced in the evenings at the Uni- versity of Akron, assisted by coach Tom Evans.

80 captured a place on the united States' team in July 1960, and on 3 September 1960 won a silver medal, placing second to Italy's Ilvio Herruti. Carney ran the 220 in 20.5 seconds, and was one of the few trackmen from the V.S.A. to win a medal that year.'"

Black librarians

As the decade began Sarah Lindsey was branch librarian of Wooster Branch Llbrary havlng been appointed to that position in 1958. She remalned in that post until 1961 and was followed by Mrs. Evelyn Cage who became branch librarian in 1962."' Hrs. Mildred Wright (sister of Mrs. Evelyn Cage)

"'Ibid., 8 October 1974, p. D5.

"'Ibid., 14 October 1968, p. B1. "'Interview wlth Mrs. Curtice Myers, Akron, Ohio, 4 April 1975. 375 joined the Akron Public Library staff as a children's librarian in 1960. She was appointed as branch librarian in 1970 and is presently serving in that position.'" ma. Wright has been particularly effective in helping to establish the successful reading program at Wooster Branch Library, sponsored in conjunction with the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity.

Blacks in medicine Dr. Melvin Farris, a battler of discrimination in all of its forms, had fought specifically to eliminate segregation in Akron's semiprivate hospital rooms prior to the 1950s. But he had learned to confront life's problems years earlier in his childhood, and he continued that battle throughout medical school. An account of his struggle to become a doctor through sheer determination, countless hours of hard labor at all kinds of jobs, personal sacrifices, and the financial assistance from classmates and several scholarships, reflected the respect that he earned as he triumphed over adversities.

Farria, an honor graduate of Lorain High School in

1934, once received financial support from the Lorain

Rotary Club. Later in his sophomore year of medical school, when he didn't have money to continue, his all- white classmates chipped in three dollars apiece to pay

"'Akron Beacon Journal, 29 November 1970, p. F3. I. 376

him tuition. Throughout his adult life Farris has been active in cornunity affairs and has fought for equality and educational opportunities whether personally involved or not. Iie has devoted many hours of his tune toward making Akron a better place in which to live."' Blacks were beginning to make gains in diverse arena of medicine and by 1961 a Negro was president of District one of the Ohio Society of Medical Technologists. James Stembridge, who was known to many Akronites as a pianist in a jaza band, attended Ohio State University and graduated in 1959 with a bachelor of science degree in bacteriology. He trained for one year as a medical tech- nologist at St. Thomas Hospital before joining the hospital'e staff."'

A number of significant advancements occurred for

black physicians beginning in the 1960s. As far as can be determined, in 1964 Dr. Luther Robinson became the first black doctor to complete a residency, in pediatrics, at Akron Children's Hospital, and in that same year Dr. mssell Platt was the first black physician to complete a

residency, in internal medicine, at Akron City Hospital."'

'"Ibid., 22 May 1960, p. D3. "'Ibid., 13 June 1962.

"'Interview with Dr. Luther Robinson, Akron, Ohio, 4 April 1975. II

377

By the late 1960s Akron's black doctors had not

only become specialists, but a few had also begun to sub-

specialize. Dr. Haynes 8. Robinson, Jr. became a pediatric pathologist and is currently employed in that position at Akron Children's Hospital. He had graduated from medical school at Ohio State University and completed residencies in pediatrics, general pathology, and pediatric pathology at the State University of New York in Buffalo.u' Dr. Eayes Davis subspecialized in nephrology having studied that branch of medicine at University Hospital of Case-Western Reserve from 1971 to 1974. He attained his medical degree from Tufts University, School of Medicine in BQston, Uassachusetts

Davis vas honored in the fall of 1974 at a reception sponsored by Mt. Zion Baptist Church in recognition of his being appointed as head of the nephrology department at Akron City Hospital. He became the first black in the

city's history to become a full-tune head of a medical department in any of Akron's hospitals.'" - By the early 1970s Dr. Wilfred B. Bozeman served as

chief of obstetrics and gynecology at Akron General

"'Interview with Dr Haynes Robinson, Jr., Akron, Ohio, 4 April 1975. "'Interview with Dr. Hayes Davis, Akron, Ohio, 11 April 1975, "'Ibidr (Akron) Reporter, 23 November-30 November 1974. 378

nedical Center, and Dr. John Poulson served as chief of staff at St. Thomas Hospital."'

A local black doctor who has made several advancements within the past fifteen years is Dr. E. Gates mrgan,

6 general surgeon. Morgan had the distinction of being the first black physician in Akron to become an officer in . the Sununit County Medical Society, serving as treasurer in 1967. In 1971 he was elected as president of the society and has served a total of eight years in various offices on its executive advisory board. mrgan has attained three specialties in his medical career and currently practices all three he has been a general surgeon for nineteen years; has practiced psychosomatic medicine for fifteen years using hypnotherapj and hypnoanalysis techniques; and has practiced acupuncture for one-and-a-half years."'

In January 1975 Dr. Luther Robinson was appointed as a representative of the Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine on the Admissions Committee which will recommend admission of students to the combined B.S.-M.D. program of the University of Akron. (The Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine is a consortium of the university of Akron, Kent State University, and

"'interview with Dr. Luther Robinson, 4 April 1975. "'Interview with Dr. E. Gates Horgan, Akron, Ohio, 11 April 1975. 379

Youngstown State University ) Robinson is also an officer of the medical staff at Akron Children's Hospital."' Early in 1975 there were black residents in Akron hospitals who were training in the following diverse specialties ophthamoloq, orthopedics, urology, pediatrics, internal medicine, and obstetrics and gynecology!"

Blacks in the arts

A number of young black poets emerged in the 1960s as black pride, black literature, and black language became more in vogue.

One who longed to become a poet but never saw his dreams fulfilled was Jerry Herbert, who died at age twenty-one after a short illness. A graduate of south nigh Scbol, Herbert had spent many hours developing his talent. Several of his poems had been published in the

Akron Beacon Journal, and he was described by one reporter as having an uncanny way of putting his finger on a problem through verse.l'O Herbert, one of eight children of Mr. and Mrs. Henry Herbert, had a deep respect for his family and had mitten several poems about his parents which reflected the guidance, strength, and love they had given their

"'Interview with Dr. Luther Robinson, 4 April 1975. ' "Ibid. '"Akron Beacon Journal, 20 August 1972, p. A34. _. 'I ' c 380 children. Another young Akron poet, Lloyd P. Terrell, was honored in February 1975 when the editors of the National Poetry Anthology selected one of his poems to appear in their 1975 publication. The poem entitled *I Remember" vas written by Terrell in honor of the famous contralto, llarian Anderson. Terrell, a student at Paine College, plans to publish a book of poetry, Thoughts on Paper, in 1975.'"

As a part of the educational program jointly spon- =red by Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity ad Wwster Branch of the Akron Public Library, Thomas M. Sistrunk, a local black poet, accepted an offer to teach young people how to develop their creative writing talents. Sistrunk, vho has published a series of his poems, has recorded some of his poetry, has made numerous appearances on radio and television programs, and has spoken at area high schools. ' ' * A former Akronite, Linda Brown Bragg, has achieved national recognition as a poet. Hrs. Bragg, who teaches in the Black Literature and Black studies Department at the University of North Carolina, published a book of poems, 'A Love Song to Black Hen,. which was released in

'"JAkron) Reprter, I5 February-22 February 1975. '"Ibid., 23 November-30 November 1974. , 381

Pabruary 1975. ' ' ' In the field of art, Edith Player Brown, a local black artist, has gained recognition for her contemporary . paintinga which are abstract expressions with references to nature. She has won several Akron Art Institute awards 1 and has had one-man shows locally at Packard Gallery and the Akron Art Institute, and at Bennett College in Greens- boro, North Carolina. Her paintings, which are a part of permanent collections, include one at the Akron Art Institute, .The Third BoUr.--a depiction of the crucif ixion--and two abstract paintings at the Akron Public Library. One of bar paintings is exhibited in the main office of the Akron National Bank, and several others are in the offices of Madison, bdison, and Madison, architects in Cleveland, Ohio. '*' Perhaps one of the most versatile and unusual nationally known former Akronites is a musician, Len Chandler, a black poet-singer. Chandler had been the abject of a Time Magazine article In 1968 when he was a singing news commentator at radio station KRLA in Pasadena, California. Be was assigned to write and sing three

numbers a day for their 9 00 A.M., 12:OO M, and 3-00 P.M.

'"Interview with Edith Player Brown, Akron, Ohio, 7 Harch 1975. '"Ibid. new8 broadcasts. According to a news article, some of Chandler's instant music is topical, some is philosophical, some is delivered simply with his voice and gultar, some mixes multlple maices (all Chandler's) with guitar, oboes. Engllsh borns, flutes, and an assortment of percusslon effects, all played by Chandler Some of the songs are short, but mny run three or three-and-a-half minutes in length."' While obtaining his bachelor's degree from the Dni-eity of Akron, Chandler wrote twenty-three ballads, chorus ambers, and novelty tunes for a 1958 production (at the university) of his own musical comedy *Love's Here at Last.. The talented musician earned his master's degree from Columbia University, became interested in folk music, and has traveled as a folk singer making appearances at NWYork's Carnegie Hall, the Greek Theater in Ins Angeles, Nevport's Polk Festival, and on soul shows on television. "*

A former Akronite, Kermit Moore, a world-renowned black cellist, continued to play at recitals in New York and other large cities throughout the 1960s. His solo appearance with the Symphony Orchestra at Philharmonic Hall in New York's Lincoln Center evoked seven curtain

I"~ns hgeles Times, 3 November 1968, Calendar, p. 11. "'Akron Beacon Journal, 19 March 1970, p. D2. 383 calls."' In 1974 more conducted the Symphony of the New

World in a program of compositions by five black composers, held in New York City.'"

An accomplished musician in the area of black church music is Bettye R. Palms, music minister of Greater Bethel Baptist Church in Akron.

Mrs. Palms, who worked as a \didator at the Smit County Welfare Office in 1970, had attended the University of Akron fifteen years prior, and music instructors at that institution had predicted a successful future for her as a coluratura soprano or as a concert pianist. Church music, however, was the most immportant thing in her life. Mrs. Palms' soul interpretations of anthems, spirituals, and gospels has resulted in their being recorded by the church chorus on long-playing albums.

At age twelve she became choir director at St. John Christian Methodist Episcopal Church on Berry Avenue, and by age sixteen she was pianist at Providence Baptist

Church. Six months later Mrs. Palms accompanied the choir at Greater Bethel Baptist church. As music minister, she selects the music for the services, arranges it, and teaches the chorus members to sing it according to her

lb'1bid., 21 Nay 1967, Arts Section, p. 19. lb'New York Post, 25 February 1974. sou1 interpretations. "'

Blacks and reliqion The strength provided by black churches has always been significant in the lives of Negroes. In the tumultuous times of the civil rights movement, as in other times, the leadership of pastors was crucial. Akron's black ministers.1ike ministers elsewhere, sought and encouraged racial harmony and supported the quest for civil rights. By the mid-1960s black churches were not only involved in programs to strengthen their own churches internally but were also involved in community activities to close the gap between those who had been mre fortunate and those rho had been less fortunate. One example of I their support wan their participation in the Youth Oppor- tunities Unlimited (Y.0.U 1 sponsored by the ACSCcUL."' The growth of Akron's black religious institutions both in membership and numbers has been encouraging.''' A description of the programs of a few congregations follows to illustrate the internal development of Akron's

'"Akron Beacon Journal, 11 January 1970, p E3. ' "Akron Community Service Center and Urban League, Inc., 'Forty-first Annual Report: Action Now to close the Gap,. Akron, Ohio, 1966. "'A list of Akron's black churches is included in apperdix 3. black churches. A number of new church structures were erected between 1960 and 1975. Early in the 1960s ground was broken for the new Antioch Baptist Church and Rev. Dr. Upshar assumed the job of general contractor. He saved the congregation substantial funds as he worked alongside of them doing the manual labor necessary to build the edifice. The new worship center with an educational unit uas dedicated on 3 June 1962."' St. Paul AlIE Church had undergone numerous building improvements under the pastorship of Rev. G. Lincoln Caddell who pastored from 1957 to 1970. Rev. Dr. Caddell, a graduate of Payne Theological Seminary and Wilberforce

University, was a profound theologian. In 1956 he received the Alumni Citation of Honor from Wilberforce University. He was elected to the board of directors of

Payne Theological Seminary in 1958. In 1966 Rev. Dr. Caddell was listed in Who's Who in Negro Clergy Following Rev. Dr. Caddell's pastorship, Rev. Simon Perkins, Jr. became minister of the church. Under his pastorate, membership increased, attendance doubled, and a new church was erected. Groundbreaking ceremonies occurred in June 1971. Three years later, Rev. Harold

"'*Program of Antroch,' 1962. "'(Akron) Reporter, 21 December-28 December 1974. f. 386

Ashby became pastor of St. Paul AI4E Church and is presently serving as pastor to that congregation."' Centenary United Methodist Church has moved twice during the past fifteen years. In 1960 it was located at wooster Avenue and Raymond Street. Seven years later the church opened its doors to the youth in the area And housed the Wmster Avenue Youth Center in the building's basement. Several ministers served the church between 1960 and 1975. Their names and years of pastorship follow

Rev. C. A. Talbert, 1959-62, Rev. Robert Wynn, 1962-66; Rev. Karl L. Bucey, 1966-68: Rev Walter Weston, 1968-72; Rev. Robert Talbert, 1969-71. Rev. Donald E. Grant ae8urn.d the position in 1972 and currently serves as pastor. Under Rev. Ilr. Grant's pastorship the church relocated to its newly built structure on Superior Avenue."' The congregation had copastors, Rev. Walter Weston and Rev. Robert Talbert, between 1969 and 1971. A few years after hi6 pastorship at Centenary,Rev. Mr. Talbert became Superintendent of Akron District of the United Methodist Church which includes the areas of Summit County and western Portage County."' Centenary is the only

ls'.Condensed History of St. Paul,. 1951, pp. 2-3. "'.Souvenir Program Fiftieth Anniversary of Centenary," 1968. '"Akron Beacon Journal, 30 December 1973, p. E3. 387 primarily black United Methodist Church in the Akron district and has had white pastors. In the mid-1960s Rev. William Hawkins, pastor of Ak- ron's Greater Bethel Baptist Church, initiated a program entitled SHARE (Self -Help and Re-Education) to inspire Negroes to help themselves and to improve their position in the community. Phase One of the program was designed to provide emergency service to indigent Akronites, both black and white. Phase hto was established to sell shares to interested citizens to provide capital to purchase a nursing home, laundromat, and restaurant. Thus, jobs wuld be provided for skilled and nonskilld persons."' The internal strength of Wesley Temple's congregation was built through a number of programs developed by ita pastor, Rev. Eugene E. Morgan. Under Rw. Dr. Horgan's leadership, a Christian Education Building was erected in

1963. The Brotherhood of Wesley Temple was organized a year later to promote the men's involvement in the church. Fifty men have met monthly for breakfast, fellowship and to hear the remarks of guest speakers. To further strengthen the organization of the church, a Presidents'

Council was formed which consisted of all of the presidents of the various organizations within the church."'

"'Ibid., 3 December 1965, p. A5. ')*Wesley Temple One Hundredth Anniversary," Akron, 1966. 388

Rev. Dr. Morgan became the first Negro to serve on the Akron Board of Education and served as the board’s president for one term. In mrch 1973 a testimonial dinner was given in his honor. Among other honors were. receiving the governor’s award for community action in 1973 and being granted an honorary doctor of humane letters from the University of ~kron.~’’ The Robert Street Church of God has aleo developed programs to strengthen its congregation and provided an educational project for youngsters in the community. In the mer of 1974 the church sponsored a project entitled Reading Excellence Acceleration Program (R.E.A.P.). The program, Conducted for six weeks, was designed to mprove reading comprehension and word discrimination skills and to promote reading enjoyment. It served primary children in the Robinson School area end enlisted the cooperation of the school system.”’ The church also planned to strengthen the family through its proposed marriage enrichment laboratory--a program structured to promote understanding of marriage anl to help marriages grow. Members of the congregation of Second Baptist

”’Akron Beacon Journal, 4 March 1973, p. E31 10 March 1373, p. A9. “‘Literature in the Personal Records of the Robert Street Church of God, Akron, Ohio, 1975. Church attended groundbreaking ceremonies for their new building in the fall of 1974."' Rev. Stanley Lynton, the pastor since 1942, has furnished his members with the kind of spiritual strength which has sustained hm throughout his life. Eis father died when he was only six months old and hi3 mother's death occurred when he was still a young child. Raised in Cleveland by an aunt he was taught to 'be anything you want, but be the best:"' Rev. Dr. Lynton, who views life as *a chance to be a servant rather than a slave,' was the first Negro president of the Akron Hinisterial Association. Be served three years as chair- 9 man of the Interfaith Committee of the Council of Churches and was a charter member of the Citizen's for Progress."'

Black humanitarians

A number of blacks have been selected for the local newspaper's feature .Biography in Brief: nDst have been chosen for business or professional reasons, but several have been cited for their humanitarianism--their everyday efforts to make the world a better place in which to live, to make each day a little brighter for others. IPndon Stone, a Goodyear employee, had a minimal formal education but took a particular interest in safety

la' (Akron) Reporter, 28 September-5 October 1974.

'"Akron Beacon Journal, 1 May 1966, p. F3. ' "Ibid . 390 when he wrked a second job at Acme Safety Products. Believing in safety as a philosophy of life, Stone has taken years of Red Cross training on the subject; has contributed award-winning safety ideas to Goodyear; and has become a first-aid man and male nurse for his church, Greater Bethel Baptist. When the Acme Safety Products Company was dissolved, Stone found a second job at Akron General Medical Center where he has become a real morale builder. Appreciative of the dedication the nurses give to others, he felt they should be recognized. His policy has been to invite groups of the hospital staff to be his guests at dinner and if umble to accompany them,he has the restaurant charge the bill to his account. According to the news article, .It really does show there in someone who cares:^ " Cleathus Johnson, one of the founders of Prince of Peace Baptist Church and a devoted church wrker, has contributed hours of happiness to others through his routine hospital visits to patients-many of whom have no family close by, or would have had no visitor at all if it weren't for Johnson. When he first began visiting, his routine was simply to visit room by room to greet the patients and ask

'"Akron Beacon Journal, 14 October 1973, p. H3. 391 how they felt. As time passed, Akron City Hospital granted him the privilege of calling at nonvisiting hours because his attention was so beneficial to certain patients and a necessary contact with the outside world

for many vho vere confined. Johnson later joined the ~ hospital volunteer staff after retiring from Pirestone Tire and Rubber Co.’” John Robinson, stricken in the prime of life by multiple sclerosis, has also demonstrated the qualities characteristic of humanitarians. According to his biographical portrait he has spent many of his painful hours planning activities for others who are handicapped. An illustrative case is a cultural program vhich he organized for the members of Handicap Action vherein he has taken them to the Akron Public Library hoping that it will benefit both the handicapped and society. His strength of spirit is reflected in his words. It’s time mankind, and that includes the handicapped, started taking a long, hard look at itself . . . They (the handicappecll‘will become better citizens. Knowledge is power Opie mans has spread joy among both the young and old, black and white, in Akron In 1973, he visited a class at Grace School and taught them about economic power based on personal experience in his own life. Evans gave

“’Ibid., 25 Plarch 1973, p. P3. ‘“Ibid., 14 December 1969, p. E3. 392 each youngster a dollar and a choice--to spend the dollar or to double its value by opening a savings account at a local bank."' Mout one year later, Evans purchased a motor home in which he takes senior citizens for outings wherever they wish to visit Be does it .because he likes people :' Tvo black mmen, Dorothy 0. Jackson and Pauline R. Kirk, have made significant contributions toward helping the handicapped. Dorothy Jackson worked as director of public relations of Goodwill Industries in the 1960s and through a scholarship which they provided her, she learned to communicate with the deaf. During a certain period of each day, she taught sign language to staff members and workers who could hear in order to enable them to talk with the deaf.'" In 1967 Pauline Kirk enrolled in a course in Braille transcription at the University of Akron so that she could learn to copy books for the blind. Mrs. Kirk, now an accomplished certified transcriber, has also taught classes in transcription at the Red Cross headquarters. In addition, she has worked as a volunteer in the class

"'Ibid., 12 February 1973, p. B1.

"'Ibid., 18 February 1974, p. A6. "'Ibid., 27 February 1966, p. 53. 393 for visually handicapped children at Crouse Elementary school. 17 9 Two other black wmen, maJean Stewart and Ida Lou Talley, have contributed heasurably to the growth and developent of children. Mrs. Stewart founded the Wartin Luther Ring Center, a chartered youth activity center which is located in a converted church building approximately a block from her home on Bell Street. The center was actually started in the basement of her home where she had given countless hours of devotion and guidance to children teaching them about love, respect, right, and wrong. She doesn't use the words 'good. or .bad. in her descriptions of children's behavior, but has preferred to express her beliefs about children's conduct thusly Children need a chance to turn around and look at things, and then maybe grow in a different direction from where they started."' Ilrs. Talley, like Mrs. Stewart, has known the loy that comes from helping others. She has been an outstanding community wrker, volunteering her tune to the Girl Scouts and several PTA organizations since 1951. In

1963 she received an award for her wrk with the Girl Scouts and four years later was elected to the board of

'"Ibid., 7 April 1974, p. P3. "'Ibid., 26 December 1971, p D3. 394 the Western Reserve Council of Girl Scouts. In 1968 Mrs.

Talley was awarded an Honorary Life Membership in the Ohio Congress of Parents and Teachers The example of her life has been living proof of the philosophy of believing in one's self, and she once provided an unforgettable lesson to youngsters to instill self-confidence in them. After several children had told her, on a given occasion, .I can't do it,' she had them mite -1 can't. on a piece of paper. While the children watched, Mrs. Talley dug a hole, requested that they drop their -1 can'ts. in it1 and buried the 'I can't." that day. Eer demonstrative lesson caused the youngsters to think trice about saying .I can't.""'

smry A civil rights movement waa underway throughout the nation by the 1960s as blacks used nonviolent approaches to resist the discrunination and oppression which had for

IY) long been a part of their lives.

College students became involved in the movement and participated in sit-ins, freedom rides, marches, and other nonviolent tactics to draw attention to tne inequality that prevailed in America. Aa their approaches were anawered by fire hoses, clubbings, the use of police dogs, etc., the mass media aired the violence and the

"'Ibid., 8 June 1969, p. D3. 395 entire world viewed the horrendous treatment of black Americans and white sympathizers. In the mid-1960s federa: programs were initiated to help the poor and to respond to the frustrating circumstances engulfing their lives As these programs were being implemented, scattered violent outbreaks were erupting nationwide as hopeless ghetto dwellers expressed their hostility through looting and burning. Towards the decade's end the emergence of black ponv and black pride vas omnipresent for blacks had been the focus of Mtional and international attention. Mltiple changes occurred on a nationwide scale as blacks gained recognition--and black became beautiful and respectable. The local response to the civil rights movement mirrored the national events as Akron's black residents reaponded with protests, programs, and pride.

Black Akronites, empathizing with blacks throughout the country, demonstrated their sentments through participation in marches, and later in participating in six days of civil disturbance. Anti-poverty programs were developed and funded through Summit County CAC and Model Cities, and the ACsccUL--which historically had had a philosophy of social service--redirected its emphasis toward social change. mst programs which attempted to break the poverty 396 cycle focused on upqrading education, economic development, employment, and general living conditions. Black pride was evident in the continuance of programs that had existed prior to the civil rights movement --the Elks Oratorical Contest and observance of the mncipation Proclamation Day--and through the development of new programs. A series of black history lectures and discussions was initiated: a *Crispus Attucks Day' was proclaimed: and a .Hiss Black Akron' contest emerged. Teatimony of the advances made by blacks was wst evident in their broadened areas of employment--both vertically and horizontally. Blacks were wrking in significantly more fields: they were starting to be employed in policy-making and decisions, they were being appointed as board members of important organizations in the city: and they were in positions to help other Negroes. The diverse areas in which Negroes were employed included: law, government, military service, business, Industry, mass media, education, libraries, ministry, medicine, athletics, and social vork. I

CBRPTER VI1 SIJHPIRRY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

sumnary In 1825, when the city of Akron was founded, the institution of slavery was becoming a national issue, and diverse approaches to solve the slavery question and the

Wegro problem in America were being proposed, i.e., colonization, abolition of slavery, and resistance to slavery through escape.

As the various movements began, sentiments regard- irq slavery and freemen were reflected in varied opinions hoth between and within states. Although Ohioans did not support slavery, they were sharply divided in their acceptance of freemen in the state, and 'Black Laws" were enacted to regulate the lives of blacks and mulattoes. Since Akron was located in the Western Reserve, blacks residing in the city were treated more humanely and received strong support and protection from the abolitionists in the area. Several Underground Railroad stations passed through the city and fugitive slaves were assisted on their way to Canada in the years prior to the Civil War.

397 -_ 398

During the Civil War, several of Akron's black men served in regiments from Ohio and other states. Some of them had been born free, but at least one--who settled in Akron after the war--had escaped from slavery prior to enlisting in the service. Although the war terminated the practice of slavery, racial krriers prevailed and Akron's black citizens recognized the need to unify in order to progress. By the century's end, three black churches had been organized, a minute number of black business enterprises were in operation: a civic club was founded, two black political clubs were established, and two colored benevolent and secret societies were formed. The city's first riot occurred at the turn of the century when a Negro, muis Peck, was accused of assaulting a six-year-old girl. He was arrested in Akron, but was subsequently transferred secretly to a Cleveland jail after mob rule prevailed. A crokd had advanced on the city jail in an attempt to enter forcibly and remove Peck. In ensuing actions 1) police fired on the advancing rioters, accidentally killing two children: 2) the enraged crobd returned hours later, burned City Hall and damaged and destroyed other properties: and 3) martial law had to be declared. After calm was restored, and trials could take place, forty-one persons were prosecuted and Peck was 399 hnprisoned at the state penitentiary. Years later, he was granted an unconditional pardon upon presentation of evidence that he had not received a fair trial. In the first decade of the 1900s. black residents experienced gradual growth politically and socially. They bad become more cognizant of their lack of representation in the city's government and therefore organized a political club to give united supprt only to the political party which buuld act in their behalf. Socially, Akron's black residents were establishing laal chapters of national social organizations to uplift Negroes either through self-help and/or through improved race relations. Among the early organizations oriented toward self-help were the secret and benevolent societies such as the Daughters of Jerusalem, the I.B.P.O.E. of W. (the Negro Elks), the Grand United Order of True Reformers, and the Knights of Pythias. The Loyal Legion of Labor, mapported by many of Akron's prominent white citizens, eought to elwate the black mn's position while simultaneously creating racial accord.

Although slavery was ended, .the Negro problem. had not been eliminated by the Civil War, and diverse solutions to the .problem" were proposed by black8 and whites, professionals and laymen. Lecturers generally advised blacks to acquire an education and encouraged whites to understand Negroes 400

A marked change in Akron's racial composition occurred between 1910 and 1919 a8-significant numbers of southern blacks and whites migrated to Akron during

World War I. The Negro population rose sharply from 525 to 5.580 and was accompanied by drastic changes in attitudes toward Negroes. Racial hostility prevailed and blacks were confronted with the terror tactics and 'Jim Crowism' practiced in the South. Segregated environments served to develop black cohesion, black consciousness, and black culture. More black churches were formed and became key institutions in the lives of Negroes, black political and social organi- rations increased. and black professionals and businessmen were beginning to Secure a black clientele. As the decade neared its end, a powerful organization, the local NAACP, was organized, and a Colored YMCA was formed to attend to Negroes' social problems. Black students in Akron rarely completed high school and a college education vas almost nonexistent Those who did attend college generally enrolled at Wilber- force University. One or two Akronites attended the Uni- versity of Akron by the late 1910s. By 1920 racial oppression was one of the character- istics of the city of Akron following the influx of southern Negroes in the prior decade Protests and resistance were the responses on the part of Akron's black 4 01 population. Black citizens, realizing their slow progress politically, began to seek public office themselves and preslured for political appointments of Negroes to positions in local government. Their efforts resulted in very minimal gains. Rlo blacks were appointed in the police department and a few other political jobs were secured by 1930.

The plight of blacks was protested through speakers who educated whites abut Negroes, and Negroes demonstrated their pride in blackness through participation in programs related to black history.

While acme economic growth was evident, the majority of blacks were restricted to menial employment. Economic advances, although slow, were manifested through several changes: 1) blacks engaged in a variety of busr- nesses owned or operated by men and/or vomen, 2) the number of black professionals had increased to four black physicians, three dentists, five attorneys, and two pharmacists, 3) a Negro business league was formed to promote black business, and 4) a black finance company was instituted to grant Negroes loans. The black social environment in Akron embraced cultural, athletic, community, educational, and religious activities. Black churches continued to occupy a vital position in the lives of Negroes, serving as houses of worship, lecture halls for speakers, and a social outlet whera leadership was developed and fellowship was extended.

The ACm, a social service agency to assist blacks,

grew out of the efforts of the Colored YMCA, and the NARCP continued to fight racial discrimination on all fronts. Both organizations became prominent in the black community and addressed mast of its problems. Blacks were beginning to realize the value of an ducation and families and organizations encouraged young-

sters to complete their high school educatlons. But the depression years were particularly difficult for Akron's Pegro families (blacks were the last to be hired and the first to be laid off) am3 the need to secure employment frequently prevented them from completing their education. Despite the hardships they encountered, Negroes were making progress. Black athletes were gaining recognition; a black elementary school pupil had won the Akron Spelling Bee; more Negroes were completing high school and advancing to college (with assistance from local black organizations) and other black associations were founded to advance Negroes, socially, culturally, and civicly.

As the 1940s began the chief problem confronting Akron's Negro population was one of economics, for blacks continued to be underemployed regardless of their educational attainment. Both militant strategies and dialogues were utilized by black organizations to effect a change in 403

tho hiring policies of Akron's business and industrial landers, but most endeavors met with recalcitrance. In the black social environment, churches and organizations remained supportive in their attempts to motivate Negroes to further their educations, recreational programs were increasing, and blacks were participating in more cultural activities. Living quarters for most black Americans were in older neighborhoods, and Akron's Negro popclation was the most ill-housed of the city's residents. Thus, they continued to fight for slum clearance projects, the elimination of racial barriers related to purchasing or renting homes, and the eradication of vice conditions in their comunities. In apite of the tremendous and unending obstacles, Akron Negro residents persevered. Gains were minimal, but each step led to a higher one and by 1950, a few black teachers had been employed; a black nurse was hired in a local hospital: a black lawer had become assistant law director, and Negroes were pursuing outstanding musical careers. The 1950s witnessed marked advancements in enploy- ment as major breakthroughs occurred. For the first tme in the city's history, Negroes were beginning to be hired in jobs that were outside of the realm of domestic rork or common labor. Even though blacks were hired with reservations as to the number and type of employment given them, and the jobs were not high-paying positions, they wefinally being recognized as being capable of performing at a level higher than that of custodial work. In the next decade, the national civil rights movement was reflected in Akron as Negroes participated in the activities which dominated the 1960s--black protests, anti-poverty programs, and the manifestation of black pride. Negroes took part in the local marches and the Harch on Washington. Akron witnessed a six-day civil dimturbance; Black Akronites played key roles in develop- I ing, staffing, and operating anti-poverty programs, and as Akron's older Negro residents took a renewed interest in black pride, Akron's youth--black and white--began to learn about Negro history for the first time in their lives. By the 1970s blacks had advanced to positions unattainable Only ten to fifteen years prior. Within the past five to ten years Negroes 1) have begun to hold administrative, policy-making positions in their various fields of employment in white organizations, 2) have begun to study and specialize in fields formerly closed to them; 3) have been appointed to sit on governing boards that effect the lives of Akron's citizenry, and 4) have advanced to positions in white organizations which have enabled them to render assistance to other blacks and thus advanca the city as a whole.

Conclusions

The historical inquiry of black history in Akron has been written from scattered and fragmented data. However, absence of data does not indicate that information does not exist, but rather that the restrictive element of time limited the vriter to focus on those records known to be available. While the generalizations are necessarily speculative, the findings that are reported herein are substantiated by data that were reflected throughout the study. Conclusions revolve around seven areas that were predominant in the inquiry: Negroes' appraisals of their circumstances, the role of the black church: black awareness, the strength of Akron's Negro residents: white support of Akron's black citizens: aconomic conditions of Negroes; and the education of blacks. In regard to Negroes' appraisals of their circw- stances, the available data have indicated the following: 1. Prior to the Civil War, blacks convened to protest their treatment and to determine the best measures to protect themselves from the atrocities of the Fugitive

Slave Iav 2. By the late 18908 and continuing for many 406 .I

yaars hence (i.e., 1901, 1910, 1915, 1920, 1928, 1942) blacks formed political clubs to protest their lack of representation in governmental affairs

3. As early as the 19108 Negroes wrote letters to the aditor protesting vice conditions in their communities. discriminatory conditions confronting returning veterans; the presence of .undesirable' blacks in their neighborhoods: and lack of political support 4. In 1913 blacks presented resolutions to the mayor seeking protection from the racist tactics that Occurred on North Hill 5. In the 1920s Negroes filed a petition in court to protest the activities of the Ku Klux xlan 6. By the 1940s Negroes participated in militant affirmative action programs to obtain decent jobs, and blacks engaged in dialogue throughout the 1940s and 1950s to protest discruninatory hiring policies

1. The 1960s witnessed Negroes being involved in civil rights marches, the eruption of a sixday civil disturbance: and blacks making demands for equality Therefore, the writer concludes that black residents in Akron have been a strong, courageous, and determined people who have not been apathetic and voiceless in their reactions to preludicial treatment, but have protested for over one hundred years, utilizing the avenues at their command. Moreover, although blacks had very lunited 4 07 educations in the early 1900s, they confronted their problems intelligently--expressing themselves in a literate way and through commendable, thoughtful behavior. Findings related to Akron's black churches reflected their various uses and functions as follows-

1. As early as the 1890s speakers came to churches to discuss the Negro problem, Negro progress, black pride: to plead for political unity, etc. 2. In 1903 a reception was held at Second Baptist Church for delegates to the Loyal Legion of Labor, and in 1913 fertive ceremonies took place at said church to com- mcmorate the semicentennial anniversary of the Emancipa- tion Proclamation 3. By the 1910s a church was established in Akron as an outgrowth of the large influx of southerners migrating to the city 4. Families were fed at Wesley Temple during the depression years, and a few decades later Antioch Baptist church provided classes in Christian Education 5. Prom the 1960s to the present time, Akron's black churches have been involved in educational programs to uplift Negroes1 enlarge opportunities for youths; strengthen marriages, etc.

6. Several of Akron's successful black musicians-- smith, Brazil, Fleming, and Palms-developed their musical backgrounds in their respective churches at very early ages Therafore, the writer concludes that Akron's black churches have played a vital role in the development of , Akron's black families, serving them in several capacities. First of all, the black church has fulfilled its primary responsibility in serving as a religious institution, a house of vorship, and a source of spiritual atrength. Secondly, the black church has been an educational institution providing an educational setting for black

familiee and black organizations, and a lecture hall for orators. Thirdly, the black church has served as a social institution, being a social hall for receptions and celebrations and an organization that addressed the social problems of Negroes. Finally, the black church has been a cultural institution which has perpetuated black culture through its music, its dinners and its spiritual support. Data on black awareness yielded the following information.

1. As early as the 1870s blacks were celebrating the anniversary of the Fifteenth Amendment

2. The semicentennial anniversary of the Wncipa- tion Proclamation was commemorated through a festive program in 1913 3. Blacks contributed to the Akron Centennial celebration in 1925 through their participation in an all- black chorus which offered a program of Negro spirituals and readings

4. In 1927 a civic organization initiated the annual observance of the anniversary of the emancipation Proclamation

5. The decade of the 1930s witnessed the I.B.P.O.E. of W. (the Negro Elks) sponsoring their annual

OratOriCal contest in which participants spoke on some aspect of black history and the United States Constitution, the Council of Negro Women sponsoring Negro Health Week activities and black history contests for high school studentst the Negro Art Club presenting a Negro art collection to the Akron Art Institute; representatives from diverse black organizations participating in dedication ceremonies for the John Brown nemorial, and black citizens extending a ceremonious welcome home when MaCNolia cox,

Spelling Bee champion, returned from Washington, D.C. 6. In the 1960s black was recognized as beautiful and respectable and by the early 1970s .Crispus Attucks Day' was established through a mayoral proclamation Therefore, the writer concludes that although black pride flourished in the 1960s and blackness gained some measure of respectability, the concepts of black pride, black consciousness, and black culture have been prevalent and exhibited since the early years when black pioneers 410

mesettling in Akron.

The strength Of Akron's black residents vas evidenced in the findings which follow 1. During the 1850s black families demonstrated strength by remaining in Akron despite the fears brought on by the stringent Fugitive Slave Law. Conversely, those Akronites who fled to Canada also exemplified strength-- the strength involved in risking their lives to travel on the Underground Railroad 2. Prior to the turn of the century, Negroes were engaged in activities oriented toward self-help. They established benevolent and secret societies, organizations

+o effect social uplift: clubs to create political awareness; and churches to strengthen spiritual growth 3. In the 1910s Negroes reflected courage and stamina when they resisted white terrorism--individually and collcctively--in events on North Hill 4. By the mid-1920s blacks had united to form organizations to protect themselves from the harsh reali-

\ ties of discrmination, to assist needy families: and to render diverse social services to the black community 5. The inner strength that it took to motivate

black children to aspire to unseen and only hoped for

revards was exemplified decade after decade. Encourage- ment, pride, strength, love, and admiration were passed on within the inthcies of the family circle as is reflected 411 in the findings throughout the study, i.e., data related in the lives of Rollin Smith, Dr. Robert Burton, William and Borace Bell; Margaret and Bradley McClain, the Dalmae -re family; Eerbert Bracken; the Dumas Robinson family, Wry Eolmes; Dr. Lu Wims, Elmore Banton, Tommy Dingle; nortin Chapman; Rev. Stanley Lyntonr Rev. U. S. hnnerlyn, etc . Therefore, the writer concludes that throughout their history black Akronites have exhibited resilience, adaptability, perseverance, and strength--positive attributes, both necessary for survival and rorthy of emulation. Available data related to white support of Akron's Negro population yielded the following findings:

1. As early as the 1830s abolitionist's sentiments mebeing voiced. Hcwever, by 1850 abolitionists were actively assisting fugitives who passed through the city on the Underground Railroad and were protecting free blacks from the malevolence of the Fugitive Slave Law

2. During World War I white support was overshadowed by widespread white hostility that began when large numbers of southerners from both races migrated North

3. White citizens joined black citizens in protest marches during the civil rights movement of the 1960s. and since that time whites have eliminated many of the racial barriers that retarded black progress 412

4. Encouragement, respect, financial assistance, and/or countless hours of volunteer work have been given to Negroes by supportive white citizens. Data reflected in .¶CCOUntS of the lives of Dr. Melvin Farris, Elmore Banton. Tommy Dingle, Martin Chapman, Dr. Lu Wims, and the annual reports of the ACSC, gratefully acknowledged white residents who had concerned themselves enough to provide assistance

Therefore, the writer concludes that the white CitiZenS who have assisted black people and b'ack causes have rcmained supportive regardless of the increase in the black population, for they have viewed blacks as people rather than colors. Furthermore. the strides which black Akronites have made have occurred with the immeasurable aid of white citizens who have been committed to making democracy an active process and equality its by-product. In regard to the economic progress of Akron's black residents the data has indicated that 1. Prom the city's founding until the turn of the century, mst blacks were. unskilled workers employed as cOmmOn laborers, working in servant occupations; or employed in custodial capacities

2. A few Negroes had acquired property, but the msses were unable to purchase either homes or land during Akron's pioneer days 413

3. As blacks migrated to Akron in the 19106 they found employment in factories, but mrked in the low- paying, menial positions 4. By 1920 a few Negro professiomls and businessmen and wmen were operating diverse establishments. Yet .- racial discrimination caused the majority of blacks to continue to wrk as laborers or domestics regardless of their educational levels 5. In spite of economic hardships a black finance company was formed to help Negroes obtain loans and in the 19308 a Negro business league was organized to promote black business. Blacks suffered the hardships of the depression years more than any other people for they were the last to be hired and the first to be laid off 6. The number and types of black businesses had - increased by the 1940s. However, most Negroes continued to be unemployed or underemployed as racial discrunination perpetuated status quo conditions notwithstanding the fact that blacks were furthering their educations

7. By the 1950s the first major breakthrough occurred in the hiring practices of business and industry.

Blacks were employed in capacities that had always been

closed to them in preceding years

8. Civil rights legislation of the 1960s forced the employment of blacks in fields which were formerly limited to whites. Businesses, industries, and government .. 414 complied through 'token' employment of Negroes, but have increasingly hired more blacks in positions of increased responsibility and commensurate pay Therefore, the writer concludes that the major problem for Akron's black residents has been an economic problem. Black Akronites have never acquired employment that wuld provide them with an economic power base, for one hundred and twenty-five years had passed (from 1825 to 1950) before black people in Akron were recognized as being capable of performing jobs other than as unskilled laborers. llDIeOver, it has only been since the civil rights movement--within the last fifteen years of the city's 150 years' history--that changes in policies for hiring blacks have occurred and opportunities for gainful employment have been extended to Akon's Negroes The findings in regard to the education of blacks in Akron have revealed that. 1. The family circle has been a primary educational oetting fo; Negro families where they have learned about love, strength, pride, joy, and the importance of an education. Data on persons featured in the local newspaper's biographical sketches (presented in chapters throughout the study) and persons mentioned ~n the foregoing segment on the strength of black families (pp. 410-11) indicated that they were .educated. by family members 415

2. An important part of the education of some blacks--George Mathews, Hermn Poole, Opie Evans, ~mos Porman, etC.--was self-initiated for they studied and taught themselves, in informal settings, about things in which they were interested 3. Black organizations have provided educational settings and promoted educational advances for Negroes as evidenced through the annual Elks' Oratorical contest, the ACCW'a vocational preparation programs; the Council of Negro Women's black history contest. the NAACP's awarding the Lancaster Trophy for outstanding scholarship, the American Legion, John Fulton Post No. 272's sponsorship of boys to Buckeye Boys' State, career clubs sponsored by the Frontiers of America, and sororities' and fraternities' educational programs for children

4. Black churches have historically served as educational institutions for Akron's black families (pp. 407-8). 5. Black newspapers have been published sporadically in Akron since 1922 in attempts to have a better informed Negro population 6. slacks have continued to advance their educations in the formal public school setting and in universities and colleges Therefore, the vriter concludes that the education of black AkrOniteS has occurred in numerous educational settings through the efforts of many educators from the earliest years in the city's history through the present time.

Recommendations

The black history of Akron has indicated that man's

inhumanity to man had occurred in this city as it has in tha deepest parts of the South. Black Akronites have suffered the theft of their labor; the confinements of disCrimiMtion; the humiliation that attends assigned nutordinate status: and the frustrations resulting from confrontations with ignorance. For one of the largest problems in eetablishing racial accord is that each generation claims to be blameless for the actions of the prior generation yet lives in the midst of the turmoil without developing procedures to solve the problems at hand. Improvement in Akron's race relations calls for the highest virtues in men to solve the *racial' problem. Studies of this kind can provide a reflective beginning. Viewed from this perspective the writer offers the following recommendations- 1. That the study be utilized as a resource for educators in their various educational settings

2. That the history of black residents in Akron be taught not as a recitation of names, dates, and places, but 417

as a documented account of trends, themes; practicest and how people face and address their problems. Furthermore, that the research be used as an open-ended study that raises more questions than it answers, having no right and wrong answers. Hopefully readers will seek reasons for why racial progress has occurred or why it has not occurred-and then provide those things necessary to effect the changes that will produce racial harmony

3. That this inquiry serve as a guidepost to the exploration of the vast areas yet unexplored. rhe various facats of Akron's black history, i.e., black churches, black organizations, black blographies, black education, 'etc. would constitute valuable historical inquiries

1. That educators teach history to students as a .human interest' story--wherein humans learn to be interested in the lives of others and respect others bath for their eimilarities and their differences 5. That the methodological approach to teaching history in the schools be such that students learn history from writing history. Thus, they would learn to verify and search out truth (as much as possible) using the metbdologies of external and internal analysis and external and internal criticign

6. That a *Black History of Akron Center" be instituted whlch would house relics, biographical data, taped oral traditions, pictorial and personal records, etc. 418

7. That persons in the black community be utilized as resources to visit various educational settings throughout the city in order to relate to others the Negro residents' contribations to the development of the city 8. That blacks resurrect or revitalize some of the programs from the past and strengthen their communal ties within the black community. Moreover, that blacks whose lives have become more advantaged reflect on the earlier yenrs of disadvantage and lack of opportunity, and devote a pottion of their efforts to attending to the mediate needs of the mbsses of blacks who are not yet eo com- fortable

9. That Akron's black history be written biograph- ically, for many of the biographical sketches of blacks are inspirational and representative of what black masses could accomplish if given guidance, inspiration, and economic opportunity

10. That .educators* consider black minds as %ines.--productive resources to be tapped in order to advance mankind, regardless of race. For if an individual is deprived of his right to develop his talents and further himself, then the entire community has also been deprived of the talents of such a mdn 11. That research be conducted on the history of the development of black programs at the University of Akron and the= implications for the community 12. Fimlly, that the black youth of each eucces-

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Eolmes, Mary. 293 Otis Street, Akron, Ohio. Interview, 4 January 1975. . Akron, Ohio. Interview, 21 February 1975. Lancaster, mer n. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 1 December 1974. . Nuon, Ohio. Interview, 26 January 1975. . Akron, Ohio. Interview, 20 February 1975. Lewis, Ednah. 463 Noah Avenue, Akron, Ohio. Interview, 30 December 1974. Lynton, Stanley. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 15 December 1974.- WXlain, Margaret. 1161 Smithfarm Avenue, Akron, Ohio Interview, 29 December 1974.

Hiller, George C. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 15 February 1975. nitchell. Edith Delaney. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 10 February 1975. hre, Bertha. 321 SpiCer Street, Akron, Ohio. Interview, 30 December 1974. hre, Spurgeon. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 4 April 1975. Morgan, E. Gates. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 11 April 1975. Myers, curtice. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 4 April 1975. O'Rourke, Beatrice Turner. Central State University, Wilberforce, Ohio. Interview, 5 December 1974. Perry, Dale. St. Paul, Minnesota. Interview, 11 March 1975. Poole, Berman. 1345 Chippewa Avenue, Akron, Ohio. Inter- view, 10 Karch 1975

Robinson, HaYneS 8.. Jr. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 4 April ' 1975. Robinson, Luther H., Jr. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 4 April 1975. Sharpp, Eldridye and Sharpp, laurita Akron, Ohio. Inter- views, 28 march 1975. Smith, nary Eoyan Akron, Ohio. Interview, 4 December 1974.

Smith, Rollin. 144 Mustill Court, Akron, Ohio. Interview, 9 November 1974. Smith, Rollin and Clayton, Rollin K E79 Dover Avenue, Akron, Ohio. Interviews, 7 November 1974.

Smith, Sadie. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 21 March 1975.

Spencer, Nom. Akron. Ohio. Interview, 4 February 1975.

Stevens, Lconard and Stevens, Hattie. 1221 Everton Drive, Akron, Ohio. Interviews, 28 December 1974. Suddieth, John. Uhrichsville, Ohio. Interview, 4 March 1975. Threatt, Virginia. 644 Rainbow Drive, Akron, Ohio. Inter- view, 28 December 1974. Wade, Rayfield. Akron, Ohio. Interview, 11 February 1975. Weeks, Mazola. 895 Mercer Avenue, Mron, Ohio. Interview, 13 February 1975.

Journals and Periodicals AbramDwitr, Jack. *Textbooks and Negro History.. Social Education 33 (March 1969) .306-09. Banks, Jmee A. .ReleVaLnt Social studies for Black Pupils: social Education 33 (January 1969) 66-69. ChriCtOn, Kyle. Tarmen Jones * Collier's Magazine, 15 January 1944, pp. 14-15, 60. Cuban, Larry. *Ethnic Content and white Instruction.. Phi Delta Kappan 53 (January 1972).270-73. 'Dentists Creed.. Bulletin of Akron Dental Society 25 (March 1966) 10.

.An Experience in Brotherhood: Goodyear Aerospace Profile, Spring 1972, pp. 8-9.

Fenton, Edwin. .Crispus Attucks IS Not Enough The social Studies and Black Americans." Social Education 33 (April 1969) 396-99.

Guenther, John E. 'The Existence of Negro History Programs as Related to Community Concern for Negro History and Negro Enrollment." The Negro Educational Review 22 (January 1971) 45-51. - 427

Bare, Nathan. .The Teaching of Black History and Culture in the Secondary Schools." Social Education 33 (April 1969) .385-89.

Earlan, Louis R. .Tell It Like It Was suqgestions On Black History.. Social Education 33 (April 1969) : 390-95.

Wow to Integrate Your District's Curriculum." School Management 12 (August 1968) 20. .Industrial Designer: Ebony magazine, April 1961, pp. 39-42.

Jackson, William A. 'The Legal Efficacy of Interposition and Nullification: Ohio Bar 37 (September 1957) 789-98. Xirman, Joseph n. 'Dear Sir . . . * Social Education 33 (my 1969) :501-02.

.Management's View: notor Travel, August 1970, pp. 2, 8. Wilson, Charles J:The Negro in Early Ohio: Ohio Axchaeological and Historical Quarterly 39 (October 1930) :717-68.

' Letters Jessye, Eva to Woods, Jessica. Ann Arbor, 2 January 1973. Psreonal Files of Jessica woods, Akron, Ohio. Threatt, William to HcClain, Shirla. Akron, Ohio. 14 January 1975. Personal Files of Shirla ncclain, Akron, Ohio.

Microforms

Q.S. Bureau of Census, 1830 Population Schedules, Ohio, ~1.13. File rfcrocopies of Records in the Rational Archives, Number 19, Roll 138, Fifth Census of the United States. . Ohio Population Schedules, vol. 60. Roll 1068, nicrocopy Number T-9. . Ohio Population Schedules, vol. 61. Roll 1069, nicrocopy humber T-9. 428

. Population Schedules of the Eighth Census of the United States, 1860 National Archives Microfilm Publications, nicrocopy Number 432, ~oll732. . Population Schedules of the Seventh Census of theUnited States, 1850. National Archives Micro- film Publications, Microcopy Number 653, Roll 1039.

Newspapers Akron Beacon and Republican, 13 March 1891. . 7 November 1891. . 27 November 1893. . 14 March 1894. . 17 September 1894. . 8 September 1894. Akron Beacon JOUM~,23 August 1900. . 5 April 1901. . 7 January 1902. . 24 June 1902. . 27 December 1902. . 9 July 1903. . 27 June 1904. . 1 July 1904. . 14 September 1905. . 20 October 1905. . 18 Hay 1906. . 27 November 1906. . 31 December 1906. . 16 Harch 1907. 419

. 14 August 1908. . 12 January 1909. . 2 February 1909. . 21 May 1909. . 24 January 1910. . 25 September 1911. . 13 August 1913. . 14 August 1913. . IS August 1913. . 19 August 1913. . 20 August 1913. . 30 August 1913. . 8 Septembes 1913. . 28 October 1913. . 28 November 1913. . . 30 August 1915. . 19 October 1916. . 10 January 1917. . 23 April 1917. . 26 April 1917. . 29 May 1917. . 7 July 1917. . 20 March 1919. . 8 August 1919. . 6 November 1919. . 9 July 1920. 430

. 14 August 1920. . 9 September 1920. . 29 September 1920. . 30 November 1920. . 31 January 1921. . 6 February 1922. . 18 April 1922. . 7 July 1922. . 11 February 1923. 1 October 1923. . 18 October 1924. . 27 November 1924. . 30 January 1925. . 7 February 1925. 17 April 1925. 22 April 1925. . 4 llay 1925. . 18 July 1925. . 23 July 1925. . 27 July 1925. . 30 September 1925. . 30 November 1925. . 30 January 1926. . 15 January 1927. . ai January 1927. . 21 February 1928. 431

. 24 nay 1929. . 24 April 1930. . 27 December 1930. . 16 February 1931. . 22 April 1931. . 9 December 1931. . 7 August 1933. . 8 February 1934. . 10 March 1934. . 9 February 1935. . 21 March 1935. . 30 Harch 1935. . 4 April 1936. . 20 April 1936. . 23 April 1936. . 28 April 1936. . 29 April 1936. . 1 May 1936. . 26 Hay 1936. . 29 May 1936. . 25 June 1936. . 4 February 1937. . 21 June 1937. . 16 September 1937. . 9 october 1937. . 10 December 1937. 432

. 30 March 1938. . 14 September 1938. . 26 September 1938. . 25 February 1939. . 25 March 1939. . 76 March 1939. . 27 March 1939. . 16 April 1939. . 9 December 1939. . 11 April 1940. . 1 September 1940. . 12 September 1940. . 25 May 1941. . 22 June 1941. . 23 October 1941. . 16 November 1941. . 31 May 1942. . 11 October 1942. . 7 February 1943. . 21 August 1943. . 12 March 1944. . I4 May 1944. . 1 May 1946. . 6 October 1946. . 20 April 1947. . 26 April 1947. 433

. 14 September 1947. . 10 April 1948. . 14 April 1948. . 11 October 1948. . 24 December 1950. . 20 Wy 1951. , 13 January 1952. . 20 January 1952. . 6 July 1952. , 8 November 1952. . 8 February 1953. . 29 Wrch 1953. . 28 February 1954. 4 July 1954. . 26 September 1954. . 2 January 1955. . 8 May 1955. . 13 my 1956. . 11 February 1957. . 7 April 1957. . 20 September 1957. . 2 February 1958. . 26 June 1958. . 8 September 1958. . 19 February 1959. . 22 May 1960. 134

. 13 June 1962. . 29 July 1962. . 25 Novamber 1962. . 5 Hay 1963. . 7 July 1963. . 19 February 1964. . 22 November 1964. . 8 March 1965. . 31 March 1965. 20 April 1965. . 21 June 1965. . 18 October 1965. . 3 December 1965. . 20 February 1966. . 27 February 1966. . 8 March 1966. . 1 Hay 1966. . 29 May 1966. . 5 October 1966. . 17 October 1966. . 3 January 1967. . 2 February 1967. . 12 March 1967. . 4 May 1967. . 21 May 1967. . 26 May 1967. 435

. 17 June 1967. . 10 July 1967. . 11 July 1967. . 15 October 1967. . 9 February 1968. . 4 Mrch 1968. ' . 7 March 1968. . 27 June 1968. I' I' . 14 October 1968. . 18 October 1968. . 8 June 1969. . 12 October 1969. . 8 Aovember 1969. . 14 December 1969. . 11 January 1970. . 19 Harch 1970. . 29 November 1970. . 21 February 1971. . 30 Way 1971. . 25 July 1971. . 11 August 1971. . 9 September 1971. . 28 September 1971. . 26 December 1971. . 7 nay 1972. . 22 July 1972. '- 436

. 20 August 1972. . 26 September 1972 . 29 September 1972. . 17 October 1972. . 31 December 1972. . 12 February 1973. . 27 February 1973. . 4 March 1973. . 10 March 1973. . 20 Wrch 1973. . 25 March 1973. . 4 May 1973. . 13 nay 1973. . 20 August 1973. . 5 October 1973. . 9 October 1973. . 12 October 1973. . 14 October 1973. . 20 October 1973. . 21 October 1973. . 22 October 1973. . 23 October 1973 . 24 October 1973. . 25 October 1973. . 9 December 1973. . 30 December 1973. 437

. 17 February 1974. . 18 February 1974. . 7 April 1974. . 27 June 1974. . 8 September 1974. -* . . 15 September 1974. . a October 1974. . 19 November 1974. . 18 December 1974. . 24 December 1974. . 29 December 1974. . 2 January 1975. Akron Buchtelite. 17 October 1950. Akron Daily Beacon. 30 March 1874. Akron Informer. 16 October 1948. . 16 April 1949. . 10 September 1949. . 24 Uarch 1950. The (Akron) Reporter. 20 July to 27 July 1974. . 7 September to 14 September 1974. . 28 September to 5 October 1974. . 12 October to 19 October 1974. . 19 October to 26 October 1974. . 26 October to 2 November 1974. . 23 November to 30 November 1974. . 21 December to 28 December 1974. 438

. 1 February to 8 February 1975. . 15 February to 22 February 1975. . 29 March to 5 April 1975. Akron Summit Beacon, 13 February 1850. . 27 February 1850. . 12 January 1851. . 4 June 1851. . 16 October 1851. . 23 October 1851. . 30 October 1851. . 6 November 1851. . 20 November 1851. . 28 January 1852. . 9 march 1853. . 12 April 1854 . 24 Hay 1854. . 6 December 1854. . 21 November 1855. . 16 April 1856. . 17 December 1856. Akron Summit County Beacon, 7 October 1857. . 5 Way 1858. . 5 January 18f9. . 14 August 1872. (Akron) Wingfoot Clan. 30 October 1935.

Christian Science Monitor. 4 August 1949. 439

Cleveland Call and Post. 21 September 1945. . 29 September 1945. . 7 July 1956. . 23 November 1957. Cleveland Plain Dealer. 30 January 1950. Elks News. June 1965. Io8 Anqeles Tines. 3 November 1968. New York Post. 25 February 1974. Ohio Informer. 16 February 1957. . 30 nay 1959. Pittsburgh Courier. 21 February 1948. Sunday Post-Herald (Honq Konq). 25 March 1973. Washington Post. 20 October 1974.

Recordinq Great American Women's Speeches, Caedon Records, Inc., 1973. Side Tvo. Sojourner Truth (c. 1797-1883) 'Ain't I A Woman?' (Convention in Akron, Ohio, May 28-29, 1851) read by Claudia McNell.

Unpublished Materials

Aims and Goals of Black Law Enforcement Officers Associa- tion. Akron, Ohio, 1971.

Akron Bcard of Education. .Resolution 168-32." (A framed copy 1s located in the office of Rev. Eugene E. Horgan at Wesley Temple AElE Zion Church, 104 North Prospect Street, Akron, Ohio. Akron Branch of the NAACP. "Freedom Fund Dinner Souvenir Proqram: Akron, Ohio, 1974. Akron, Ohio. University of Akron Library Archival Service. mer Hartin Lancaster. "Biographical Sketch," 19 Ocfober 1965. e ..

. University of Akron, Library Archival Services. FA-26 in Family Histories. Virginia R. Robinson, 'One Family Among Many.' 30 May 1973.

Akron Commission on Civii Disorders. .The Report ot the Akron Commission on Tivil Disorders. Akron, Ohlo. 1969. (nuneographed) Akron Cornunity Service Center. .Annual Report: Akron, Ohio, 1955. .Annual Report: For the Record." Akron, Ohio, -;51. . .Annual Report The Future IS . . . Akron, Ohio, 1957. . .Annual Report. The Future Is . . . . Akron, Ohio, 1957, quoting Eli Ginzberg in The Negro Potential. . .Annual Report: In the Center of Progress.' Akron. Ohio, 1952. . %mual Report- Open to All: Akron, Ohio, 1956. .Annual Report: Pulling Together.. Akron, Ohio, -7i53. . 'Annual Report Strengthenmg the Family for Opportunities." Akron, Ohio, 1958. . %nnual Report- Thirty Years of Inter-racial Progress in Akron.. Akron, Ohio, 1954.

*Annual Report: United We Build." Akron, Ohio, 1945. . 'Annual Report for 1947." Akron, Ohio, 1947. . 'Black Education and Euployment Program.. Akron, Ohio,1974. . .An Educational Project." Akron, Ohio, 1971. . 'Fortieth Annual Report: Revolution ot Partici- pation: Akran, Ohio, 1965. . .Forty-first Annual Report Action NOW to Close the Gap: Akron, Ohio, 1966. %, 441

. 'Forty-fourth Annual Report Ned Thrust Toward New Opportunities." Akron, Ohio, 1969. .Forty-third Annual Report. Now or Never.. -on, Ohio, 1968. . .Historical Highlights.. Akron, Ohio, 1951. . .Schedule of Third and Fourth Quarter Activi- ties.' Akron, Ohio, 1960. . .Thirty-sixth Annual Report.. Akron, Ohio, 1961. . .Twenty-fourth Annual Report.. Akron, Ohio, 1949. Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Beta Beta Chapter. wEistorical Highlights of the Sorority." n.d.

Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Beta Beta Chapter. (Akron, Ohio). Minutes of the meetings of the sorority. 4 Ifarch 1933. JAssociation for Colored Community Work. .Report of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting." Akron, Ohio, 1939. Bankers Guarantee Title and Trust Co. .Abstract of Title and Incumbrances, 1762-1924." Personal Records of Wesley Temple Am Zion Church, 104 North Prospect street, Akron, Ohio.

.Black Newspapers in Akron: Philosophy, Religion, and Education Division, Akron Public Library, Akron, Ohio. .Canterbury Players Souvenir Program of the Plan Who Came to Dinner.' Akron, Ohio, 1959.

Vhannelwod Village Brochure." Akron, Ohio, 1973.

.Charter of the American Legion, John Fulton Post No. 272.' Said charter is at American Legion,Vohn Fulton Post No. 272, 65 North Smit Street, Akron, Ohio.

Charter of the Veterans of Foreign Wars, Rhine River Post No. 3618. Said charter is at Rhine River Post NO. 3618, 1474 Copley Road, Akron, Ohio. Citizens Civic Federation. "Sixty-fourth Anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation." Akron, Ohio, 1927. (printed program) '1 442

City Demonstration Agency. .Toward A We1 City." Akron, Ohio, 1971. .Condensed History of St. Paul African Methodist Episcopal Church.. Akron, Ohio, 1975. Coye, 6. P., Jr. and HcGraw, Robert. "Residential Segre- gation in the Akron Metropolitan Area." Akron, Ohio, 13 July 1972.

.Data sheet on Randy J Edwards.. In the Personal Records of Georgia Edwards, mother of Randy Edwards, Akron, Ohio, 1975. .Declaration of the Black Law Enforcement Officers ASSO- ciation," Akron, oi-io, n.d. Dick Campbell Concerts, Inc. "Kermit Moore, Cellist." NW York, N.Y., n.d.

.Festivity Celebration of the Daughters of Jerusalem." Akron, Ohio, 1964.

*First Annual Recital of the J. C. Wade Dance Studio: Akron, Ohio, 1935. mhrman, Thomas. "Special Information Report on the Akron- Sunnnit Tutorial Program.' Akron, Ohio, 1973. eolmes, Hary. .Black Akron History Beginning in 1918.. Akron, Ohio, n.d.

.History of Bezaleel Consistory NO. 15." A.A.S.R. 1906- 1971, n.p. -1.B.P.O.E. of W., Department of Education " National Oratorical Contest, Rules and Regulations.' Hemphis, Tennessee, 1968.

MClellon, H. W. .History of the Mount Olive Missionary aaptist Church." Akron, Ohio, n.d. . .History of the Mount Zion Missionary Baptist church." Akron, Ohio, 1957. .A Hembership Guide for Robert Street Church of God " Akron, Ohio, n.d.

.more in Concert." University Of Akron, Akron, Ohio, 31 July 1955. 443

'NAACP Freedom Fund Dinner souvenir Program.. Akron, Ohio, 1974. National Sorority of Phi Delta Kappa. .Fifty Years. 1923- 1973.. n.p., 1973 .Negro Twenty-five Year Club's Dedication of the John Brown Hemorial: Akron, Ohio, 1938. [Printed Program) .Official Souvenir of the opening of the myflower Hotel.. Akron, Ohio, 1951. .Perso~IData Sheet, James R. Williams.. Akron, Ohio, 1975. .Program of Dedication of Antioch Baptist Church.. Akron, Ohio, 1962. 'Resolution of the Negro Twenty-five Years Club: Akron, Ohio, 1938. *Resume of William n. Threatt, Jr: Akron, Ohio, 2 January 1975.

Siebert, Wilbur A. .Hanuscript Collection, Box 110: Columbus, Ohio Historical Society. 'Souvenir Program of Crispus Attucks Day: Akron, Ohio, 1970. .Sourenir Program of the Fiftieth Anniversary of Centenary Methodist Church." Akron, Ohio, 1968. 'Souvenir Program of the Forty-first Anniversary of Centenary Methodist church." Akron, Ohio, 1959.

.Souvenir Program of the I.B.P.O.E. of W. Convention, 1951.' Akron, Ohio, 1951.

.Souvenir Program of the Mary Exalted Temple NO. 95 Golden Anniversary.. Akron, Ohio, 1967. *Souvenir Program of the Mount Calvary Lodge No. 76 Fiftieth Anniversary Banquet.. Akron, Ohio, 1966. .Souvenir Program of the Testimonial Banquet Honoring Luther R. Johnson: Akron, Ohio, 1948. 444

.Souvenir Program of the Youngstown Symphony Orchestra, Seventeenth Season, 1942-43, Third Program.. Youngstown, Ohio, 1942. .Souvenir Program of the One Hundredth Anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamtion." Akron, Ohio, 1963. .Souvenir Program of the One Hundred and Third Anniversary of the nMncipation Proclamation." Akron, Ohio, 1966. Summit County Court of Common Pleas. .Case No. 41857.. Akron, Ohio, 1922.

Summit County Deed Recorda. Book 42. Akron, Ohio. . Book 45. Akron, Ohio. . Book 49. Akron, Ohio. . Book 67. Akron, Ohro. . Book 69. Akron, Ohio. . Book 87. Akron, Ohio. . Book 94. Akron, Ohio. Nnkegee Institute. .The Eurekan: Rlakegee, Alabama, 1918. Wesley Temple AHE Zion Church. .Historic Sketch." In the Personal Records of Wesley Temple AHE Zion Church, 104 North Prospect Street, Akron, Ohio. Wilberforce University Catalogue, 1910-1911. Wilberforce, Ohio.

Wilberforce University Catalogue, 1916-1917. Wilberforce, Ohio. Wilberforce University Catalogue, 1938-39. Wilberforce, Ohio (pages unknown) quoted in "Payne Theological Seminary of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.' n.p., n.d. .-APPENDICES ,A

7- - Appendix 1

Letters from Civic Leaders Supporting the Reed for a Local Black History

._ AKRON COMMUNll?' SERVICE CENTER & URBAN LEAGUE, INC

m EAST uulll SI~I UIOK OH10 uw -@ uc -I* 440

Ih.. Shirla WC1.h 86s Packard Street Iluoll. OS 44320 D..r *. ncc1.ln

Wing om recent convcrsatlon. I Y.8 nry mch Intereatad to learn of your conrldcr*tlon to canduct research on the subject of Negro or Blast h1sto.y in th. Clt, of *?on Recorded history, as you Wll b.ICNeL mny "Ita1 funcclona In ."I soc1cty sernr.1 of tb. ODS~Importmt of these functlona, ia my eatiutlon. are that It pmldei for future 8eneraclons herltage. offers source of - Idmtitj. presents an ~ECOMC of hw prrtlcular moclo-rconoclc- poliClc.1 crdec of p~rticu1arpopulation has developed to a cer- uln polrrc. and dcmcrlbes causes of such development Io my knw- Iedae. 8ueh an accounting of Negro oI Black hhtory In the CIty of &on doe. MC exlrt I ballen that IC is tmport.nt to tho 8enaralwlf.rc of our somunity am a vhole. and to Negroes or Black people In particular. Io the Ciqof &?on that Inlthl rcaerrch on some aepect of hcgra life in *Lmn b. Inlthted In my capacity .a Director of the *ran limn O.latlonm Cod~slon.I hew observed a ferllng end crprersion of imolrtlon and allenatlon ammg segments of the Black population, yumg and old, natlvc Ulronltcr. and persona having moved to Akron Krp. other locatlonr Ccnerslly the mtaced cmie druch feelings snd rrprasslons 1. that the mjorlty population In Akron has In the p8t. mod cmtlnue. today.. to contrlva methods to llmlt or deny oppor- tmltl.8 for the srwth and devdop-nt of Black citlrcns In A*ron =!le I balleve chat the ab- does have *we degree of wlldlty. brboriag such thoughts on the pazt of Black cIcIzems IeNeB only to obscure the poeltlve role that Bhck cltlrena have played In the d-lopmemt of the City of Akron Please understand that I am not apaUn8 condcscendlngly about tho*. pcrrona to whom I am making 449 I

rotersnco U, polnt 1. tbt in the abrencc of obJrctIve research about seccm~lishmenta and algnlElc.nt contrlburlonY of Black clci- SeN 1" the dcvelopmtnt of Akron. the negatlve fecllngs and expres- aim. of Blacka wlll dmlneto Such feellngs ond exprcsslon~(often diaruptlw) create and perpetuate racial and Inter-group tcnrlons in our C-MItr. thus affecting the general uolfar. of cltlrrnr of tho Clt, in a nsgat1ve w*y

I bli- that objcctlvc reaeareh on aspects of Negro llfe 10 tha Clt, of Akron could do uch to strcnsthen the ties of -my Black cltkens to the Citl of Akron, nnd almultmeoualy ahw to the major- 1- c-unlc). that the Black elcltens In Akron have played rolor im this city's davolop-nt different Erm the traditional .tereotyp. m1.s.

XI pu do decide to conduct rcsaarch In thl. nost important are.. I rill ba -st .nxiom to ... 1.t 70" ia Uharovar w., that I f.D Sin.r.ly,

nir.ctor 450 4 51 451 .-.

i t"-' I AKRON - SUMMIT COUNTY 9.T ' PUBLIC LleRARY i UlON OHIO UJZL IlllIHOYl ll&W7Ul 4 L.z, 7-J 19. 1974 453

I 454

.--"

r ’ 457

-..

\- I. -_ -

.I.. 0, ... <..

Mrs Shlrli k UcC1.h 86s PaLktrd Dr Akron. Ohio 14310 ha1 Mr1 '4;Cl.i" We at MOVCO\BEAC were dcllghted to 1c.m that your dirsortation topic rill deal with the hlrtory of blicks In Akron. Ohlo

It would seem then. that the history of black Akronltes could hwo I tremendously positire impact upon Akron's young black people 10 are ho eful that church. CIVIC. and hlstoric.1 org.nlr.tlons as roll as tRe educ.tian.1 Institutions Of Akron rrll bo mado .wire that such information rill soon be available Iocauro we rlor tho potentla1 for buildlng more positive race rehtions Is ~rc*teslamona young people, re ale elpecrally hopeful that thxs informrtlon m.y subsequently be adapted. prbl>shed and made arrlhblo to ~11Of Akron'$ youth, both buck md white NlMCUNBUC 1% pleased to endorse your disrertation topic The imfon*tion Is urgently nacded and Ion8 overdue The citlron, of Akron are indebted to you for whit we .re certim rill be an outstanding contribution to the entire city 459

Rahr 6. 1974

In addltlon to the aformentlm.Ld slgolflcdnce of ywr effort. a nlrrlnt hlitorlc.1 doc-ntatlon of blact pr~0re11and black pdrtlcl- path In ltrm can $ewe as bench marks to the young merging black c-nlly It Is partlcullrly important to a11 ethnic groups that they ndcnlmd thdr peoples' contrlbutlon to the progrerr of thelr loclety. Web? mabllnp thsl to value thclr fleedm and thdr rights

W mr efforts to d0C-t the hlstorlc.1 lnrolrment of the blact dtllms In Atron be IuCCeIIful. and 1f the Akron Branch HA4CP 07 1 can (Llrnlsh any docmnutlon or asrlstance in fulfllllng ywr ObJCctlve. mr y~llcesr(l1 b wallable to assure the IYCCLSS of your cndcavor

Ruidcnt

Lp* cb 460

CaMdC OH svprinnnd.*t of School*

CCO EF -1 . 461 Appendix 2

v9 v . 465

THE TWO ORIGINAL AKRONS

Map 3. he original Akrona. In Grismer, Akron and smlt County, p. 97. Permission to use the map granted by the Sumit County Eistorical Society. 466

Map 4. Map of Summit County showing its townships. In Grismer, Akon and Summit County, p. 129. Permission to use the map granted by the Summit County Eistorical Society. Map 5. Ohio's Underground Trails.

Permission for use granted by the publisher. Appendix 3

Official Records

.. 470

m. Ferdinand simpeon's certificate to practice medicine. 471

Atty. Harrington Simpson's certificate to practice law. Card in file on lawyers at the Clerk's Office of the Ohio Supreme Court. 473

Beall Steven’s certificate to teach in the State of Alabams . Tracing the histarical site upon which Wesley Temple AnE Zion Church currently stands.

2. land acquired by the Connecticut Colony as a part of the Weetern Reserve. 475 mi. 8.msl Rrkmm, 1nrmnLy bod bnh horkmon. Connldcr*Llun $2700 00. .ire, DaLod Unrcn 8. lola ?lid dprll 24, 1016. 80 8soordd.d Vol. B. P.ga 421. #la hrklns. i

3. A portion of the Western Reserve was purchased by Siwn Perkins.

~ 1.

1I 4. current site of Wesley Temple AHE Zion Church.

Source: Bankers Guarantee Title and Trust Co., .Abstract of Title and Incumbrances, 1162-1924: In the records of Wesley Temple AME Zion Church. 41 6

Proclamation of Harguerite Jamison Fleming Day. 477

Resolution of the Negro Twenty-five Year Club, 1938, regarding the John Brown Memorial. Printed Materials

~ 413

Black barbers, Uartin and Brown, and Chavis and Harnlin, listed in an 1879-80 Akron City Dlrectory under barbers and bathrooms. W. D. Stevens was also a black barber. . 480

An early black business, Pickett and Alexander, listed in the advertisement section of an 1883-84 Akron City Directory.

** , . 481

First program of the observance of the Sixty-fourth Anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation under the auspices of the Citizens Civic Federation. Akron, Ohio. 1 January 1927. .- 481

Printed program of the Dedication of the John Brown Memorial by the Negro Twenty-frve Year Cldb, Akron, Ohio, 25 September 1938. Akron's Black Churches

(Prom an advertisement in the (Akron) Reporter, 21 December to 28 December 1975)

Mtioch Baptist Church Apostolic Church Apostolic Church of Christ Bahi World of Faith Bethel Temple Church of Jesus Christ Beulah Baptist Church Bible Baptist Church Brotherhood Baptist Church Centenary Methodist church Comunitv Church of God Christiai Alliance~HollnessChurch Christian Temple Church Of God Elizabeth Baptist Church Evening Light Church of God Faith Healing Mission Faith Temple Faith Temple Church of the Living God First Apostolic Faith Church First Born Church of Living God (Andrus street) First Born Church of Living God (East Thornton Street) First Born Chu:ch of Living God (North Howard street) Friendship Baptist Church Good Hope Baptist Church

Greater Bethel Baotist Church. ~~~ Greater Peace Bap'tist Church Holy Temple Church Holy Trinity Church of God in Chriat House of Glory Baptist Church House of Prayer Israelite Baptist Church Jerusalem Baptist Church Livingstone Apostolic Church Macedonia Baptist Church Miracle Revival Worship Morning Star Baptist Church munt Calvary Baptist Church Mount Carmel Baptist Church Mount Haven Baptist Chxch munt Lebanon Baptist Church munt Liberty Missionary Baptist Church munt Neb Baptist Church 484

Zbunt Olive Baptist Church munt Rose Baptist Church Zbunt Sinai Primitive Baptist Church Hount ZiJn Baptist Church New Cideon Baptist Church -New Hope Baptist Church New Trinity Baptist Church Ncxth Hill Community Baptist Church rentacostal Temple Church of God in Christ (North Howard Street) Pentacostal Temple Church of God in Christ (Went North street) Peoples Baptist Church [sic] Phillips Chapel CME ChurX[sicl Pilgrim Rest Pentacostal Chus Prayer Tower Church of God Prince of Peace Brptist Church Provident Baptist Church Robert St. Church of God St. John CHE Church St. Luke BaDtist Church St. Pauls Biptiat~church[sic] St. Paula ANE C!.urch [sicl- St. Paula Fire BaptiseHoliness [sic] St. Philips Episcopal Church [sicr- St. Thomas Baptist-Church St. Timothy Church of God Saints Temple Church of the Living God Shelton's Temple Church of God in Christ Shiloh Baptist Church Spiritualist Church Timothy Baptist Church Triumph The Church of God True Light Baptist Church huevine Church of God in Christ United Baptist Church Victory Baptist Church Wesley Temple AME Zion Church Yale St. Church of Gad Zion Apostolic Church (Ardella Avenue) Zion Apostolic Church (South and Washington streets) Sion Temple Baptist Church Appendix 5

Personal Records __ .-.- _.-_ .- - .. . - ...... "0.1 ...e.. ...e. . ..IO ...".,I" . .,.. oz7-.--.

Letter of congratulations to Mr. and Mrs. Beall Stevens. . ".'Y