Contents from Editors

CONTENTS

FROM EDITORS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

THEORETICAL BASES OF QUALITY OF A MANPOWER IN NATIONAL ECONOMY …………………………….. 4 Nataliya Makovskaya

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN BULGARIA …………………………………………….. 7 Konstantin Kolev

CRITERIA AND INDICATORS EVALUATING THE FUNCTIONING OF QUASI-MARKETS ……………………….. 11 Maya Tsoklinova

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION POTENTIAL OF THE MINING COMPANIES ……………... 16 Borislava Galabova, Boryana Trifonova

PUBLIC WELFARE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: TRENDS AND CHALLENGES ……………...... 22 Maya Tsoklinova

SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES TO REVERSE LOGISTICS STATE …………………………………………………. 28 Adriana Strekalovska-Garkova, Stanislava Kovacheva

EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE FOR MULTIPURPOSE MANAGEMENT OF THE FOREST PROTECTION BELTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 33 Nevena Shuleva, Fotina Yordanova

COMPETITIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION – THE MAIN INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ……………………………………………………..………………………………………. 39 Andra Zencaka, Maija Senfelde

PATTERNS OF PREPOSING OF SUBJECT-ORIENTED PREDICATIVE AND LOCATIVE COMPLEMENTS IN ENGLISH ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 45 Bilyana Ovcharova

STUDY ON DYNAMIC LOADS OF CUTTING MECHANISM’S DRIVE SHAFT OF THE CARVED VENEER MACHINES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 51 Georgi Vukov

FEM ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESSES OF UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE SKELETON MADE OF PINUS SYLVESTRIS L. AND PLYWOOD …………………………………………………………...... 56 Yancho Genchev, Nelly Staneva, Desislava Hristodorova

GENERAL REGULARITIES IN THE HEIGHT STRUCTURES OF NORWAY-SPRUCE, SILVER-FIR AND OTHER DENDROCOENOSES …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62 Roumen Petrin

STUDY OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE CELLS OF THE CORE BEAMS …………………………………………… 68 Nikolai Burdarov

A STUDY OF THE STATISTICAL INDICATORS OF THE SIZE OF THE WOOD RAYS …………………………… 72 Nikolai Burdarov

ИННОВАЦИИ, ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-КОММУНИКАЦИОННАЯ СФЕРА И НЕМАТЕРИАЛЬНОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КАК СОСТАВЛЯЮЩИЕ РАЗВИТИЯ ЭКОНОМИК СТРАН МИРА …………………...... 76 Наталья Скоробогатова, Сергей Войтко

МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЯ АЭРОВОКЗАЛЬНОГО КОМПЛЕКСА МОСКОВСКОГО МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО АЭРОПОРТА ДОМОДЕДОВО …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 82 Евгений Сафонов, Сергей Кирсанов, Галина Паламаренко, Бо Ванг

2 Dear followers of idea for sustainable development,

Dear readers,

Dear authors and friends,

You hold serial 69th volume (number 2/2018) of Scientific Journal of Management and sustainable development, published since 1999 from Faculty of Business Management at the University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria. In this volume you can find the integral text of the part of presented papers before the XX-th International Scientific Conference on Management and Sustainable Development, held in Yundola in the period 23– 25.03.2018. The important issues of management and sustainable development were discussed. Some main aspects could been summarized as follows: multifunctional forest management have to be developed and encour- aged in Bulgarian forests, because of their high importance for environment improvement and biodiversity conservation, there are a high potential to encourage utilization of revenuwble energy sources, based on the forest biomass; contemporary practical and theoretical issues in human resources management; more attention have to be pointed out to the social aspects for sustainable management; presentation and implementation of the best practices and innovations; the practice for sustainable development shaping have to be rees- tablished; more atention have to be intended to the students and post-graduated students investigations; the more important issues have to be separated and have to be discussed into a suitable approach – for example, order of round tables, unformal discussions etc.; the all thematic fields have to be protected and the conference have to be approved as a forum for ideas exchange. The Faculty of Business Management leadership and the Editorial Board of Scientific Journal of Man- agement and Sustainable Development have managed with the obligation to publish all presented before the Conference papers and posters, but in 6 volumes – 68, 69, 70, 71, 72 and 73 (1/2018, 2/2018, 3/2018, 4/2018, 5/2018 and 6/2018) of the Journal. All papers and presentations could be finding in the Internet site of the Conference and of the Scientific Journal on Management and Sustainable Development. In the same time we offer of all of you not only to read published papers. You could send to our journal results of your investigations, ideas and papers on the issues of management and sustainable development.

Kind regards of all our readers!

Editorial board

3 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

THEORETICAL BASES OF QUALITY OF A MANPOWER IN NATIONAL ECONOMY

Nataliya Makovskaya Belarusian State Economic University, Minsk, Belarus

Abstract

High qualification, professional flexibility and adaptive ability of employees become the basis of their social protection: such workers are the most competitive and mobile in the labour market. Changes in modern approaches to understanding the quality of labour in the national economy are associated with UNESCO recommendations on the transition to the concept of human competence and the provisions of the national system for assessing the quality of specialists. In this regard, the term „competence” becomes leading in assessing the level of quality of labour, the most important criterion of vocational training and an integral indicator of the quality of the workforce.

Key words: labour resources, human capital, labour market, labour productivity, professional qualifications.

JEL: J01.

Introduction Until recently, the main criteria for the quality of In the conditions of a market economy and its labour resources were: the level of education of the innovative component, the criteria for the quality of employee; the level of professional training of the labour resources are constantly expanding and employee; the level of employee motivation to im- supplementing. High qualification, professional prove professionalism and quality of their own work; flexibility and adaptive ability of employees become the ability of the organizational structure of an insti- the basis of their social protection: such workers tution (enterprise) to disclose all the qualities of an are the most competitive and mobile in the labour employee. market. The quality of labour resources is characterized Expansion of the production profile of employ- by such indicators as general and professional work ees is one of the conditions for the fullest use of the capacity and availability of labour potential of work- achievements of scientific and technical progress, ers. The integrated quality indicators are: gender, increasing the efficiency of the use of labour in a age, social and educational level, psycho- market economy. At the same time, it is necessary physiological indicators. to take into account that the market economy, along The modern labour economy offers the quality of with the identification of interrelations and the inte- labour resources to evaluate through the „prism” of gration of individual professions, strengthens the the availability of formed human capital [2]: tendency to differentiate knowledge and skills and 1. Human capital is the basis of labour produc- further specialization. tivity of workers included in the production As practice shows, with the development of process. Productivity of labour is manifested forms of ownership, the requirements imposed on through quality criteria (ability to work, quali- workers in the labour market also change. Previ- fication, etc.). The productive capacity of a ously, the employer proceeded from the accounting person, that is, his capacity for work, is de- of 3–5 social, professional and psychological quali- termined by the age, state of health and ties and characteristics of the employee being education of the individual, is the basic sign hired. At present, their number has increased by 2– of the category „labour resources”. The 3 times, and the main criterion is the competitive- presence of the formed human capital re- ness of the employee, his high professionalism. flects the quality of labour relations between If before higher education was enough for 20–25 employees and employers regarding wages, years of practical work, today the optimal term of its social preferences, employment, etc. effectiveness is 5–6 years, and in the sectors de- 2. Human capital is inseparable from its car- termining scientific and technical progress – 2–3 rier-worker. The employer leases this eco- years. This means that in some industries, innova- nomic resource for the purpose of using it as tion cycles are shorter than the time for training a production factor for the wage rate. The specialists, which again confirms the need for con- higher the quality of this resource, the tinuing education. greater the economic effect of the producer. The quality of labour resources is a set of pro- In this case, the quality of the labor resource fessional, educational, psycho-physiological char- is related to the fact that human capital has acteristics that make a person capable of perform- a value that is determined by the volume of ing labour functions of one or another complexity. services expected from the employee in the

4 Nataliya Makovskaya

organization. The ability of human capital to the coefficient before the educational variable will create added value determines its value be equivalent to the value of the internal rate of (and value) for the employer and the level of return. This greatly simplified the assessment of the income for the employee. For an employee, effectiveness of investment in education [1]. his human capital is a commodity that he of- Calculations show that the profitability of human fers in the labour market, and for the em- capital is usually higher than physical. This testifies ployer it is the capitalized value of the cost to the assumption of the rational behaviour of stu- of capital spent on selecting and hiring an dents and their parents. In the United States, esti- employee. With the appropriate investments mates of the rates of return of primary education (money, time, efforts of the worker himself), reached 50–100%, the average – 15–20%, higher – human capital will increase its quality 10–15%. In the 1970s, the effectiveness of higher (value), and also retain the ability to gener- education dropped to 7–8%, which gave grounds ate income through additional types and for talking about the overproduction of the gradu- methods of activity. ated labour force, but in the 1980s it returned to its 3. Human capital at the expense of capitaliza- previous, higher level. tion increases its quality, which is a factor There are different rates of return for different that ensures its preservation and effective categories of workers: for men they are higher than use, both at the individual level and at the for women, for the white population is higher than level of the enterprise, industry or a combi- for colour. International comparisons show that with nation of industries, region and country. the growth of per capita income, the effectiveness 4. The quality of human capital is associated of investment in a person decreases, but in the not only with investments in education and richest countries it moves up again. Thus, the rela- further industrial training, but also with per- tionship between the level of economic develop- sonal qualities of a person. Investments in ment and the norms of the impact of education is U- the professional development of the quality shaped. of human capital give a longer integral social The quality of human capital that underlies the and economic effect over time. labour force depends on investment in workers and The quality of human capital is linked to the no- the degree of their payback. In this connection, the tion of internal norms of bestowal. They are built by issue of risk assessment and economic efficiency of analogy with the rates of return on capital and allow such investments arises. us to assess the effectiveness of human invest- The main problem faced by modern enterprises ments, especially in education and production train- is the evaluation of the effectiveness of investments ing. The rates of return act as a regulator of the in human capital. The difficulties arising in this distribution of investment between different types case, to a certain extent, are explained by the fact and levels of education, as well as between the that investments in human capital have a number of education system as a whole and the rest of the features that distinguish them from other types of economy. investments [8–9]: There are two main approaches to calculating 1. Return on investment in human capital di- the rates of return. rectly depends on the life of its carrier (on The first is based on a direct measurement of the duration of the working age). The earlier benefits and costs. For example, the income from investments are made in a person, the higher education can be represented as the differ- faster they start giving returns. But you need ence in the lifetime earnings of those who gradu- to keep in mind that better and longer-term ated from college and those who did not go beyond investments bring a higher and more lasting high school. In the composition of costs in addition effect. to direct costs include lost earnings, that is, income 2. Human capital is not only subject to physical received by students for years of study. The internal and moral deterioration, but it is also capa- rate of return will be a discount rate at which the ble of accumulating and multiplying. Wear of given values of the benefits and costs of education human capital is determined, firstly, by the will be equal. degree of natural wear and tear (aging) of The second approach is based on the evalua- the human body and the psychophysiologi- tion of the parameters of the so-called „production cal functions inherent in it, and secondly, by function of earnings”, which describes the depend- the degree of moral (economic) wear due to ence of a person's earnings on the level of his edu- obsolescence of knowledge or changes in cation, length of service, length of time worked and the value of the education received. The ac- other factors. The development of this class of func- cumulation of human capital is carried out in tions is connected with the name of J. Mincer, who the process of periodic retraining of the proved that within the framework of such a model worker and the accumulation of production

5 THEORETICAL BASES OF QUALITY OF A MANPOWER IN NATIONAL ECONOMY

experience. If this process is carried out The driving forces for changing the quality of la- continuously, then as the human capital is bour resources include those that are external to used, its qualitative and quantitative (quality, this quality: political, economic, demographic fac- volume, value) characteristics are improved tors, etc. The study of the influence of factors on and increased. the change in the quality of labour resources allows 3. With the accumulation of human capital, its us to understand the internal sources of their de- profitability rises to a certain limit, limited by velopment. External factors affecting the change in the upper limit of active labour activity (ac- the quality of labour resources can be divided into tive working age), and then sharply de- three groups: creases. ‒ factors of direct action directly affecting the 4. In the formation of human capital, there is a quality change; „reciprocal multiplier effect”. Its essence lies ‒ factors of indirect effect that affect the qual- in the fact that in the learning process the ity change indirectly; characteristics and abilities not only of the ‒ the conditions in which the factors determin- learner improve, but also those of the per- ing the force of their action and direction act. son who trains, which subsequently leads to Factors directly related to labour activity and in- the growth of earnings of both the first and fluencing the degree of realization of a person's the second. ability to work are factors of direct action. They are 5. Not every investment in a person can be closely related to the quality of working life. Factors recognized as an investment in human capi- influencing the process of transforming potential tal, but only those that are socially appropri- labour resources into real ones are categorized as ate and economically necessary. For exam- factors of indirect action. They affect the change in ple, the costs associated with criminal activi- the quality of labour resources involved in the la- ties are not investments in human capital, as bour process and affect the overall level of quality socially inappropriate and harmful to society. of all labour resources: the state of the education 6. The nature and types of investments in a system (as a factor in the formation of labour re- person are determined by historical, na- sources of a certain quality); the supply of labour in tional, cultural characteristics and traditions. the labour market; demand for labour in the labour Thus, the level of education and the choice market; the price of the labour resource, which is of profession by children largely depend on formed in the labour market (wages). family traditions and the level of education of their parents. References 7. Compared to investments in other different 1. Kapelyushnikov, R. Modern bourgeois concepts of forms of capital, investments in human capi- the formation of labour: critical analysis. Nauka. tal are the most beneficial both from the Moscow. 1981. 2. Becker, G. Human capital: theoretical and empirical point of view of the individual and from the analysis, with special reference to education. N Y. point of view of the whole society. 1964.

6 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN BULGARIA

Konstantin Kolev University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

On the basis of theoretical foundations of foreign direct investment (FDI) are revealed their determinants. Regression models are constructed. Dependent variable in the specified models is FDI, and independent variables are gross domestic product, interest rate on long-term loans for households and annual wage of employed persons in Bulgaria during the period 2000–2016.

Key words: foreign direct investment, GDP, interest rate, average wage.

JEL: D4, D6, E1, E6, H3, H4.

Introduction trol of distribution systems, product differentiation Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is a long-term and government intervention’ [13]. investment of entrepreneurial capital, which the The product life cycle theory is created by R. investors from one country make in industrial, agri- Vernon. According to him the life cycle of the new cultural, commercial, transport, financial, tourism product has four stages – introduction, growth, and so on enterprises situated on the territory of mature and saturation. At first the new product has other countries and which provides management to be produced for the national market. After that it control over external enterprises [9]. The positive has to be produced for the national and interna- effects of FDI for host countries are: increase in tional market and finally the production has to be investment activity; increase in productivity of pro- exported in foreign countries with cheaper input duction factors; increase in welfare; influence on resources. In this way the product life cycle is pro- state budget and balance of payment; increase in longed and transformed into an ‘international life the level of employment; building of export sector cycle’ [9, 13]. and so on [9]. Due to these the goal of current arti- The OLI model or the so called the Eclectic cle is: on the basis of literature sources to define paradigm is worked out by J. Dunning. According to determinants of FDI and to specify econometric him investment decisions by multinational corpora- models that characterize the relationship between tions are taken when there are three advantages – variables. from ownership (O), location (L) and internalization (I). In ownership advantages are included the fol- 1. Theoretical concepts of FDI lowing components: size of the company and its The most important theoretical concept of FDI, position on internal and external market; know-how; which give directions to corporations for develop- technological capacity; trademarks; human produc- ment and implementation of their strategies in the tive capacities; distribution and service networks. In field of international entrepreneurship are Hymer’s location advantages are included the following model, product life cycle theory and OLI model. The components: price competition on resource markets essence of these three concepts is shortly pre- – labour force, energy, raw materials; transport sented in the lines below. infrastructure; geographical location of resources; According to St. Hymer the realization of FDI is political stability; tax policy; stable law system; long- connected with higher risks and expenditures in term market potential and market size; favourable comparison with the investments in the home coun- investment climate. The internalization advantages try. The higher risk and expenditures are conse- reflect the ability of the company to realize O- and quence of the territorial distance, which obstructs L- advantages in its own organizational structure [9, the foreign branch management; the hardships 13]. connected with entering the foreign market through organization of the production on a place; the pos- 2. Specification of Regression Models sible discriminatory policy of the host country and On the basis of the theoretical concepts pre- so on. Because of these risks and expenditures the sented in the lines above are sum up some impor- corporation investor has to possess some advan- tant determinants of FDI: gross domestic product tages inaccessible for their competitors [9]. Accord- (GDP), interest rate on long-term loans for house- ing to S. Hymer the advantages can be ‘exclusive holds (IRCL); annual wage of employed persons and permanent control of proprietary technology, (WE). The regression models are based on time privileged access to inputs, scale economies, con- series for Bulgaria for the period 2000–2016.The

7 Konstantin Kolev sources of time series are the National Statistical and annual wage of employed persons (WE). The Institute (NSI) and the Bulgarian National Bank parameters of two models are presented in the (BNB). lines below: ˆ FD It   GDP452.094.16932 t  WE765.1 t Table 1. Determinants of FDI during the period 2000–  2  774.0r)26053.0()066611.0()376.3105(se 2016 in Bulgaria    14df)774245.6()786362,6()452784.5(t FDI, million GDP, mil- IRCL, WE,  )0000.0()0000.0(p 14,2  92125.23F)0001.0( Years EUR lion BGN %. BGN (1)

2000 1 103.3 47 743 17.12 2 694 ˆ FD t  87.21593I  IRCL51.1070 t  WE8715.0 t 2001 903.4 49 543 17.15 2 880  2  711.0r)171599.0()4456.186()453.3236(se 2002 980.0 52 484 16.29 3 091     14df)073356.5()741661.5()672080.6(t

2003 1 850.5 55 190 15.68 3 280  )0001.0()0000.0(p 14,2  18242.17F)0002.0( 2004 2 735.9 58 742 13.82 3 509 (2) 2005 3 152.1 62 927 11.85 3 885 nd 2006 6 221.6 67 252 10.18 4 324 Through LM Breusch-Godfrey test from 2 or- 2007 9 051.8 72 192 9.75 5 167 der is performed verification for autocorrelation in 2008 6 727.8 76 539 10.86 6 538 the residuals around the regression line [6]. By 2009 2 799.8 73 794 13.45 7 309 means of the test is established that the multiplica- tion between the number of observations and the 2010 1 370.4 74 771 12.69 7 777 coefficient of determination (R2) is 8.46 and is 2011 1 537.2 76 203 12.02 8 230 greater than the critical value χ2=5.99 reported from 2012 1 382.8 76 227 11.38 8 773 the values for χ2-distribution at two degrees of free- 2013 1 509.2 76 884 10.66 9 301 dom and level of significance α=0.05. When χ2 2014 1539 77 906 10.37 9 860 empirical is bigger than χ2 critical the zero hypothe- 2015 2 429.6 80 724 9.49 10 535 sis for lack of autocorrelation is rejected and the 2016 1 042.0 83 905 8.61 11 379 alternative is accepted [6]. Sources: NSI, BNB. In present study the autocorrelation is removed by means of the most often used approach for this The essence of the variables used in the linear purpose – the method of autoregressive transfor- regression models is presented below: mation [17]. It is applied in the following order: ‒ GDP reflects the market size. It influences ‒ Firstly, if the residuals around the regression the expected revenues of the investment. line are autocorrelated a first-order autocor- The relation between GDP and FDI is posi- relation coefficient is calculated [14, 17]: tive. The larger the market size of a given N country is the more FDI the country should  uu 1tt attract [10, 11]. r  2t , (3) ‒ Interest rate on long-term loans for house- uu 1tt N 2 holds (IRCL) is annual effective interest rate ut of consumer loans with a term of more than 1t one year. In current article IRCL is used as where an index to measure the economic confi- ut is the residual elements around the regression dence. Here should be underlined that an line. economy with long run stable and low interest is expected to have suitable environment The relation between autocorrelated residual for FDI [13]. elements can be expressed through first-order ‒ The lower annual wage level (WE) reduces autoregressive model as a Markov process [6, 17]: the total production cost and increases the uu   t1tt , (4) competitiveness of multinational companies where on the global market. Due to this the ρ is a constant coefficient for all values of t; cheaper labour should stimulate the in- εt – random deviations, independent from each crease of FDI [4, 13]. other. They can be expressed as follows: In current study two two-variable regression  uu 1ttt (5) models with dependent variable FDI are specified.

In the first model the factor variables are GDP and On the basis of formula (5) the authors D. Coch- annual wage of employed persons (WE). In the rane and G. Orcutt suggest dependent variable (Y) second model the independent variables are inter- and independent variable (X) from a single- est rate on long-term loans for households (IRLC)

8 DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN BULGARIA

ˆ ' ' ' equation regression model to be transformed in the FD t  412.9848I  IRCL546.1013 t  WE872.0 t following way [17]:  2  584.0r)24636.0()913.257()912.2015(se ' '     13df)54048.3()9297.3()8853.4(t t  t1tt  XXX;YYY 1tt (6)  13,2  125442.9F)0036.0()0017.0()0003.0(p (12) This transformation is called autoregressive as it is based on equation (4), which is an autoregres- Both models and their parameters are statisti- sive first-order model. On the basis of formula (6) cally significant. In residuals around the regression the transformation of the regression models from line there are not autocorrelation as χ2 critical is formulas (1) and (2) acquire the types presented in 5.99 and is bigger than χ2 empirical, which is equations 7–8 and 9–10 [6, 17]: 2.66834 for the first model and 4.034895 for the t  11t GDP()1()FDIFDI( t2 1t )GDP  second.

WE( t3  )WE  t1t (7) Conclusions The results from the research give grounds for FDI' '' GDP' ' WE'  (8) t 1 2 t 3 t t the following conclusions: ‒ On the basis of two-variable regression model with dependent variable – FDI and t  11t IRCL()1()FDIFDI( t2 1t )IRCL  factor variables – GDP and annual wage WE( )WE  t3  t1t level (WE) is established: firstly, an increase (9) in GDP with 1 million BGN and elimination FDI' '' IRCL' ' WE'  (10) the impact of WE cause an increase in FDI t 1 2 t 3 t t on average with 0.574 million EUR; sec- The determination of the constant coefficient ρ is ondly, an increase in WE with 1 BGN and a significant problem in the application of the auto- elimination the impact of GDP cause a de- regressive transformation. D. Cochrane and G. crease in FDI on average with 2.083 million Orcutt suggest ρ to be replaced with the first-order EUR. coefficient of autocorrelation calculated by means ‒ On the basis of two-variable regression model with dependent variable – FDI and of formula (3). The authors prove that   r [6]. uu 1tt factor variables – WE and interest rate on ‒ Secondly, with the first-order autocorrelation long-term loans for households (IRCL) is es- coefficient and through formula (6) is per- tablished: firstly, an increase in IRCL with 1 formed the autoregressive transformation percent point and elimination the impact of and the values of the variables WE cause a decrease in FDI on average ' ' ' ' t t t WEandIRCL,GDP,FDI t are calculated with 1,013 billion EUR; secondly, an in- [17]. crease of WE with 1 BGN and elimination ‒ Thirdly, with the transformed values of the the impact of IRCL cause a decrease in FDI two variables and on the basis of equations on average with 0.872 million EUR. (7–8) and (9–10) are built regression mod- References els. The residuals around the regression line 1. Ahmad, N., Hayat, M., Luqman, M., Ullah, S. The should not be autocorrelated [17]. causal links between foreign direct investment and On the basis of the presented in equations (1) economic growth in Pakistan. 2012. DOI: and (2) and through formula (3) are calculated first- 10.12955/ejbe.v6i0.137. order coefficients of autocorrelation (  r uu ). 2. Bilawal, M., Ibrahim, M., Abbas, A., Shuaib, M., 1tt Ahmed, M., Hussan, I., Fatima, T. Impact of ex- Their values are respectively 0.459 and 0.527. change rate on foreign direct Investment in Pakistan. They are used in formulas (7–8) and (9–10) in re- Advances in Economics and Business. 2 (6). 2014. alization of autoregressive transformation. With the pp. 223–231. transformed values of variables the following re- 3. Blonigen, B., Piger, J. Determinants of foreign direct gression models are received: investment. National Bureau of Economic Research. ˆ ' ' ' Cambridge. 2011. FD It   GDP574.027.12717 t  WE083.2 t 4. Drabek, Z., Payne, W. Impact of transparency on  2  718.0r)3634.0()10618.0()143.2929(se Foreign Direct Investment. World Trade Organization    13df)73333.5()40259.5()3416.4(t Economic Research and Analysis Division. 1999.  )0008.0(p 13,2  57367.16F)0001.0()0001.0( 5. Elbaiashi, H. The effect of FDI and other foreign (11) capital inflows on growth and investment in developing economies. A thesis submitted for the degree of doctor of philosophy in economics. University of Glasgow. 2011.

9 Konstantin Kolev

6. Gujarati, D., Porter, D. Basic Econometrics. 13. Ren, J. Determinants and impact of foreign direct McGraw-Hill Companies. 2009. investment in China: a national and regional analy- 7. Habib, M., Sarwar, S. Impact of foreign direct in- sis. Loughborough University. 2012. vestment on employment level in Pakistan: a time 14. Stoenchev, N. Statistics. Publishing House at Uni- series analysis. Journal of Law, Policy and Global- versity of Forestry. 2013. (in Bulgarian). ization. 10. 2013. pp. 46–55. 15. Stoimenov, M. International finance. Trakia-M. 2011. 8. Mamoon, M., Rahman, A. Effects of foreign direct (in Bulgarian). investment (FDI) on Bangladeshi labor market. 16. Tsoklinova, М. Foreign Direct Investment As A Fac- World Review of Business Research. 6(3). 2016. pp. tor For Sustainable Development, 3rd International 46–60. multidisciplinary scientific conference on social sci- 9. Marinov, V. International economic relations. Theory, ences and art SGEM. 2016. pp. 273–280. system, politics. University publishing house ‘Econ- 17. Velichkova, N. Statistical Methods for Studying and omy’. 2006. Forecasting the Development of Socio-Economic 10. Na, L., Lightfoot, W. Determinants of foreign direct Phenomena. Publishing House ‘Science and Art’. investment at the regional level in China. Journal of 1981. (in Bulgarian). Technology Management in China. 1(3). 2006. pp. 18. Walsh, J., Yu, J. Determinants of Foreign Direct 262–278. Investment: A Sectoral and Institutional Approach. 11. Niazi, G. Does an inflation and growth of a country International Monetary Fund. 2010. affect its Foreign Direct Investment? Journal of Man- 19. Zbida, A. Analysis of foreign direct investments in agement. Economic and Finance. 2011. pp. 84–90. Hungary. Szent Istvan University. 2010. 12. Petranov, S. Foreign direct investment to Bulgaria. 20. Bulgarian National Bank. [www.bnb.bg]. Agency for Economic Analysis and Forecasting. 21. National Statistical Institute. [www.nsi.bg]. 2003.

ДЕТЕРМИНАНТИ НА ПРЕКИТЕ ЧУЖДЕСТРАННИ ИНВЕСТИЦИИ В БЪЛГАРИЯ

Константин Колев Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

На основата на теоретични концепции за преките чуждестранни инвестиции (ПЧИ) са откроени техни детер- минанти. Построени са множествени регресионни модели, в които зависима променлива са ПЧИ, а факторни променливи са БВП, лихвения процент по дългосрочните потребителски кредити и средната годишна работна заплата в България през периода 2000–2016 г.

Ключови думи: преки чуждестранни инвестиции, БВП, лихвен процент, средна годишна работна заплата.

10 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

CRITERIA AND INDICATORS EVALUATING THE FUNCTIONING OF QUASI- MARKETS

Maya Tsoklinova University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

Achieving sustainable development is the goal of any society. Over time, the idea of managing sustainable the theme of the development and functioning of quasi-markets in today's mixed business systems is extremely topical. The author focuses on five criteria for an assessment of quasi-market reforms, their indicators and the goals they have achieved. After the privatization of much of the state and municipal resources, the typical function of the public sector moves to the private sector. This functional change is associated with a change in the ownership structure of resources and the way they are funded. The latter makes the conclusion of contracts in a quasi-market agreement. These atypical relationships can be seen as different patterns of resource allocation and, more specifically, resource-oriented models. Research activity focuses on quasi-market employment reforms and, in particular, additional training services for job seekers in economic subjects. The objective of creating quasi-market conditions for the functioning of some activities of the national economy is related to the desire to achieve efficiency, freedom of choice and equality. The aim of quasi-market relationships is to improve efficiency, rationalize economic choices and raise standards of quality of life – without adverse consequences, especially for social justice and well-being among economic agents.

Key words: quasi-markets, evaluation, criteria, indicators, mixed economic system.

JEL: D4, D6, H00.

Introduction ture as competitive markets. State funding is justi- Market forces are means for achieving public fied in cases where it would lead to under-optimal goals rather than means for transferring funding levels of consumption and where there are positive from the public to the private sector. Traditionally, social externalities and the principle of economic services aimed at reintegrating labour are highly direction [8]. Therefore, a widespread distribution of monopolized by government regulations. In the educational, health and social services may be re- market system, services are offered by a wide quired, broader than would be the case with purely range of suppliers, with non-governmental organi- private arrangements. However, while public fund- zations and economic organizations working with ing is justified, this does not mean that the State as the government supplier. The State as a third part an economic agent has to provide all (or some of) in the market relationship may continue to play its those services. In literature, this model is called own role as a supplier [14]. The introduction of quasi-market [11]. market forces stems from the drive to improve efficiency in the public sector. It should be noted that in 2. The Nature of Quasi-Markets economic literature the role of competition is limited In quasi-markets, the relationship between buy- to: ers and suppliers is structured in a commercial way. a. use of competitive pressure to encourage This leads to the following situation: switching from producers to maintain a lower level of suppliers of bureaucratic monopolies to independ- prices; ent and competitive suppliers. As a result of this b. stimulating the use of new production tech- transformation, the state institutions responsible for nologies; the provision of these services have been replaced c. creating a favourable innovation environ- by state buyers who enter into contracts with inde- ment to avoid economic destruction [3]. pendent suppliers to provide the service in question Purpose of the study: The main objective of the [11]. Decisions are made on the basis of market research report is to analyze the functioning of criteria for price, quality and delivery time. A num- quasi-markets as the author's attention is focused ber of authors define this new way of delivering on five criteria to evaluate the functioning of certain public services as an internal or quasi-market: mar- activities in the national economy based on estab- ket in the sense of independent economic agents lished quasi-market conditions. who compete with each other for the attention of consumers but as a quasi-product – that is, unlike 1. The competitive mechanism of supply ser- the normal market, purchasing power comes not vices directly from consumers but from the state [11]. Markets with a potential threat to penetration of Another difference from the usual competitive economic agents are described by economic litera- markets is the appointment of an agent to act as a

11 Maya Tsoklinova

buyer on behalf of the end user and in some policy trolled market forces” is needed [14]. The question sectors – predominance of non-profit or even public is not to choose between „government or market”, suppliers. In the 80s and 90s, the new supply sys- but what kind and structure should be the mix of tem is present in many areas of social policy such government and market? In this paper, when de- as health, education and housing. According to scribing the model of quasi-market relationships, quasi-market theory, market forces have two main quasi-markets are typically considered, which form objectives: on the one hand – to increase efficiency the typical publicly funded sectors such as educa- and, on the other hand, to increase providers' ability tion, healthcare and other social services. British to react and to promote consumer choice [12]. researchers of quasi-market reforms in the health and education sectors have identified the following 3. Establishing quasi-markets: a modern model trends: the quasi-market of health services gener- for increasing efficiency in public sector man- ates more deficiencies than benefits. Conversely, agement the education market seems to have led to signifi- The introduction of quasi-markets for publicly cant changes, including efficiency and opportunity funded services can be seen as a specific way of to make consumer choice over the known eco- delivering services that differs from privatization or nomic criteria for maximizing behaviour [10]. contracting. In privatization, a former public sector There are a number of possible explanations for function is constantly shifting to the private sector, the failure in the healthcare sector and the relative with a change in ownership structure and in the success in the education sector. The first factor for mode of financing [4]. Negotiation is often under- the differentiation found is the incentive structure stood as an outsourcing by a public supplier or in a that impacts on the professional motivation in both broader sense, contracting means that the former sectors and which is quite different – relatively public sector function is subject to competition in weak in healthcare and relatively strong in educa- the private sector where the public supplier may tion. The second factor is the various constraints continue to act as one of the competing participants. faced by economic agents in the process of per- In this sense, the conclusion of contracts means a forming their specific professional activities. The quasi-market agreement. Finally, there is a voucher third factor is the overall motivation of the workers system that enables the customer to shop between [9]. In hospitals, the prevailing motivation is the different providers of the same service [6]. These quality of care provided by specialized consultants models can be considered as different distribution and their professional development. In education, models, oriented: school managers are more concerned about the ‒ to resources, i.e. this is the model of tradi- financial success or failure of their educational insti- tional supply by the public sector; tution [5]. As a summary of the above, the following ‒ to the buyer, i.e. this is the quasi-market conclusion can be drawn: the introduction of quasi- model; markets in the provision of public services in order ‒ to the client, i.e. this is the model of the to change the behaviour of the relevant actors re- voucher system. quires a number of conditions and attempts to be In each model the following roles differ: the role made their assessment – i.e. to what extent they of resources, the role of the buyer, the role of the have developed and what results have been supplier and the role of the consumer. What needs achieved. to be clarified is that in the traditional model, publicly funded services are provided by the public pro- 4. Criteria and Indicators to Evaluate the Func- vider, with some parts usually outsourced to other tioning of Quasi-Markets suppliers. The aggregated assessments (or impact as- Analyzing the different patterns of distribution, it sessments) aim to determine the results and effects is necessary to specify the following trend: striking of the program, especially for the purpose of mak- is the situation where countries where quasi-market ing important decisions on the continuation, exten- arrangements are implemented are involved in sion, reduction and funding of the program. These thorough reforms of compensation and aid systems two types of assessments are not mutually exclu- as well as attempts to boost and stimulate employ- sive [13]. Over time, a specific program or reform of ment on the labour market [16]. The application of activities from different types of assessments, rang- market forces can be seen as a means of achieving ing from public procurement audits, monitoring and good social security management. This effective evaluation to global assessment and meta- management function is achieved not by dividing assessment [7] can be included. The aim of quasi- rights on benefits but by reorganizing performance. markets can be both to improve efficiency, to pro- To this end, the following formula applies: instead mote freedom of choice, and to raise quality stan- of using market forces in a free competitive market, dards – without any adverse effects, especially on much more „managed market forces” or even „con- the level playing field among economic agents [12].

12 CRITERIA AND INDICATORS EVALUATING THE FUNCTIONING OF QUASI-MARKETS

By defining the main purpose of quasi-market func- vices is the focus on those most urgently needed tioning, it is necessary to consider and systematise economic agents [12]. A number of authors define criteria for their evaluation. These criteria are listed the fair service as a service whose use is mainly in the following text of the report. Each of them is driven by need rather than factors such as income, further explained and illustrated with one or more socio-economic status, gender or ethnic origin. The elements without claiming exhaustiveness. more care means an individual needs to calculate his/her level of well-being to a predetermined level, Efficiency the greater is his/her need. In economic literature, the „efficiency” category is interpreted in different ways. The author of this 5. Mechanism of functioning of quasi-markets in report associates effectiveness as one of the crite- the healthcare sector ria for assessing the functioning of quasi-markets In today's society, a major challenge for Homo with two basic concepts that underlie much of the sapiens is its increased participation in health care. various author's interpretations, namely: the total When it comes to the individual's right to health cost of delivering services and the cost of delivering care, it is necessary to mention that individual inter- a certain amount or service quality (productive or est, knowledge of health, health responsibility and technical efficiency). public solidarity are basic ethical principles in health care. Healthcare policy, healthcare providers, and Favour healthcare providers should help citizens make in- Raising favouritism can be seen as a pursuit of formed and literate choices as rational economic greater distribution efficiency. Allocation efficiency subjects. The economic nature of healthcare links refers to the output that best suits the needs and the relationship between consumers and healthcare preferences of end users as well as the place producers and the financing institution into a unified where they work. system [15]. All elements of the healthcare system are characterized by a number of functional fea- Quality tures. Knowledge of the economic essence of Quality cannot be ruled out when considering healthcare and health insurance is of great impor- the assessment of public service provision. Quality tance to understand the organization and funding of is a broad concept with many interpretations. One health systems in different countries and the tar- of the many definitions covers an assessment of geted efforts of different health policies to improve the set of organizational criteria in product produc- the functioning of systems. State interference sup- tion as well as an evaluation of the criteria of the ports the functioning of the economy of the national results obtained. For the quasi-market evaluation, economy by neutralizing market failures and subsi- the quality criterion covers indicators such as: type dizing positive effects in the economy [1]. The state and intensity of the service; the customer's percep- is called as a third economic entity in market relation of the service provided; customer satisfaction; tions, in order to build the basis for an efficient eco- the possibilities for filing complaints if the product nomic system and to deal with different types of provided does not agree with the contract. „market failures”. The theory that the state is a means by which a nation defines and applies col- Choice lective values clearly captures the taste of modern When a government agency offers services as a debates on issues such as the right to life and the monopolist, customers can not make their choices right to choose, the commitment of society to ideals because they are deprived of the opportunity to such as equality and justice, the views of universal have alternative options. The market should better health insurance, regardless of the ability to pay [2]. guarantee individual freedom of choice, as the mar- The state defends property rights and competition ket mechanism (i.e. the very essence of trade rela- as the underlying principles of the market system. It tions) is maintained by differences in individual corrects market failures or compensates for the lack preferences. In the case of quasi-market function- of private initiative in activities of public significance. ing in the provision of public services, the fear of For the performance of these activities, the state choosing can be justified as an end in itself or as an adopts laws that regulate its economic and social instrument for achieving other policy goals. responsibilities and obligations. The reasons for state intervention in the economy must be sought in Justice the essence of the market system. In essence, the Capital rarely appears to be explicitly one of the market for health products differs significantly from aims of quasi-market policy. Undoubtedly, because the typical commodity market with the following they are governed by a government for which the specific features: high degree of differentiation of considerations of justice are not necessarily a high the health product, asymmetric information, signifi- priority. The main concern in delivering social ser- cant number of government regulations, moral

13 Maya Tsoklinova

speculation, etc. It is this complex market for health economic forecast for the healthcare sector in Bul- products that is a typical example of a quasi-market. garia and in particular the planned funds in the pe- This means that all deduced theoretical quasi- riod 2014–2020, both by the state treasury and the market specificities in this report are applicable to revenues under operational programs. the healthcare sector. Figure 1 shows the macro-

Table 1. Structure of healthcare expenditure as a share of GDP (%) 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 GDP – current prices, thousand 83 234 100 87 177 200 91 120 300 95 063 400 99 006 500 102 949 600 102 949 600 BGN/ Health expenditure as a share of GDP 4,88 4,82 4,77 4,73 4,70 4,68 4,85 (%) – national financing Health expenditure as a share of GDP (%) – national fi- 6,03 6,10 6,15 6,01 5,75 5,44 5,51 nancing + еuropean funds Source: [http://brsnet.bg/wpcontent/uploads/2013/08/National_Health_Strategy_2020_first_draft.pdf].

Implications technological progress and thereby reduces labour Through the functioning of quasi-markets there costs. is a shift from suppliers of bureaucratic monopolies to independent and competitive suppliers. References ‒ The introduction of quasi-markets for pub- 1. Bartlett, W. et al. A revolution in social policy. Quasi- licly funded services can be seen as a spe- market reforms in the 1990s. The Policy Press. Bris- cific way of delivering services that differs tol. 2. Bradley, S., Taylor, J., Diversity, choice and the from privatization or contracting. quasi-market: An empirical analysis of secondary ‒ The quasi-market of health services gener- education policy in England. Working Paper 038. ates more deficiencies than benefits. 2007. Lancaster University Management School. ‒ The education market seems to have led to 3. Bowman, A. Competition for economic development significant changes, including efficiency and among southeastern cities. Urban Affairs Quarterly. opportunity to make consumer choice over 23. 2008. the well-known economic criteria for maxi- 4. Claassen, R. Institutional pluralism and the limits of mizing behaviour. the market. Politics, Philosophy and Economics. ‒ In essence, the market for health products 2009. pp. 420–447. 5. Cutler, D. Equality, efficiency and market fundamen- differs significantly from the typical commod- tals: The dynamics of international medical-care re- ity market with the following specific charac- form. Journal of Economic Literature. 2002. pp. 881– teristics: high degree of differentiation of the 906. health product, asymmetric information, sig- 6. Deakin, N., Walch, K. The enabling state: the role of nificant number of state regulations, moral markets and contracts. Public Administration. No 1. speculation, etc. 1996. pp. 33–48. 7. Izumida, N. Income Impact on the Use of Long-term Conclusion Care Service: the Case of Institutional Care Services. In order to regulate the demand for and supply Social Security Review. 2008. pp. 327–342. 8. Fisher, C. Resource allocation in the public sector. of public services and to reduce the growth of pub- Values, priorities and markets in the management of lic spending in developed countries, various ap- public services. Routledge. London/New York. 1998. proaches and measures are applied. The weak effi- 9. Le Grand, J. Delivering public services through ciency of market regulations motivates the practice choice and competition – The other invisible hand, of introducing rigorous state control and administra- Princeton University Press. Princeton. 2007. tive regulation of the market and the activity of bu- 10. Le Grand, J. From knight to knave? Public policy and reaucratic-organized producers of public goods. market incentives. In: Taylor-Gooby, P. (ed.) Trust The market creates conditions for highly efficient and welfare. Macmillan. Houndmills. 2000. production. Universal competition is a prerequisite 11. Le Grand, J. The quasi-market experiments in public service delivery: did they work? Paper for presenta- for thriving the one who is quicker and best adapted tion at Pontignano conference. 6–8 April 2001. Lon- to changes in consumer demand and most effec- don School of Economics. London. 2001. tively introduces new developments in scientific and

14 CRITERIA AND INDICATORS EVALUATING THE FUNCTIONING OF QUASI-MARKETS

12. Le Grand, J., Bartlett, W. (eds). Quasi-markets and 15. Schwartz, B. The Paradox of Choice: why more is social policy. Macmillan Press. London. 1993. less. Harper Collins. New York. 2004. 13. Reichard, C. Strengthening competitiveness of local 16. Struyven, L., Steurs, G. Design and redesign of a public service providers in Germany. International quasi-market for the reintegration of job seekers: Journal of Administrative Sciences. 2006. pp. 473– empirical evidence from Austtralia and the Nether- 492. lands. Journal of European Social Policy. vol. 15. no. 14. Slaughter, S., Cantwell, B. Transatlantic moves to 3. 2005. pp. 211–229. the market: United States and European Union. . Higher Education. 2012. pp. 583–606.

КРИТЕРИИ И ПОКАЗАТЕЛИ, ОЦЕНЯВАЩИ ФУНКЦИОНИРАНЕТО НА КВАЗИ- ПАЗАРИТЕ

Мая Цоклинова Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Темата за развитието и функционирането на квази-пазарите в съвремените смесени стопански системи е из- ключително актуална. Авторовото внимание е фокусирано върху пет критерия за оценка на квази-пазарните ре- форми, техните показатели и набелязаните цели за постигане. След приватизацията на голяма част от държав- ните и общинските ресурси, типична функция на публичния сектор се премества в частния сектор. Тази функци- онална трансформация се свързва с промяна в структурата на собствеността на ресурсите и в начина на тяхното финансиране. Последното превръща сключването на договори в квази-пазарно споразумение. Тези нетипични взаимоотношения могат да се разглеждат като различни модели на разпределение на ресурсите и по-конкретно – модели, ориентирани към ресурсите. Изследователският интерес е фокусиран върху квази-пазарните реформи за заетост и по-конкретно, услугите за допълнително обучение на търсещи работни позиции икономически инди- види. Целта при създаването на квази-пазарни условия за функционирането на някой дейности от националното стопанство е свързана с желанието за постигане на ефективност, свобода на избор и равнопоставеност. Ако трябва да се доуточни, целта на квази-пазарните взаимоотношения е да се подобри ефективността, да се раци- онализира икономическия избор и да се повишат стандартите за качество на живот - без неблагоприятни после- дици, особено за социалната справедливост между икономическите агенти.

Ключови думи: квази-пазари, оценка, критерии, показатели, смесена стопанска система.

15 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION POTENTIAL OF THE MINING COMPANIES

Borislava Galabova, Boryana Trifonova St. Ivan Rilski University of Mining and Geology, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

Innovation is at the heart of the economic development and growth. The state of the national innovation system is predetermined by the innovation activity of the enterprises. It depends on their capacity and focus on development and implementation of innovations. This topic is very important in the context of the need of increasing the competitiveness of the economy. In this sense, the main objective of the study is to reveal in principle the connection between the innovation potential of the mining company and the sustainable development as a leading contemporary concept of a balance between the environmental protection and the efficient use of natural resources.

Key words: innovation, innovation capacity, mining company, sustainable development

JEL: L23, O31, 030, Q01, Q50.

Introduction The structure of the index is complex. It’s based In principle the innovativeness of an economy is on two sub-indexes: Innovation Sub-Index and one of its most important characteristics in the cur- Innovation Output Sub-Index. The sub-index „Inno- rent business conditions. The gross innovation vation input” consists of five input pillars that reflect product shows the achieved degree of innovation. the main elements of the national economy and It’s expressed by the created newly products and provide innovations in different fields – institutions, services, developed new technologies and scientific human capital and research, infrastructure, market results [3]. So it’s the result of the cooperation be- and business sophistication. The structure of the tween innovation, technological and scientifically index is complex and it’s based on two sub-indexes product. It represents „the result of implemented „Innovation Input Sub-Index” and „Innovation Out- innovation in form of new and significantly improved put Sub-Index”. The „Innovation Sub-Index” is the processes, products and services on the basis of simple average of the first five key pillar scores. newly created and/or adapted existing knowledge They reflect the main elements of the national and know-how” [3]. Traditionally, the business is the economy and provide innovation: „Institutions”, greatest innovator. That’s why those innovations „Human capital and research”, „Infrastructure”, that were implemented in the companies are the „Market sophistication” and „Business sophistica- most important for the economic progress. The fast tion”. Every pillar is divided into sub-pillars and informational and communicational development in each sub-pillar is composed of individual indicators recent decades and the related transition from an (81 in total in 2017). The „Innovation Output Sub- industrial to an information society have led to a Index” has two pillars: „Knowledge and technology great change in the traditional economical structure. outputs” and „Creative outputs”. They also have It’s obvious to strive for a constant renewal and own sub-pillars – „Knowledge creation”, „Knowl- modernization in accordance with the increasing edge impact”, „Knowledge diffusion” and „Intangible requirements of the consumer demand. assets”, „Creative goods and services” and „Online creativity”, and own indicators [11]. In practice the 1. Conceptual framework of the innovation pro- GII helps to create an environment in which it’s file of the Bulgarian economy possible to monitor and evaluate regularly the key Internationally, the Global Innovation Index innovation factors. The study of the GII is compre- (Global Innovation Index) is an indicator that covers hensive and includes 127 economies for 2018, the various innovation aspects. It provides tools that providing 97.6% of the world GDP. In 2017 the can help adjust policies to promote the production, value for Bulgaria is 42.84 out of 100, so the rank- to increase the productivity and to create new work ing is 36 for its innovativeness [3]. In comparison, places. The Global Innovation Index (GII) reflects from 2009 to 2010 Bulgaria is in 49 place of a total the quantitative modern trends and concepts in the of 132 countries, included in the study. Its score is study of innovation profile of an economy. Its con- 3.29 out of 5, taking into account the highest score ceptual framework is based on the differentiation of of Iceland (4.857) and the lowest of Syria (2.13) the innovation factors and the related effects and [10]. The comparison of achieved in 2010 and 2017 results. values shows that significant progress isn’t regis-

16 Borislava Galabova, Boryana Trifonova

tered, although Bulgaria ranks in the ranking among the top 50 countries in the world. 2. Evaluation of the innovation potential of Bul- According to the Methodology of the European garia within the European Union Commission for measuring the innovation potential, In 2017, as well as in 2010, Bulgaria is in the Bulgaria is in the group of the „Modest innovators” last innovation group („Modest innovators”), accord- in the context of our responsibilities to implement ing to the results, achieved by the national innova- the flagship initiative of the strategy „Europe 2020 – tion system. In 2017 it remains considerably further Innovation Union” [8]. The results of the studies on back in the rankings, compared to others EU mem- this subject indicate that the country is far behind bers that joined the Union in the last waves of ac- on the indicator for innovation potential to its Euro- cession. In the more advanced group „Moderate pean partners. This is presented in the report „In- innovators” ranks Croatia, this is member of the novation Union Scoreboard” for 2017. In this report Union from 2013. In the same group rank also Po- all member countries of European Union are or- land, Latvia, Hungary, Slovakia, Cyprus, Malta, dered by the average level of the innovation poten- Lithuania, Estonia and the Czech Republic, which tial. This indicator is complex and is based on 25 are members of the Union from 2004. Slovenia indices for 2010 and 27 indices for 2017 different which is member from 2004 is in the more ad- indices. The Innovation potential index takes values vanced group „Strong innovators”. It’s apparent that from 0 (the lowest level) to 1 (the highest level). Its the total value of the Summary innovation index of conceptual framework rests on four groups of indi- Bulgaria – as a measure of the innovative perform- cators, which are specified in 10 dimensions and 27 ance of a country, is nearly twice lower than the specific indicators. The first group of indicators average for the EU. In parallel, the innovative po- covers the general framework conditions. Its di- tential of the innovation leaders is more than 20% mensions are „Human resources”, „Attractive re- higher than the average for EU. This actual ranking search systems” and „Innovation-friendly environ- confirms the need for speeding up the development ment”. The second group of indicators is related to of the innovation potential. It is necessary to the investments. Its dimensions are „Finance and achieve more rapid progress in the field of innova- support” and „Firm investments”. The innovation tion because of greater convergence in the sectorial activities capture the innovation efforts at the level innovation performance of the EU members. These of the company, grouped in three innovation di- facts and data justify the actuality of the topic for mensions: Innovators, Linkages, and Intellectual the development and the growth of the Bulgarian assets. The impacts cover the effects of companies’ business and the Bulgarian industrial enterprises. innovation activities in two innovation dimensions: Obviously in front of Bulgaria stand many chal- „Employment impacts” and „Sales effects”. The lenges, related to the need for more rapid progress third group of indicators refers to the innovation in the field of innovativeness, research and devel- activities. It has three different dimensions: „Innova- opment. In fact, it’s fundamental condition for the tors”, „Linkages” and „Intellectual assets”. The realization of the national and the community tar- fourth group of indicators concerns the impact and gets. According to the data from the Eurostat data- has two dimensions – „Employment impact” and base, in 2010 the Bulgarian expenditure for re- „Sales effects”. The value for the Innovation poten- search and development is only 0.5% of GDP. This tial index is obtained on the basis of the average fact puts Bulgaria together with Romania, Latvia values of all four groups. and Cyprus. In the 2017th edition of the „Innovation Score- Actually, Bulgaria hasn’t achieved recom- board Union” the countries are distributed accord- mended for the EU members’ target of 3% of GDP ing to the average value of the indicator in four in the framework „Europe 2020”, despite the efforts main groups in the field of the innovativeness (from for creating appropriate conditions for development the lowest to the highest result). These groups are of scientific research, high technologies and innova- „Modest innovators”, „Moderate innovators”, tiveness. By this indicator, Bulgaria is far behind the „Strong innovators” and „Innovation leaders”. Seven economically developed states members like years later, according to data in the report „Euro- Finland, Denmark, Sweden and Austria. In all prob- pean Innovation Scoreboard” for 2017 [9], Bulgaria ability, taking into account the present reached is in the penultimate place of all 29 EU member level, the stated goal won’t be accomplished until states included in the study. The country continues 2020. to be in the group of the „Moderate innovators”, In accordance to the Methodology of the Euro- together with Lithuania. Moreover, visible and pean innovation scoreboard (2017), Bulgaria is the measurable progress in the field of the innovation only EU member which doesn’t register the signifi- potential capacity and the development of the na- cant progress in the field of the innovation potential tional innovation system is not achieved (if the re- growth over the period from 2000 to 2017 [4]. The sults of the country in 2010 are taken into account). value of the Summary innovation index is the same

17 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION POTENTIAL OF THE MINING COMPANIES as in 2010 and 2017 (0.234) [4]. The registered ‒ there is no control mechanism on costs and progress in the past seven years is unsatisfactory, they are constantly growing; which is evident from the examination of the rank- ‒ the society seeks to increase abundance; ings. It doesn’t allow the country to move in an up- ‒ there is a need for social justice in the use of per group and to achieve greater development and resources. growth, based on the accumulation of a new knowl- Many objective and subjective factors, con- edge and high technology, contributing to the value nected to the supply and the demand of resources, added in the economy. In addition, in recent years, the change in the political, economic and social a very low innovation activity of the Bulgarian busi- situation and the environment, which are result from ness, in comparison with European is evident [4]. the consumption of natural resources, require an The majority of the enterprises don’t invest in the integrated attitude towards the new paradigms. The creation and implementation of innovations. This mining sector is the basis for the development of fact justifies a rather bad innovation country profile. the other industrial sectors. So the Sustainable The industrial enterprises should make persistent Development Program up to 2030 sets up the changes to be up to the European and world framework for its future functioning. Based on an trends. Past practice proves that competitive ad- analysis of world mining production for more than vantages in the industrial sector are achieved only 30 years, it is concluded that over the past decades by creation, implementation and diffusion of innova- the rate with which the mining production increase tion. This is the only possible approach through exceeds the growth rate of the population as well which the companies can increase their competi- as the rate of economic development (GDP) [5]. tiveness and productivity and to limit negative ef- This is why a sharp change in the attitude towards fects of some production activities on the environ- utilization of mineral resources is needed. This is ment. Otherwise, they could have lost their markets possible when a new strategy that focuses on inno- and significantly could have fallen far behind the vation and creativity in the use of primary and sec- competitors in a highly competitive environment ondary sources of raw materials is imposed [5]. So and a dynamic international market situation. it’s important to implement innovation projects and projects for improvement of the production process, 3. Sustainable development and innovation healthy and safe working environment, environ- potential – links and dependencies mental care and development of the human poten- The present indicators give reasons to claim that tial. the process of modernisation in the Bulgarian industry doesn’t tolerate considerable development in 4. Some innovative practices in the mining in- the last ten years. The cause of this unfavourable dustry situation can be sought in a number of areas. According to the data of the National Statistical For example, one of them is the limited amount Institute of Bulgaria, in 2014 29.6% of industrial in the National Innovation Fund (5 million EUR), enterprises can be defined as „innovative enter- along with the quality of the preparation of the pro- prises”, i.e. those who have carried out technologi- ject proposals. As the Chairman of the foundation cal (product and process innovation) or non- of the Informational and Communicational Tech- technological (marketing and management innova- nologies Cluster Peter Statev said: „There is lack of tion). The mining companies are among the few efficiency, enough transparency and meaningful- enterprises that make up work purposefully on the ness in the methodologies and documentary proc- implementation of innovative practices, leading to ess by which Bulgarian companies apply for the the sustainable development of the local communi- European Operational Programs, the National In- ties. novation Fund and the Research Fund” [7]. One of the best examples for the development of the com- 4.1. Innovation processes related to the environ- panies’ innovation potential in accordance with the mental protection principles of sustainable development can be found In this crucial direction a number of good exam- in the mining sector. The mining companies imple- ples and practices for successful development of ment and develop sustainable development pro- the innovation potential can be indicated. One of grams despite the global uncertainty. That uncer- them is the innovation of the company „Assarel tainty was declared at the World Economic Forum Medet” JSC Bulgaria. It’s about the technical and in 2014. The forum was dedicated to the topic of biological reclamation of mining landfill for waste the international community's attitude towards the ore, in which the company have invested over 10 future of the resource potential. This topic was dis- million EUR. This innovative solution provides both cussed on the base the following paradigms: retrieving copper from waste, disposal of by- ‒ the world stands against а resource deple- products and restores natural habitats. After the tion; technical recultivation of the ground, it is carried out

18 Borislava Galabova, Boryana Trifonova

a biological recultivation with special mixtures, simi- long-term industrial strategy until 2030. The focus is lar to the naturally abundant grasslands in the area. on the development of energy-intensive industries A number of useful effects are achieved in 2015 as key to the development of all other industries through the experimental planting of one acre of and industrial enterprises. During the Annual Forum reclaimed areas of the landfill with lavender. The on Eco-innovation and Purity of the air „Aurubis” first oil from this lavender has already produced in Bulgaria JSC presented its experience in the area 2017. The innovation consists in application of this of emissions’ reduction. The company has installed system on the still existing mining waste facility. additional secondary treatment system of techno- The company was distinguished in the field of the logical gases, based on technology used in the green innovations for 2017 in the Bulgarian annual chemical industry „Sulfacid” and introduced for the contest „Innovative enterprise of the year”. For this first time. It’s applied for the treatment of waste gas project for recultivation the company has been from melting the copper. awarded in the field of green innovation for 2017 in the annual contest „Innovative enterprise of the 4.2. Innovation of the processes related to the im- year” [5]. The plans of „Assarel-Medet” JSC for provement of the working environment 2018 are to invest 135 million EUR in moderniza- „Solvay Sodi” – Devnya has developed and has tion of the production process, energy efficiency, implemented special system for the collection, safety production process and qualifications. evaluation and implementation of the employees’ „Dundee Precious Metals Chelopech” SA cre- ideas, named „Got it”. The innovation enables an ates and applies its own innovative technology. The overall assessment of ideas for innovations with a innovation represents a special ventricular system return on investment within two years. with which the company achieve a remarkable This innovation won the Bulgarian competition transformation in terms of the work culture. With for „Workplace innovation” for 2015 [7]. The interna- this innovation the company won second place in tional group „Solvay Sodi” applies the policy for the Bulgarian contest „The most innovative com- sustainable development „Solvay way” by 2013. pany 2016” [1]. „Dundee Precious Metals This policy includes many obligations with regard to Chelopech” JSC apply innovative approach in the social, corporate and ecological responsibility managing years ago. So the processes in the un- towards all stakeholders. These stakeholders are derground can be monitored in real time, like those the personnel of the company, the member of the in the open cast mines. The company’s manage- local communities and the society as a whole. ment system is a novelty in the field of underground Thanks to the system „Got it” the plant in Devnya ore mining worldwide. In 2011 the company stands out as a leader in the Belgian group for sus- launches a project for the issue of an annual sustainable development. In the „Industrial Cluster tainability report in connection with the Global Re- Srednogorie” there are four laboratories which op- porting Initiative (GRI). This report presents infor- erate with a shared resource for research and ap- mation on stakeholders related to the activity of the plied activities in conjunction with the innovative company – the employees, investors, Government, concepts „Shared values”. This conception may be local communities and society. The company defined as next level of a corporate social respon- gained enough experience in the process of recla- sibility. Through 2015 the Cluster, which brings mation of the land from 2004 onwards. The scope together the interests of its members to increase of the activities in support of the green areas is competitiveness and potential of the local economy, constantly increasing. The company has invested has been awarded for innovative business cluster. more than 17 million EUR and has planted more This Cluster also has a bronze certificate from the than 10 000 PCs. trees and shrubs and over 30 European Secretariat for a cluster analysis on so- acres permanent crops with essential oil and me- cial responsibility, which testifies to the high score dicinal crops of lavender and rose oil. There are obtained in this field [2]. many different beneficial effects of this innovative practice. With this activity the company enables and 4.3. Innovation of the processes associated with a assists not only the biological purification of the increased efficiency in the utilization of natural re- agricultural lands, but also promote the develop- sources ment of the sustainable business at local level and On the academic level, the St. Ivan Rilski Uni- provide a higher standard of living of the local versity of Mining and Geology works purposefully communities. The mining enterprises participate in towards the implementation of some research pro- the events of the calendar of the Bulgarian Chair- grammes in the enterprises in the mining industry. manship of the Council of the EU. During the meet- For example, „Gorubso-Zlatograd” JSC imple- ing of the Economic Ministers „Aurubis” Bulgaria mented an innovative approach for integrated man- JSC presented some big challenges to the industry agement of extraction and processing of lead-zinc in Europe and the need for an implementation of a ores in 2016. This approach was developed jointly

19 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION POTENTIAL OF THE MINING COMPANIES with „Minstroy Holding” JSC. It ensures the rational Most of the companies in the mining sector im- use of the natural resources and prevents their plement sustainable development policy. They pro- depletion, comply with the requirements for the vide information to the stakeholders – the employ- sustainable development of the industry. The inno- ees, investors, Government, local communities and vation is mostly targeted to the flotation process in members of the society. Those good examples which was created and introduced a new techno- show that it’s possible for the industrial enterprises logical and reactive mode of fractional delivery of to operate successfully for implementation of inno- new non-toxic flotation reagents. The result is lead vative projects and improvement of the production and zinc concentrats with improved quality charac- process. All these activities aim to ensure healthy teristics that fully meet the requirements for a met- and safe working environment and to care for the allurgical processing. The described technological environment and the human potential. innovation is presented for the first time to the international academic community at the XXI World Conclusion Mining Congress held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, The national innovation system is determined by October 2016 [1]. the innovation activity of the enterprises, in particular their capacity and focus on the development and Summary and recommendations implementation of innovations. The development of The results of this study show that Bulgaria an economy goes through the striving for higher ranks among the top fifty countries in the world added value of the produced products and services. according to its Global Innovation Index. However, It should be based on innovative and modern tech- the progress achieved is insufficient. This is also nical solutions. The decisive factors for the pro- evident at EU level, because the country is signifi- gress depend on the results from research and cantly lagging behind in the field of innovation po- development activities. The good practices and tential from its European partners. In 2017, Bulgaria approaches for increasing the innovation potential still occupies one of the last places, according to provide the rational use of the natural resources the degree of innovation of the national innovation and the reduction of the depletion of natural re- system. This confirms the acute need of accelerat- sources. They are included in the policies for social, ing the development of innovation potential and to corporate and environmental responsibility of the achieve faster progress in this field in order to in- mining companies. It’s one of the main reasons for crease convergence in members’ states innovation growth of this sector and for investments in the performance. The companies, especially those in three pillars of sustainable development: economic, the industry, should make sustainable changes to environmental and social effectiveness. keep pace with the European and the global trends. Indeed, many competitive advantages in the indus- References trial sector are achieved only by creation, imple- 1. БМГК. Годишен бюлетин 2015, 2016, 2017. mentation and diffusion of innovation. [http://www.bmgk.bg]. A good example for the development of the in- 2. Индустриален Клъстер Средногорие. Раздел „Новини”. [http://www.srednogorie.eu] novation potential of enterprises in accordance with 3. Иновации.бг. Иновационен потенциал на бъл- the principles of sustainable development can be гарската икономика. 2010. found in the mining industry. The enterprises in this 4. Иновации.бг. България в глобалните техноло- sector continue to implement programs for innova- гични вериги. Фондация „Приложни изследвания tion, despite the global uncertainty. In the field of и комуникации”. 2017. innovation of processes, it could be indicated a 5. Ковачева, В., Велев, В. Съвременни аспекти за number of working and good examples for success- устойчиво развитие на минералните ресурси. ful development of the companies’ innovation po- Сборник с доклади III Национална научно- tential. техническа конференция „Минералните ресурси и устойчивото развитие“. НТС по минно дело, Applied by years of practice for reclamation of геология и металургия. София. 2017. стр. 26–34. mining landfills for waste rocks and terrains from 6. Фондация Приложни изследвания и комуникации. previous activity not only improves but supports the Национален конкурс „Иновативно предприятие biological purification of the farmland. It also allows на годината“. [http://www.arcfund.net] the development of sustainable business and pro- 7. Association of Business Clusters. Състоя се vides a higher standard of living for the local com- Националният Конкурс „Иновативно munities. The innovation includes the creation of предприятие на годината”. 2017. shared resources laboratories for research and [http://www.abclusters.org]. development of the mining enterprises in Sred- 8. European Commission. Innovation Union Score- board 2010. The Innovation Union’s performance nogorie region. These laboratories are focused on scoreboard for Research and Innovation. 1 February the enhancement of the competitiveness and the 2011. potential of the local economy.

20 Borislava Galabova, Boryana Trifonova

9. European Commission. European Innovation Score- 10. INSEAD. Global Innovation Index 2009–2010. board 2017. [https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files [https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/userfiles/file/ /2017/06/European_Innovation_Scoreboard_2017.p GII-2009-2010-Report.pdf]. df]. 11. The Global Innovation Index 2017. Innovation Feed- ing the World. Cornell University. INSEAD. the World Intellectual Property Organization. 2017.

УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ И ИНОВАЦИОНЕН ПОТЕНЦИАЛ НА МИННОТО ПРЕДПРИЯТИЕ

Борислава Гълъбова, Боряна Трифонова Минно-геоложки университет „Св. Иван Рилски”, София

Резюме

Иновациите са в основата на икономическото развитие и растеж. Състоянието на иновационната система на една страна се предопределя от иновационната активност на предприятията – техния капацитет и насоченост към разработване и внедряване на иновации. Тази тема придобива голямо значение и актуалност в контекста на необходимостта от повишаване на конкурентоспособността на икономиката. В този смисъл основната цел на изследването е разкриването на връзката между иновационния потенциал на минното предприятие и устойчиво- то развитие като водеща съвременна концепция за баланс между опазването на околната среда и ефективното оползотворяване на природните ресурси.

Ключови думи: иновации, иновационен капацитет, минно предприятие, устойчиво развитие.

21 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

PUBLIC WELFARE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

Maya Tsoklinova University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

Achieving sustainable development is the goal of any society. Over time, the idea of managing sustainable development has become a concept that a number of researchers are trying to explore through continuous and consistent measurement. At present, public welfare is not studied solely in terms of increased consumption of material goods and quantitative data characterizing economic growth. Along with these components, qualitative aspects are also being ac- tively used, including the social dimension of modern progress. However, the literary review shows that clear definition and accurate measurement of public welfare are not easy to achieve, and the measurement process itself is difficult to standardize. The main objective of this scientific report is to analyze and discuss the economic and non-economic indicators that characterize the most complete and accurate social welfare and which are related to the concept of sustainable development of the national economy. Special emphasis is placed on defining social welfare as a multi-dimensional feature, whose complex assessment is based on key measures such as material living standards (including income, consumption, inflation, unemployment); level of healthcare in the national economy; level of education in the national economy; the amount of work and leisure time; participation in public activities; management of social relationships and relationships; environmental quality and uncertainty level (including: economic and natural risk assessment). Attention is focused on key elements of sustainable development and the use of alternative economic and non-economic indicators to measure social welfare. In this line of thought, social welfare should not only include purely economic measurement (the main focus is on GDP), but it is also necessary to apply non-economic measurement through a number of alternative indicators.

Key words: public welfare, sustainable development, economic indicators, economic growth.

JEL: D6, H00, I3.

Introduction ‒ degree of economic and physical uncer- In modern society, the notion of „welfare” is not tainty; analyzed solely from the point of view of material ‒ an institutional environment and opportuni- living standards influencing to quantitative growth. ties for transparent management of eco- This means that, in addition to the purely economic nomic and social processes. indicators, take effect and the qualitative aspects, Purpose of the study: The main objective of this the social dimension of the current progress, i.e. scientific report is to analyze economic and non- structural policy and public awareness [2]. Notwith- economic indicators that characterize public pros- standing the above, the literature review shows that perity and are related to the concept of sustainable accurate measurement of welfare is not an easy development of the national economy. process as no clear criteria and indicators for its quantification are set out. A number of authors who 1. Public welfare as an element of the economic are studying this issue comment that although there system is a widespread adoption of policies aimed at ana- The welfare of a society implies the achieve- lyzing public welfare, it is not clear how the term ment of adequate economic development, which is „welfare” is defined at individual or new society described as an objective dimension of prosperity level. Prosperity can be presented as a multidimen- and the resulting positive perception of people at sional feature based on the following key dimen- the right stage of society, i.e. the life quality, which sions that need to be considered simultaneously: is described as a subjective dimension of welfare. ‒ material living standard, incl. level of income, In other words, when it comes to quantifying and consumption, employment and unemploy- assessing the welfare of a society, it is necessary to ment; use objective and subjective indicators [4]. The ‒ state, structure and financing of public main conceptual framework shown in Figure 1 pre- health; sents a new approach to attempts to define the ‒ educational level, incl. access to educational concept of social welfare. Objective welfare can be opportunities for the population; equated with economic development (which is sus- ‒ social relationships and relationships; tainable); can be measured with real, objective liv- ‒ state of the environment; ing conditions. Moreover, subjective welfare corresponds to the public perception of the quality of life.

22 Maya Tsoklinova

Figure 1 presents the two main elements of pros- sustainable development stimulates a number of perity – the objective (what includes the real eco- studies and debates within the scientific community nomic conditions of life) and the subjective (which that can be summarized as „GDP weaknesses as a includes the perceptions of economic agents about development measure”. They all highlight the the impact of real economic conditions on life, i.e. weaknesses and reasons why this widespread the life quality). measure cannot be used exclusively to quantify and understand actual public welfare [12].

2. Public welfare in the context of sustainable Subjective development Objective welfare welfare In identifying economic developments, it is possible to focus on the social, technological, institu- Objective Subjective tional and cultural aspects of this phenomenon [19]. Welfare dimensions dimensions What is present in all definitions is the perspective of time, i.e. it can be defined that economic devel- Resident Economic opment is a process that takes place over a long perceptions development about the life period of time and indicates a desired and positive (life conditions) quality change [11]. Economic development is a complex concept that leads to the progressive qualitative and quantitative development of all the individuals that make up the economic system. This improve- Source: [20]. ment referred to above does not mean improve- Fig. 1. Objective and subjective welfare ment in a purely economic sense. It also includes

non-economic aspects, incl. environmental protec- In other words, the welfare of a society can be tion, social rights, the cultural orientation of the understood as a consequence and function of real community, the institutional environment and others. living conditions (objective welfare). These condi- If there is a constant positive change in all these tions depend on how people perceive them, what aspects, future generations will receive the same or they think and feel about them, and what conse- better conditions, which mean that the economic quences their action (subjective welfare) causes. system has achieved sustainable development [11]. This welfare observation approach is justifiable, as The concept of sustainable development is a even the inhabitants of wealthy countries that take social paradigm that undoubtedly affects behav- advantage of economic growth are not character- ioural patterns. Therefore, it requires interdiscipli- ized by a higher level of general prosperity. nary research [10]. In this line of thought, exploring The indicators of subjective welfare have the po- the significance of the concepts of „sustainable de- tential to provide comprehensive information on velopment” and „sustainability” implies the analysis how people assess the living conditions in a given of a complex set of dynamic factors and the aggre- country and how these conditions impact on the gation of this heterogeneous population over a attitudes, satisfaction, preferences and perceptions specific time period. Surely, what can be said is that of society. The people themselves are the best ex- this problem still provokes numerous scientific and perts who appreciate their life quality in a credible expert controversies. Sustainable development is, way [5]. The need for income is not the only crite- inherently, a political and global concept initially rion for measuring welfare, it stimulates scientific linked mainly to environmental issues in less devel- developments to define different concepts, such as oped countries [10]. conditions and life quality, and therefore seek alter- Perhaps the greatest impact on the contempo- native indicators (in terms of both dimensions) rary understanding of the concept of sustainable measuring public welfare. It is these alternative in- development and its promotion is related to the dicators that are directed towards its precise and pursuit of enhancing public prosperity - in its mate- quantitative determination [3]. rial and intangible aspect [9]. This report identifies In order to provide a basis for political interven- sustainable development as a development that tion at every level of society, a combination of in- meets the needs of current generations, without formation on objective living conditions and their prejudice to the ability of future generations to meet subjective assessment should be used. The analy- their own needs, emphasizing global efforts to pro- sis of welfare needs to flow in the direction of its tect the environment and balancing economic and two forms - objective and subjective. Nevertheless, political imbalances. In summary, the concept of many countries do not have specific indicators of sustainable development is based on three main objective welfare and are satisfied with internal elements [14]: constraints on observed indicators. The concept of 1. unified economic growth;

23 PUBLIC WELFARE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

2. environmental protection; framework [7]. The reason for the discrepancies in 3. respect and enhance social and human the theoretical concept is that in the economic sys- rights. tem some elements are developing more slowly This approach to development is called a holistic than anticipated or are preventing others from or a holistic approach. Between the above three achieving better results. For example, even if eco- interrelated elements, it is necessary to build sus- nomic and social equilibrium is achieved, society tainable interconnection relationships, because only will not experience real progress if clean air or in this way an economic system with features of drinking water is exhausted. Z. Goldsmith speaks of fairness, efficiency and sustainability could be built a permanent economy, and explores ways to create [9]. Figure 2 illustrates the key elements and sub- a stable society. A penetrating economy is an elements of each sustainable development program. economy in which sources are not spent in vain, The concept is also often described as the „three food is produced sustainably, renewable energy pillars” – economic growth, environmental protec- sources are used, and the values of a community tion and social progress, through their joint action, are assessed on the basis of their comparison with enable the sustainable development of society. the notion of instability [9]. Some authors associate Each of the elements of sustainable development this contemporary social development with the no- forms has its own field of application. For example, tion of „circular economy”. the economic and social elements form a common By analyzing the different elements of the con- scope for the impact of socio-economic subdivi- ceptual framework of sustainable development, sions. Economic and environmental elements form economic sustainability can be defined as realizing another general scope, which is why the eco- growth, achieving efficiency and fair distribution of economic sub-elements act. The social elements in resources and wealth among members of society. their interaction with environmental elements form Social sustainability implies participation in deci- the sub-elements of the social and the environment. sion-making, mobility and cohesion, the realization These three common fields of application have their of social identity, the development of institutions, own point of contact – they form a fourth cumulative etc. The third aspect of sustainability is environ- field of application, which is the field of sustainable mental sustainability. This aspect respects the in- development. It implies an integrated approach to tegrity of different ecosystems, the capacity to con- the impact of the environmental, economic and serve natural resources, including biodiversity. socio-economic environment. 3. Economic aspects of public welfare

Socio-economic Sustainability The main objective of economic policy is to - Employment Integrated monitor and quantify economic output and to use -Education Economic approach toward -Local economic environmental, this data for future progress of society. In other and enterprises -Growth economic and words, the goal is to achieve economic growth. -Community - Risk management socio-economic -Partnership - Permanent return impact Economic growth, measured by GDP, is not the only indicator of the economic dimension of objective prosperity [1]. When assessing and quantifying Economic- Social Environmental environmental this economic dimension, other indicators must also - Individual - Permits and -Resources be taken into account. It is GDP that is one of the respect licensing - Energy efficiency indicators that economists use for the objective as- - Equality -Biodiversity -Global Energy -Diversity management Problems sessment of a country's healthy economic situation - Human rights -Gas emissions within its geographical boundaries, to measure the economic performance of society [13]. Therefore, Socio-environmental economic performance can only be identified with Health and security, Legislation, Climate changes, Crises manegement the economic dimension of objective prosperity and Source: [21]. Fig. 2. Main elements of sustainable development natural economic growth. Of these four indicators, GDP is the most widely The concept of sustainable development is used and widely known. It is well known that the closely linked to the desire to develop a harmonious assessment of prosperity, based solely on GDP, society geared to great economic prosperity, social has a number of shortcomings and limitations [18]. cohesion and environmental protection. In this re- Over time, GDP and objective social prosperity are gard, it is necessary to mention that sustainable somehow synonymous. The consequences of in- development is associated and measured not only adequate use of GDP and its interpretation as an with quantitative but also qualitative characteristics. indicator of prosperity, the lack of an appropriate But in many situations the real state of the economy measure that takes into account the real progress does not correspond to the known theoretical of a society is high, especially given the strong influence of GDP data on the functioning and direc-

24 Maya Tsoklinova

tion of the economy as a whole and on the deci- 1. The Genuine progress indicator (GPI) – the GDP sion-making at all levels of government. Therefore, adjustment indicator GDP is only one of the economic measures, which, The Actual Progress Indicator (GPI) was created with the non-economic ones, indicates the objective in 1995 as one of the first alternatives to GDP by economic situation of a country. the San Francisco NGO, and is a variant of the Sustainable Economic Welfare Index (ISEW). The 4. Non-economic aspects of public welfare actual progress indicator (GPI) is an indicator that is Since the early 1980s, a number of alternative proposed to replace or complement GDP. It is de- indicators have been developed to meet the goals signed to take better account of the prosperity of a set out in the sustainable development concept. In nation by including environmental and social factors this line of thought, a number of authors are launch- that are not measured by GDP. For example, some ing different approaches, with the focus put on them models of the Actual Progress Indicator (API) de- to find alternatives to GDP [12]. Alternative indica- crease their value when the poverty rate increases. tors that compete with traditional ones can be This indicator separates the notion of „social pro- grouped by different criteria, namely: gress” from the „economic growth” category. This ‒ to the organization that created them; indicator allows politicians at national and regional ‒ the scientific field to which they relate; level to measure how their citizens live in economic ‒ the target groups for which they are in- and social terms [17]. It aims to measure the wel- tended, etc. fare of a country and the quality of life of its resi- In summary of the above classification, it can be dents, and not just focus on the economic perform- said that the differences between the alternative ance of its functioning. indicators are significant and depend mainly on the interests of their creators. For example, A. Dil [8] 2. The Human Development Index (HDI) – an indi- distinguishes three types of international indicators: cator that replaces GDP ‒ It is the first type that measures the primary The Human Development Index (HDI) is a com- economic phenomena. prehensive statistical index of life expectancy, edu- ‒ Second are indicators that measure educa- cation and per capita income indicators that are tion, happiness, social development, the rule used to rank countries in four levels of human de- of law and human rights. velopment. The Human Development Index (HDI) ‒ Third type of indicators is those that cover was developed by UNDP in 1990 as a measure of the environmental aspects of the public sys- the welfare and impact of economic and social poli- tem. cies on people's life quality. It is used as a measure Other authors, such as P. Sheppelmann and I. for human development and for determining the Gossens, classify measures aimed at economic level of development of a country. The Human De- development in three main groups [15]: velopment Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of 1. indicators for GDP adjustment; life expectancy, literacy, education and living stan- 2. indicators replacing GDP; dards, and is among the most popular alternative 3. Indicators complementing GDP. measures of economic development. The first set of indicators – GDP adjustment refers mainly to the adaptation of traditional indicators 3. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to account for economic phenomena through the The Millennium Declaration as a key policy inclusion of environmental and social factors. They document of the UN for the 21st century was lead to a positive or negative signal that is given to adopted in September 2000 by statesmen of 189 the public and can serve as an important manage- UN member states, with the aim of reducing pov- ment tool. The second set of indicators replacing erty in the seventh direction. The document is GDP tends to measure and measure prosperity known for eight main objectives, including: more directly than GDP. The third set of indicators ‒ overcoming extreme poverty and hunger; is those that complement GDP on the basis of na- ‒ achieving universal primary education; tional accounts systems. This group also includes ‒ promoting equality between women and indicators complementing GDP with additional envi- men and empowering women; ronmental and social information. ‒ reduce child mortality; Some of the most important alternative eco- ‒ improving the health of mothers; nomic indicators are presented in the following ‒ prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS, malaria classification: and other diseases; ‒ ensure a sustainable environment; ‒ creating a global partnership for development.

25 PUBLIC WELFARE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

From the above eight objectives of the Declara- and Migration Working Papers No. 33. OECD. Paris. tion, it is clear that they emphasize that everyone 2006. has the right to food, education and health. The 5. Borhnke, P. First European Quality of Life Survey: main objectives set out in the Declaration can be Life Satisfaction, Happiness and Sense of Belonging, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living achieved through the continuous development and and Working Conditions. Office for Official Publica- strengthening of the global partnership in which the tions of the European Communities. Luxembourg. richest must help the poorest. 2005. 6. Goldsmith, Z. The Constant Economy, How to Cre- Implications ate a Stable Society. Atlantic Books. London. 2009. ‒ Objective welfare equates to economic de- 7. Goossens, Y., Makipaa, A., Schepelmann, P., van velopment and is measured by real, objec- de Sand, I., Kuhndtand, M., Herrndorf, M. Alternative tive living conditions. Progress Indicators to Gross Domestic Product ‒ Subjective welfare includes the perceptions (GDP) as a Means Towards Sustainable Develop- ment Policy. Department Economic and Scientific of economic agents about the impact of real Policy. European Parliament. 2007. economic conditions on life, i.e. focuses on 8. Dill, A. Wealth beyond GDP – Composing a National the life quality. Commons Product, Global Commons Index. 2009. ‒ The concept of sustainable development 9. Islam, S., Clarke, M. The Relationship Between Eco- stimulates a number of studies and debates nomic Development and Social Welfare: A New Ad- within the scientific community, which can justed GDP Measure of Welfare. Social Indicators be summarized as „GDP weaknesses as a Research. vol. 57, No. 2. 2002. pp. 201–228. development measure”. 10. Kates, R., Thomas M. What is sustainable develop- ‒ Sustainable development is a development ment? Goals, indicators, values, and practice. Envi- ronment Science and Policy for Sustainable Devel- that meets the needs of current generations, opment. vol. 47. No. 3. 2008. pp. 8–21. without compromising the ability of future 11. Kolev, К., Yovkov, I. Social equilibrium as a criterion generations to meet their own needs, em- for sustainable development of social production. phasizing global efforts to protect the envi- Еconomic thought. 3. 2011. pp. 68–91. (in Bulgarian). ronment and balance economic and political 12. Landefeld, J., Moulton, B., Platt, J., Villones, S., imbalances. GDP and Beyond: measuring economic progress and sustainability. Survey of Current Business. vol. Conclusion 90. No. 4. 2010. pp. 12–25. In recent years, there has been a significant im- 13. Maxton, G. The end of progress: How modern economics has failed us. John Wiley & Sons. London. provement in available information and research 2011. related to sustainable development. The monitoring 14. Marshall, J., Toffel, M. Framing the Elusive Concept of data and indicators individually and unsystemati- of Sustainability: A Sustainability Hierarchy. Envi- cally may lead to unclear or even totally mistaken ronmental & Scientific Technology. vol. 39. 2005. pp. perception of the direction and progress of sustain- 673–682. able development at regional, national or interna- 15. Schepelmann, P., Goossens, Y., Makipaa, A., To- tional level. It is necessary to monitor data in a sys- wards Sustainable Development, Alternatives to tematic and global way in order to allow their com- GDP for Measuring Progress. Wuppertal Institute for parison and tracking over time. The various indica- Climate, Environment and Energy. Wuppertal special 42. 2010. tors designed to measure sustainable development 16. Stiglitz, J., Sen, J., Fittousi, P. Report by the Com- offer a solution in this context. They appear to be mission on the Measurement of Economic Perform- indicators that are an adequate alternative to the ance and Social Progress. 2009. current economic situation. 17. Wen, Z., Zhank, K., Du, B., Li, Y., Li, W. Case study on the use of genuine progress indicator to measure References urban economic welfare in China. Ecological Eco- 1. Allardt, E. Having, Loving, Being, An Alternative to nomics. vol. 63. No. 2. 2007. pp. 463–475. the Swedish Model of Welfare Research. in Nuss- 18. Wesselink, B., Bakkes, J., Best, A., Hinterberger, F., baum, M., Sen, A. (ed.) The Quality of Life. Claren- Ten Brink, P. Measurement Beyond GDP, paper don Press. Oxford. 1993. pp. 88–94. presented at Beyond GDP: Measuring progress, true 2. Bergheim, S. Schneider, S. Measures of well-being, wealth, and the well-being of nations. Brussels. 2007. There is more to it than GDP. Deutsche Bank Re- 19. Yotova, L. Global challenges and sustainable devel- search. Frankfurt. 2006. opment in public sector. Economic alternatives. 4. 3. Bleys, B. Alternative welfare measures. MOSI Work- 2009. pp. 66–68. (in Bulgarian). ing Paper No. 12. Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Brussels. 20. Gomez-Lobo, A. Sustainable Development and 2005. Natural Resource Accounting in a Small Open 4. Boarini, R., Johansson, A., D’Ercole, M. Alternative Economy: A Methodological Clarification. Estudios measures of well-being. OECD Social, Employment de Economía. 2001. p. 216.

26 Maya Tsoklinova

21. Dasgupta, P. The Welfare Economics of Green Na- tional Accounts. Environmental and Resource Eco- nomics. 2009. pp. 38.

ОБЩЕСТВЕНО БЛАГОДЕНСТВИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ: ТЕНДЕНЦИИ И ПРЕДИЗВИКАТЕЛСТВА

Мая Цоклинова Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Постигането на устойчиво развитие е цел на всяко общество. С течение на времето, идеята за управление на устойчивото развитие се превърна в концепция, която редица изследователи се стремят да проучат чрез непре- къснато и последователно измерване. Понастоящем, общественото благоденствие не се изучава единствено от гледна точка на увеличеното потребление на материални блага и количествени данни, характеризиращи иконо- мическия растеж. Наред с тези компоненти, активно се използват и качествени аспекти, включващи социално измерение на съвременния прогрес. Въпреки това, литературният обзор показва, че ясното дефиниране и пре- цизното измерване на общественото благоденствие не са лесни за постигане, а самият процес на измерване трудно се поддава на стандартизиране. Основна цел на настоящия научен доклад е да анализира и дискутира икономически и неикономически показатели, които характеризират най-пълно и точно общественото благоденст- вие и които са свързани с концепцията за устойчиво развитие на националната икономика. Специален акцент е поставен върху дефинирането на общественото благоденствие като многомерен признак, чиято комплексна оценка се основава на ключови измерители като материален жизнен стандарт (в това число: доходи, потребле- ние, инфлация, безработица); равнище на здравеопазване в националното стопанство; равнище на образование в националното стопанство; размер на работно и свободно време; участие в обществени дейности; управление на социални връзки и взаимоотношения; качество на околната среда и равнище на неопределеност (в това чис- ло: оценка на икономически и природен риск). Вниманието е фокусирано върху ключови елементи на устойчиво- то развитие и използването на алтернативни икономически и неикономически показатели за измерване на об- щественото благоденствие. В този ред на мисли, общественото благоденствие не трябва да включва единствено чисто икономическо измерване (основният акцент се поставя върху БВП), но също така е необходимо да се при- ложи неикономическо измерване чрез редица алтернативни показатели (в това число: GPI; HDI; MDGs).

Ключови думи: обществено благоденствие, устойчиво развитие, икономически показатели, икономически растеж.

27 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES TO REVERSE LOGISTICS STATE

Adriana Strekalovska-Garkova, Stanislava Kovacheva University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

This research aim is to review reverse logistics worldwide: clarifying the essence of the concepts and defining some objects, determining the importance of reverse logistics and clarifying the role of reverse logistics in today concept of circular economy. A circular economy seeks to rebuild capital, whether this is financial, manufactured, human, social or natural. This ensures enhanced flows of goods and services. A circular economy is a regenerative approach in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimized by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy. This is achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling. This contrasts with a linear economy which is a 'take, make, dispose' model of production. The new environmental era represents a challenge to worldwide manufacturing and production enterprises. For everybody it is important to develop ways in which industrial development and environmental protection can symbiotically coexist. Based on an early definition of logistics a definition of reverse logistics is „the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow of raw materials, in-process inventory, finished goods, and related information from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the purpose of recapturing value or proper disposal”. Integrative waste management can help to combat environmental problems and achieve sustainability. The shipment of materials back to disposal sites is a natural extension of reverse logistics. Talking about reverse logistics in the context of green logistics we must say that the energy and pollution reduction associated with better transportation planning, and the use of less packaging materials, could be considered as a part of the green logistics.

Key words: reverse logistics, green logistics, circular economy, product returns, sustainability. JEL: M11, P28, Q01, Q56.

Introduction fits to economy, society and environment. Reverse Based on an early definition of logistics [1–5, 9] logistics is a part of today concept of circular econ- a definition of reverse logistics is „the process of omy. The circular economy is a model which in- planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient, cludes three elements: manufacturing, consumption, cost-effective flow of raw materials, in-process in- use and recycling, and towards to minimising waste ventory, finished goods, and related information and making the most of resources (Fig. 1). from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the purpose of recapturing value or proper disposal”. Reverse logistics’ growing strategic importance. Focus on rebuilding not only financial capital, but also human, social and natural. Integrative waste management can help to combat environmental problems and achieve sustainability. The shipment of materials back to disposal sites is a natural extension of reverse logistics. The purpose of reverse logistics is to recover the value of returned materials and products or to provide funds for their proper disposal. Energy and pollution reduction associated with better transportation planning, and the use of less packaging materials, could be considered as a part of the green logistics Source: Graphics: Fotolia. Fig. 1. Concept of Circular Economy agenda. The population of the planet Earth in 2017 is over 7 billion, and in 2045. It can reach 9 billion. The aim of the research is to review recent re- Environmental pollution and the depletion of Earth's search in reverse logistics worldwide and to ana- resources are among the biggest problems of hu- lyze the state of reverse logistics in enterprises, manity. In order to achieve sustainable develop- both in Bulgaria and EU. To achieve this goal, the ment, it is necessary to limit the negative effects of following tasks have been formulated: critical re- human activity, both individual and corporate, the view and summary theoretical developments focus- aim is sustainability to become part of the strategy ing on defining the boundaries of reverse logistics of each producer and consumer. Reverse logistics and identifying its objectives and tasks as well as is not only effective but long-term decision for pro- defining the need to adapt the theoretical informa- duction of recycled materials. And this brings bene- tion and definitions of the content of reverse logis-

28 Adriana Strekalovska-Garkova, Stanislava Kovacheva tics, as well as determining the importance and sumption of non-renewable natural resources, air need for the implementation of reverse logistics in emissions, congestion and road use, noise pollution enterprises; systematizing some more important and the disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous lessons and commonly used methods. Main tasks waste [7]. The main problems of reverse logistics in are to clarify the essence of the concepts and defin- enterprises are the need for efficient waste utiliza- ing some objects, to determine the importance of tion and the application of production innovations reverse logistics and to clarify the role of reverse and modernization. The problems of reverse logis- logistics in today concept of circular economy. tics of forestry enterprises in Bulgaria are coordination and control; the physical movement and deliv- Results and Discussions ery of materials, extraction and processing, recy- Businesses that invest in resources and infra- cling or landfilling; and the subsequent return to structure for reverse logistics will have a competi- production, where it is applicable. Many of the po- tive advantage gaining invaluable experience in litical and economic decisions in the world are de- servicing a product throughout its life cycle – from termined by the lack of resources and energy. Cli- creation to its processing or safe destruction. By mate change has an additional impact and is a reducing the length of products life, the importance problem on a global scale. In these circumstances of reverse logistics will grow. Providing good ser- is hard to strike a balance between many aspects vice through the life cycle of the product will in- of sustainability in economics, ecology and social crease efficiency and reduce the negative impact well-being. Growing interest in logistics is related to on nature. Reverse logistics is based on a continu- the opportunities it provides for flexible manage- ous logistic process by which products are moved ment, the material flows, coordination between the by the manufacturer or the client for reuse, recy- different actors engaged in the production of a cling, production or destruction. Reverse logistics product, meeting the requirements of customers in can be described as a process of planning, deploy- terms of quality and timing, resulting in reduced ing and controlling raw material flows during pro- overall logistics costs. From a retrospective per- duction, distribution or end-of-life processes and the spective, logistics undergoes substantial develop- point of their proper disposal. In literature [7], the ment, which manifests itself as an evolutionary concepts of „green logistics” and „sustainable logis- process, and in the 1990s it finds its modern ex- tics” are often used as synonyms of reverse logis- pression in the concept widely known in the world tics, the three being equivalent in terms of content as Supply Chain Management (SCM). that is not consistent with the wider meaning of re- A total of 58% of wood biomass in the EU is verse logistics. processed from wood industries of the EU, repre- Reverse logistics activities are determined by senting about 7% of EU GDP by production and the amount of added value. Material flows that do provides nearly 3.5 million jobs, contributing to the not add value are not part of the reverse logistics objectives of EU industrial policy. However, its fu- chain. The boundary between logistics (from raw ture competitiveness requires new processes and materials to end-user products) and reverse logis- products that are efficient in terms of resources and tics (from end-user to recycling or new user) is not energy and are also environmentally friendly. Mate- strictly defined in today's supply chains. For exam- rial flows of wood recycling goods play an essential ple, used/recycled glass has a significant contribu- role in the bio-economy EU. The remaining 42% of tion to new glass production. A comprehensive wood biomass in the EU is used for energy, which overview of supply chains combines rights and re- accounts for about 5% of total EU energy consump- verses logistics and is embraced by the concept of tion. Under the National Renewable Energy Action a closed loop supply chain [6, 8]. Crucial for eco- Plans, biomass will still be the main renewable en- nomic viability to coordinate the movement of re- ergy source in 2020. The EU proposes the imple- flows [9] define reverse logistics as a process of mentation of additional measures, including harmo- planning, implementation and control, which aims to nized sustainability criteria, to achieve sustainability maximize value creation and clean disposal of goals related to the use of solid and gaseous bio- products flowing in reverse product flows through mass for heating, cooling and electricity. Thus, efficient management of raw material stocks in pro- wood-based biomass, along with non-wooden for- gress and finished products, as well as the relevant est products that are gaining increasing interest in information from the point of consumption to the the market, provide opportunities to maintain or point of origin. create jobs and diversify incomes in a low-carbon, Reverse logistics is different from green logistics green economy. because it looks for the environmental aspects of all The data provided by Eurostat [11] for the mate- logistics activities and is specifically focused on rial flows is included as the main criteria for achiev- logistics from producer to customer [6, 10, 12]. En- ing the objectives of sustainable development and vironmental issues in green logistics are the con- the circular economy. The material flows in each

29 SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES TO REVERSE LOGISTICS STATE

EU country have different values. To make a com- The second group determines the major con- parative analysis are divided into two groups. In the sumers of wood by-products. Leader is Italy with first group, of which Bulgaria is part, the data for the 2,104,000 € in 2011. The countries in this group period 2007–2016 are presented for the countries have built-in reverse channels for maximum return with import values of wood by-products of up to 600 on value of products, have sorting centers, while thousand euro. The lead in the group is Greece for developing reverse flow management systems – the period 2007 to 2011. In 2012, Romania comes material and information. The results clearly show first with imported wood products of 202 thousand the importance of reverse logistics in the modern euros. Bulgaria takes the last place (Fig. 2). economy based on circularity and the concept of sustainable development (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Products made of recycled wood

Fig. 3. Products made of recycled wood by major consumers

30 Adriana Strekalovska-Garkova, Stanislava Kovacheva

The EU monitors and analyzes the development necessary to gather information on the relevant of the forestry, economic and technological per- factors in order to develop and optimize the treat- spectives sub-sectors and identifies key challenges ment of waste to assure minimization to the envi- and corrective actions (2013–2020) to help improve ronmental impacts. This includes the development the global competitiveness of the sector. of logistics chain, lifecycle procedures and reverse The results of the re-use amount of wood pack- logistics system that provides new or expanded ages in the period 2010–2016 are visualized in business opportunities for business. Fig. 4 by grouping the EU countries into three levels according to the quantity of re-used resources in References tons. Bulgaria, Macedonia, Romania, Poland, 1. Ковачева, С., Тасев, Г. Логистични методи и Lithuania, Latvia, Slovenia and Ireland are the подходи. София. 2007. 2. Тодоров, Ф. Логистиката – възможности и пре- group with the smallest returns. дизвикателства. Издателски комплекс – УНСС.

София. 2015. 3. Толев, М. и др. Логистични системи. УИ „Сто- панство”. София. 2010. стр. 176–180. 4. Carter, C., Ellram, L. Reverse Logistics: A Review of the Literature and Framework for Future Investiga- tion. 1998. 5. Carter, C., Rogers, D. A framework of sustainable supply chain management theory. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Man- agement. 38 (5). 2008. pp. 360–387. 6. Browne, M., Whiteing, A. Green Logistics: improving the environmental sustainability of logistics. 2012. 229 pр. 7. Grant, D., Trautrims, A., Wong, C. Sustainable Lo- gistics and Supply Chain Management: principles and practices for sustainable operations and management. Kogan Page Limited. London. 2013. 240 pp. Source: Eurostat. 8. Wang, J., Chen, H., Rogers, D., Ellram, L., Grawe, Fig. 4. Level of re-used wood packages in EU S. A bibliometric analysis of reverse logistics research (1992-2015) and opportunities for future re- Conclusions search. International Journal of Physical Distribution The forestry sector and the forestry industry can & Logistics Management. vol. 47. issue. 8. 2017. pp. become leaders in meeting the Commission's ambi- 666–687. tious CO2 reduction target in Roadmap 2050 Policy 9. Kopicki, R., Berg, M., Legg, L. Reuse and Recycling Brief No. 70, October 2017 with innovative produc- – Reverse Logistics Opportunities. Council of Logis- tion technologies, reduced energy consumption, tics Management. Oak Brook. Illinois, USA. 1993. and increasing the recycling of wood products. In- 10. Rogers, D., Tibben-Lembke, R. An Examination of Reverse Logistics Practices. 2001. dustry continuously develops modern processes, 11. Secondary wood products. Eurostat data base. materials and solutions to improve competitiveness. [http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database?p_p_id= New recycled-based modern materials have im- NavTreeportlet- proved properties that promote efficient re-use of prod_WAR_NavTreeportletprod_INSTANCE_nPqeV products, recycling and thus pave the way for a bPXRmWQ&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=normal&p_ circular rather than a linear model of an economy p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column- worldwide. 2&p_p_col_count=1]. Recycling, landfilling and waste disposal must 12. Tibben-Lembke, R., Rogers, D. Differences Between be integrated into fully developed reverse logistics. Forward and Reverse Logistics in a Retail Environ- ment. Paper in Supply Chain Management. 7(5). The concepts of reuse and renewal of intelligent 2002. pp. 271–282. materials could reduce the amount of waste. It is

31 SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES TO REVERSE LOGISTICS STATE

ОБРАТНАТА ЛОГИСТИКА В КОНТЕКСТА НА УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ

Адриана Стрекаловска-Гъркова ,Станислава Ковачева Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Изследването е насочено към изясняване на същността на понятията, спецификата и значението на обратна- та логистика и изясняване на ролята й в съвременната концепция за кръгова икономика. Икономиката базирана на многократно използване на ресурсите се стреми да възстановява капитал, независимо дали от финансово, производствено, човешко или социално естество. Това движение в кръговрат осигурява засилване на потоците от стоки и услуги. Кръговата икономика е подход, при който изтичането на ресурси се свежда до минимум чрез забавяне, затваряне и повторно използване на отпадъци, емисии, материали и енергия. Възможностите да се постигнат тези цели са иновативен дизайн, поддръжка, ремонт, многократно използване, повторно производство, реконструкция, рециклиране и др. Изброените дейности влизат в противоречие с линейния модел на досега действащата икономика, който е модел – вземи, произведи, използвай и изхвърли. Новата екологична ера пред- ставлява предизвикателство пред световните производствени предприятия. От световно значение е да се раз- работят начини, по които индустриално развитие и опазване на околната среда могат да съществуват съвместно. Въз основа на ранните дефиниции на логистиката определението за обратна логистика е „процесът на планира- не, прилагане и контролиране на обратни потоци от суровини по време на процеса на производство на готова продукция и свързаната с тези потоци информация от мястото на произход до точката на потребление с цел възвръщане на стойността или подходящо унищожаване”. Интегрираното управление на отпадъците може да помогне за борба с екологичните проблеми и постигане на устойчиво развитие. Говорейки за обратната логисти- ка, трябва да се отбележи, че намаляването на използването на енергията и ограничаването на замърсяването, свързано с по-доброто планиране на транспорта и използването на по-малко материали за опаковане, може да се разглежда и като част от концепцията „зелена логистика”.

Ключови думи: обратна логистика, зелена логистика, кръгова икономика, устойчиво развитие.

32 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE FOR MULTIPURPOSE MANAGEMENT OF THE FOREST PROTECTION BELTS

Nevena Shuleva, Fotina Yordanova University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

The main thesis of this research is that: only one way giving characteristics of manufacturing function of multifunctional properties of forest protection belts, the owner can receive economical realization of their ownership of community value. Difference is made between their community value as obligation and product of exchange. This research stays for the position that the value of use from the best alternative production function can be used to estimate the value of the lost benefits. There are questions that need to be answered: what will be the fair income that should the owner of forest protection belts is receiving as part of the gross added value created in the country's agrarian sector?

Key words: forest protection belts; missed benefits; value of use; production function; production efficiency; exchange efficiency.

JEL: Q23.

Introduction Each individual production function taken using In Bulgaria in the 1950s in the Dobroudja region one of the natural properties of the forest has an 9 state forest belts and a comprehensive network of optimum. The multipurpose production function also forest protection belts were created. At present, in has its own optimum, which in this part of the study the north of Bulgaria, the forest protection belts are once again relates to the historically imposed eco- more than 9 000 ha. For the purposes of the For- nomic idea that science assigns to Pareto. Applied estry Law, they are a forest with a protective pro- to the multipurpose forest production function, this duction function. idea of an optimum can be represented by an algo- The main purpose of the protection belts is by rithm consisting of the following consecutive inter- reducing the wind power to improve the microcli- dependent steps: mate of the area and to protect neighbouring agri- ‒ efficiency of forest production: choice of cultural lands from their destructive power. This in such a combination of the natural properties turn reduces the evaporation of water from the soil of forests used, as a result of which the and its more efficient use of agricultural plants and value of the use of the forest ecosystem is increase yields of agricultural crops. The protective at the limit of the production possibilities; function of the forest protection belts increases crop ‒ exchange efficiency: the distribution of value yields to 30%. added by individual price chains is made at The forest-economic entrepreneur at every relative prices that do not allow the interests stage of social development transforms into a proof one economic entrepreneur to be satis- duction function some of the intrinsic properties of fied at the expense of others; forest ecosystems: wood-producing; water and wa- ‒ efficiency of forest production and ex- ter regulating; tourist and tourist; field protection; change: relative prices as a closing act of anti-erosion; landscape–architect–tourneys; biore- forestry transactions are equal to their mar- servative; wild-animal breeding, etc. [2, 4, 6, 7, 10]. ginal costs; the relative prices of transac- The main thesis of this study is: only one way tions for access to factors of production con- giving characteristics of manufacturing function of sumption are equal to their marginal prod- multifunctional properties of forest protection belts, ucts and do not contain any external effects the owner can receive economical realization of [11]. their ownership of community value. Difference is made between their community value as obligation 1. Efficiency of forest production and product of exchange. This research stays for The efficiency of production is quite natural to the position that the value of use from the best al- connect with the wood-producing function of the ternative production function can be used to esti- woodcutter. The reason for this is that, in modern mate the value of the lost benefits. There are ques- conditions, it still does not have a more reasonable tions that need to be answered: what will be the fair economic justifiable alternative. This does not mean income that should the owner of forest protection that there is no more sensible social, environmental belts be receiving as part of the gross added value and other alternative. created in the country's agrarian sector?

33 Nevena Shuleva, Fotina Yordanova

The level of the maximum production capacity of inherent forms of management, which are a combi- the forest protective belts when economizing only nation of both extremes. This combination in Fig. is the wood using function can be graphically pre- illustrated in B, C and D. In order for the forestry sented in the way shown on Fig. 1 owner production function to be effective, it must The curve illustrates the first condition in order not suffer damages from lost profits in cases where to achieve the optimal Pareto satisfaction of the it cannot realize the full value of forestry use for interests of the woodcutter and the founder, the wood production purposes. The losses he will suffer production function carried out by the woodcutter from missed benefits are illustrated in F, M and N must be effective. Effective in the sense, that the (Fig. 1). This is an illustration of the social- cost of using the forest territory reflects its most economic paradigm that any value institutionalized valuable alternative use. If the most valuable alter- through public law is at the expense of others. native use is wood production, then the production Meanwhile, each value has a price that has to be capacity limit will be located in item A (Fig. 1). This paid [1, 3]. The price is lost profits for the woodcut- alternative can be counter-opposed to the other- ter is fair to be paid by those who actually use the protection function. However, it must provide the goods created by him. Obviously, becoming that missing benefits of the logging function. When the wood user must be in exchange with the wood latter is replaced exclusively by the field protection owner. From the latter, the alternative price should function, the missed benefits will be equal to the be deducted as an expression of lost profits. value of use of the best alternative to the forestry The mechanism that reflects the nature of the function. This will be in item E (Fig. 1). transactions between the two entities and where they acquire the rights to the property is the type reflected in the following formula: n Q.P R  ii  )de( , (1)   )k1( 1i where R is forest rents (income from the ownership) for the forest owner, BGN/m3, BGN/kg.; 3 Pi – market price of the i-st forest product BGN/m , BGN/kg.; 3 Qi – quantity of the i-st forest product BGN/m , BGN/kg.; k – average sector norm of missed value between the owner and the user, part of 1.0; e – expenses for yield of one unit of forestry goods, BGN/m3, BGN/kg.; d – outcome for transportation for of one unit of forestry goods.

Source: [14]. Under this mechanism, transactions are of such Fig. 1. The curve of the production capabilities of the a nature that the two entities, guided by their inter- forest protection belts ests and defending them in the negotiation process, receive the expected fair value of the income from The above alternatives are the two extreme their invested capital. Fair, of course, to the extent forms of production functions of forest ecosystems. that the institutions created for market management The organizational structure of the forest territories protect equally the two types of property of users of Bulgaria institutionalized forest categorization and owners. Under this mechanism, if the forest combining the diversity of inherent properties of ecosystem has a wood-producing function, the rent forests. Thus, in the category of environmental pro- (R) as the income of the wood owner will be real- tection and wood-producing forests, the target func- ized as a component of the reached market price of tion is wood production, and forestry systems for the wood resources. wood production are in line with ecology and forest The profit realized by the user is the result of the biology, including the field protection function. In the amount of exploited tree resources and sacrificial category of forest protection belts, forestry systems value (k) contained in the market price per unit of for protection of agricultural lands have been im- wood resource. This rule reflects the following ex- posed, taking into account the possibilities for regu- change rate: the price the buyer has agreed to give lating the value of using wood production. For this the seller to accept under the circumstances exist- reason almost all forest territories of Bulgaria are ing during each transaction. That is why it is just as

34 EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE FOR MULTIPURPOSE MANAGEMENT OF THE FOREST PROTECTION BELTS

much as the institutions are provided with the con- NPV is the net present value of the contribution ditions for protecting the property rights of the users from investments in a diversified managed forest in the exchange. Finally, the operating costs (e+d) for the period (n) of its economic life; made by the user will obviously depend on the cost W тек – the monetary value of the current tree of the factors of production. These factors are terri- growth BGN/ha; torially differentiated and influence the final income 1 – rent and profit. d  – a discount factor; Now we can ask the question: what should the  )r1( owner of the forests get as the lost benefits of being r – a rate of profit of investments in a diversified deprived of maintaining the wood-producing func- managed forest under the conditions of the rele- tion at the limit of production possibilities. The eco- vant market, part of 1,0; nomic logic shows that this will be the alternative Wv – monetary value of the tree stock in a value of rental income losses from unrealized wood standing mass, BGN/ha. use rights. These unrealized rights may be: Full – when the income from wood is zero. Here At the same time, Formula (2), which expresses the loss of unrealized rights for forestry use is 100% the economic balance between the upfront capital and should be provided at 100% on the price and the net financial contribution, under IRR, can chains, alternative to the wood production, including also be represented by: the agricultural production тек  )r1(W Semi-limited – when forests are used equally IRR  1  0Wv (3) r with both wood-producing and other functions. Here тек justice requires 50% of the income to be at the ex- 1  Wv.r)r1(W (4) pense of the woodworking, and the other 50% of тек  тек )WWv.(rW (5) the forestry, water and water regulation, hunting, 1 1 W тек etc. functions. r  1 100. , % (6) Limited – when forests take precedence over тек  WWv 1 wood production or some other function. It is reasonable here that income be at the expense of the Every investor in forests will strive to maximize primary or alternative function in a proportion of W growth and profit rate (r). It is obvious that this 75:25. will be achieved if the varietal structure of annual The second question that arises is what is the (periodic) growth, root-based timber and their aver- source of income that loses the forest owner from age depreciated prices are optimal for the relevant an unrealized right to use tree resources [13]. In market [8, 14]. ecological forest management, this is the monetary Regarding the loss of the annual value of the value of the current growth in the economic life of contribution from this investment but already ex- the invested capital – infinity. The specific here is pressed in the economic balance in formula (3), it that the value of tree root vegetation is the value of will get the formula in formula (6). These formulas forecasted capital in the forest business. This natu- also give other important information. It refers to the ral capital produces a certain amount of wood rate of return realized by the owner of elective for- growth each year. ests with a targeted function of „wood production”. The economic task of every forest owner is to Only when this norm is achievable when replacing maintain such an eternal tree structure that pro- the woodworking with another function or the com- vides maximum current growth. From this general bination between them, then only its interest will be point of view, it is obvious that it is the assessment satisfied. of investments in forests whose economic life is When a forest owner provides the use of wood to infinite and the net financial contribution - the mone- a user, obviously, his net financial contribution (NFC) tary value of the current growth. This value has to will be of a rentable nature. For the determination of be updated for the entire endless economic life of this, the economic balance between the forestry and this particular investment. the land user must also take into account the current The formula that reflects the economic balance costs of the user. In this case, formula (1) of this bal- between the upfront capital and the net financial ance takes the form of annual balance between the contribution will have the formula known in the the- two subjects ory of investment evaluation: NFC n год 1 R   Q).de( год , (7) NPV  W тек  0Wv , (2)  )k1( n  i n 1i  )r1( where n  R is the annual forest rent of the forest, BGN/hа; where

35 Nevena Shuleva, Fotina Yordanova

(e+d) – costs per 1 m3 of logging and primary wood processing and transport costs of the tim- 3 ber to the nearest reception point, BGN/m ; Y

Qгод – the amount of wood harvested for 1 year k  0, 75

En Ц of the current growth in the diversified forest, D n R   ( e  d ) Y n k  0, 50 3 1  к

m /hа; E C n 2 D2 k – coefficient of the sacrifice in favour of the user

E 1 D1 social equilibrium value, part of 1.0. C 2 k  0, 25

Forest E 0 D 0 C 1 Bn

C 0 B 2 Ц The efficiency of forest production as a condition B 1 k   1 B 0 R  e  d for achieving Pareto optimum is protective when the 0 A 0 A 1 A 2 A n Х individual natural properties of forests are used at Forest owner the limit of maximum production possibilities. Every natural property of the forest is a value. However, it Source: [13]. acquires the character of a commodity product only Fig. 2. The curve of the maximum production capac- when it is protected by the institutions as a result of ity of the forestry, organized by the economic entre- the production function of the economic entrepre- preneurs of the forest owner and the user neur concerned. When this economic entrepreneur is a professional forester, he, through his work, The public division of labour in the forestry sec- gives a commodity character to the forest as a tor, through the activities of the woodcutter and the whole or to a distinct natural property. Through this user, imposes them as values of social functions activity forests acquire user value. As a consumer that are important to society. Of course, it did not value, the forest has an owner who has the right to happen suddenly and in a revolutionary fashion. In economically realize its rights. The economic reali- the course of the historical development of forest zation is related to the contribution of the forecasted use during separate periods, the foreman was a capital forests. This contribution is appreciated and major economic entrepreneur. As such he has in- its monetary expression is the value of using the dependently advanced capital for the acquisition of forest. If the mode of production is associated with forests and assets for forestry activities. This mode the wood-producing property of the forest, the value of operation by the woodpecker in the curve of of use reflects its productivity as measured by the maximum production capabilities is shown through amount of wood that can be removed from the for- the so-called (see Fig. 2). In other periods, the user est without disturbing its integrity. has been the primary social function of an economic entrepreneur. Thus, it is an alternative to the 2. Effectiveness of the exchange state of the forestry producer with a production function, whose forest-user and forest-owner maximum we have shown in E. The historical proc- The exchange, as a mechanism for the realiza- ess of development of the forestry sector presented tion of the social right over the forest, takes place through these two entities is entirely influenced by between the economic entrepreneurs – the owner the three basic laws of dialectics. The law of unity and the user. The two subjects in this process have and the struggle of opposites show the inner forces different social functions. In the historical process of that have made them acquire certain forms of exis- development of the forestry sector, through its more tence. The law on the passage of qualitative than 130 years of history, the forest owner has per- changes in quantity is manifested not only as a formed his social function as an economic entre- quantitative change of the economic organizations preneur alone or in production with the user. but also as a qualitative transformation of their so- From how their property rights have been pro- cial functions [5]. tected through the institutions, the effectiveness of The efficiency of exchange, which is the second their individual models for organizing their produc- condition of optimality, is expressed as regularity in tion functions depends on them. In the most gen- the numerical characteristics of the sacrificial value eral case, i. when the two economic entrepreneurs coefficient (k). It has been shown that the social have established themselves as values and when equilibrium between the two subjects will again be each one has a well-defined social role, their pro- ensured when the coefficient of sacrifice is k=0.5 duction relations can be represented by the maxi- [11–13]. Thus, the social balance between the two mum production capacity curve (Fig. 2). The eco- subjects acquires a measurable form by regularity, nomic nature of the curve lies in the fact that it ex- expressed by a cut-off equation of the rules expresses the production attitude of a forest-user - a pressing the possible alternatives to the values by user. It is another expression of the analytical rela- the following formula: tionship already shown in formula (7). R=0.666Pi–(e+d) (8)

36 EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE FOR MULTIPURPOSE MANAGEMENT OF THE FOREST PROTECTION BELTS

In this model the rent (R) as an economic reali- tion is identified as a public asset and its product as zation of the ownership of the forest or on any a public good, it is quite obvious that the price will product transformed into a commodity, its natural have to be paid through public sector resources. property is functionally dependent on production When we ask about how much does it costs, ob- costs (e+d) and prices (Pi) of forest goods on the viously things depend not only on demand and sup- market. The first step for social equilibrium is there- ply, but also on production and consumption, which fore the share assigned by the forest owner to be are also part of the social functions of the two sub- а=0.666... of the market price after deduction of jects, namely: production costs (e+d). These are the costs that are ‒ the wood owner as an economic entrepre- known in the current practice as the costs of ex- neur in order to maintain the value of using tracting, transporting and transporting forest re- the forest territories that he possesses on sources to their consumption centers. These costs the border of their production capacity; are inherent to each forest user. If the forest owner ‒ the wood user as an economic entrepreneur himself organizes the activities to carry out the to turn forest resources into consumer value above production phases, the cost of the forestry and value. takes the form of production. The alternative to this Obviously, in the economic relationship between process is the assignment of the above economic the two subjects, forest services such as wind pro- activities to other economic entrepreneurs. In this tection, snow protection, soil protection, etc. they case, production costs are transformed into trans- are not a natural gift. They are a service created on action costs. In accounting practice, they are known the forest ecosystems of the economic activity of as external service costs. the woodcutter. Therefore, the value accumulated When there are enough economic entrepre- on all price chains also creates a value from which neurs in the relevant market and they work in an it should be rewarded. economic environment close to perfect competition and information that is not asymmetrical, market References prices on transactions are close to the value [9]. 1. Davidaviciene, V., Pabedinskaite, A., Davidavicius, The opportunism that is inherent in the two enti- S. Social networks in B2B and B2C Communication. Transformations in business and economics. 16 (1). ties – a woodcutter and a user, diverts the mecha- 2017. pp. 69–84. nism of action in a direction other than that of the 2. Dragozova, E., Ivanov, I., Kovacheva, S., Paligorov, ideal model. Approaching the actual models to the I., Galev, E., Stipcov, V. 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En- Conclusion ergy consumption, economic growth and green- Institutions defining forest ownership rights must house gas emissions in the European Union coun- recognize all their forest owners as their capital, tries, Journal of business economics and manage- and hence the extraction of incomes by price ment. 18 (6). 2017. pp. 1082–1097. chains other than wood production and use. The [http://doi.dx.org/10.3846/16111699.2017.1393457] transformation of any natural property of forests into 5. Merkevicius, J., Davidaviciene, V., Raudeliuniene, J., Buleca, J. Virtual organization: specifics of creation the production function of the woodcutter and the of personnel management system, E&M Economics user will, of course, have its economic cost. Thus, if and Management. 18 (4). 2015. pp. 200–211. forest areas are to be given full priority for a forestry [http://doi.dx.org/10.15240/tul/001/2015-4-014]. function, for example, this price will be equal to the 6. 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37 Nevena Shuleva, Fotina Yordanova

8. Shuleva-Alexova, N. Forests with Water-Preserving and Sustainable Development. 1–2. 2009. pp. 26– Proposition Functions – Essence and Approach for 32. (in Bulgarian). Valuation. Journal of Management and Sustainable 12. Yovkov, I., Shuleva-Alexova, N., Kolev, K., Drago- Development. 1 (2). 2006. pp. 184–188. (in Bulgar- zova-Ivanova, E. Efficiency of the Production and ian). Exchange of the Forest Ecosystems’ Multi-Purpose 9. Tvaronaviciene, M., Maciulis, A., Lankauskiene, T., Management. Second Scientific – Technical Confer- Raudeliuniene, J., Dzemyda, I. Energy security and ence Innovation in Woodworking Industry and Engi- sustainable competitiveness of industry develop- neering Design. Yundola, 6–8 November 2009. (in ment. Economic research. 28 (1). 2015. pp. 502– Bulgarian). 516. 13. Yovkov, I., Shuleva-Alexova, N., Kolev, K., Marinova, [http://doi.dx.org/10.1080/1331677X.2015.1082435]. V. Sustainable Development to Social Economic 10. Yovkov, I., Paligorov, I., Alexova, N. Forest Economy System with Public – Privet characteristics. Avan- Policy in Bulgaria before and after Reforms in 1998. gard – Prima Publishing house, Sofia. 2010. (in Bul- Scientific Journal of Management and Sustainable garian). Development. 1–2. 2001. pp. 6–13 (in Bulgarian). 14. Yovkov, I., Shuleva-Alexova, N. The water- 11. Yovkov, I., Shuleva-Alexova, N. Efficiency of Forests’ preserving proposition function in forest manage- Multi-Purpose Production Function According to ment models on forest areas. Avangard – Prima Pareto’s Criteria. Scientific Journal of Management Publishing house. Sofia. 2011. (in Bulgarian).

38 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

COMPETITIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION – THE MAIN INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Andra Zencaka, Maija Senfelde Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia

Abstract

The competitive human resources are one of the essential factors for the country's economic development. The vocational education, its quality, compliance with the development trends of the national economy and labour market demand has a significant role in formation of these resources. Researches carried out in the world suggest that as a result of technological development, one fifth of the workers in the coming decades will need to develop their knowledge, skills and competences, or to completely change their field of activity. In this situation, vocational education acquires an important role in the context of the development of the national economy and labour market and requires continuous improvement of knowledge which does not necessarily require a long-term training process, but, conversely, it must be fast and qualitative in order to be able to respond effectively to changes in the labour market. The aim of the study is to define the determinants of competitive vocational education, their impact on the labour market and the development of the national economy. In order to achieve the objective of the research the tasks to analyze the vocational education system in Latvia as well as the medium and long-term forecasts of the labour market in the aspect of the national economic development are set. Generally recognized methods of research in economics as document analysis, comparison, classification, and statistical analysis are used. As a result of the research, the authors determine the factors that affect the competitiveness of vocational education and suggest the creation of a flexible vocational education system that is internationally open, widely available, quality and capable of providing demand for relevant qualification professionals in accordance with the needs of the national economy and the trends of the global education market.

Key words: human resources; labour market; economic development; vocational education; economic growth.

JEL: I25.

Introduction to changes in the labour market. Since vocational Education as one of the most important sectors education, its quality and competitiveness are a of the national economy is an integral part of soci- prerequisite for solving a number of contemporary ety’s life, which must be closely interrelated with the global problems, the aim of the research is to de- development of market, science, technology, pro- termine the determinants of competitive vocational duction and information technologies. The decisive education, their impact on labour market and de- factor for the country’s economic development is velopment of the national economy. In order to the competitive human resources, which are essen- achieve the aim of the research, the tasks are set tial for vocational education, its quality, compliance out: to analyse the vocational education system in with the development trends of the national econ- Latvia and resources involved therein, as well as omy and labour market demand. The Latvian Sus- medium and long-term forecasts of the labour mar- tainable Development Strategy until 2030 states ket in terms of the national economy and the coun- that vocational education as a basic means for try’s economic development. In the study well- solving many global problems of the modern world recognized methods: document analysis, compari- must be of high-quality, knowledge-based and son, classification, and statistical analysis, will be competency based, lifelong and creatively oriented, used. The main sources of information: The Latvian enabling rapid and effective response to the global Sustainable Development Strategy until 2030, the competition and demographic challenges. Re- Guidelines for the Development of Education, the searches carried out in the world suggest that as a medium and long-term forecasts for the develop- result of technological development, one fifth of the ment of labour market, and data collected by the working people in the coming decades will need to Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia. Upon the in- improve their knowledge, skills and competences, crease of the global competition, the authors sug- or to completely change their field of activity. In this gest the creation of a flexible vocational education situation, vocational education acquires an impor- system that is internationally open, widely available, tant role in the context of the development of the qualitative and capable of providing demand for national economy and the labour market and re- professionals of relevant qualifications in accor- quires continuous improvement of knowledge which dance with the needs of the national economy and does not necessarily require a long-term training trends of the global education market. As a result of process, but, on the contrary, it must be fast and the research, the authors will identify the factors qualitative in order to be able to effectively respond that affect the competitiveness of vocational educa-

39 Andra Zencaka, Maija Senfelde

tion, as well as develop recommendations to be sistency in the future and allow the provision of a implemented in order to implement competitive more efficient allocation of labour resources in the vocational education in Latvia in line with the devel- national economy. Currently, the labour market is opment trends of sectors of the national economy, dominated by the demand for employees with voca- to prepare knowledgeable and globally competitive tional education, which points to the high-quality human resources that would promote the economic development of the labour market, which is due to sectors and long-term economic development of sectoral technological development and interna- the country. tional competition of companies, reflected in the reduction of demand by lower educational work- 1. Medium and long-term forecasts for the la- force (LR MES, 2014). When analysing, the labour bour market demand market situation, it is possible to forecast labour The Latvian labour market forecasts are based market trends and possible risks, taking into ac- on the scenarios of the development of national count labour market dynamics and demand for new economy and demography developed by the Minis- knowledge, competences, skills, and abilities. The try of Economics, based on the medium and long- main risk factors of the development of the labour term growth goals of Latvia. Labour market fore- market and their mitigation measures in Latvia until casts are one of the tools that allow anticipating the 2030 have been summarized by the authors in emergence of labour market consistency or incon- Table 1.

Table 1. Risk factors of the labour market development and measures of their mitigation in Latvia until 2030 Risk factor of Serial the labour Description of situation Measure of mitigation No. market development Education and qualification level, acquired By implementing appropriate and effec- Imbalance knowledge, skills and competencies do not meet tive lifelong learning policies it is possible between the the demand and vacancies in the labour market. to affect the structure of labour supply, to 1. demand for ensure, as far as possible, the compli- and supply of ance of the supply of labour force with the labour force demand for labour force. Development of the regional labour markets is It is necessary to promote business de- associated with the business, social-economic velopment, investment attraction and job Different development and opportunities of investment creation in the regions. To strengthen the trends of the attraction. Latvia has a structure of settlement regional and local capacity and the role of development and economic activities highly oriented to the promotion of their territorial development. 2. of the state capital. It does not result in the development of To implement appropriate and effective regional labour regional labour markets, and economically ineffi- vocation education policies in the regions. markets cient regions with insufficient competitiveness establish that negatively affects the country’s overall labour market development. Latvia is characterized by depopulation process. Inclusion of elderly people in the lifelong In recent years, the country is gradually improv- learning processes and the labour market Negative ing the demographic support policy, however, the shall be promoted, the work environment demographic population aging process takes place in Latvia, conditions shall be improved and the 3. trends and an which is characterized by a systematic decline in healthy years of life should be tried to aging labour the proportion of children and a growth of the increase. The social security and health force number of older population simultaneously. care system shall be improved. An effective system of support for young families should be developed. The Latvian labour force migration is character- It is necessary to promote business de- ized by external-international migration and in- velopment, investment attraction and job ternal migration-within the framework of Latvia creation in the regions that could increase related to the insufficient number of jobs in cer- the competitiveness of the regions and tain regions, as well as the low level of wages in the effective functioning of the labour Labour migra- certain occupations. In this situation, the popula- market. 4. tion tion movement to the more developed areas takes place, which further reduces opportunities of growth for the less developed areas by their loss of human resources and decrease in tax revenue that could be invested in the national and regional development. Source: created by the author Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia.

40 COMPETITIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION –THE MAIN INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC …

When assessing the risk factors of the labour is possible to be ensured by the implementation of market development, the authors raise the dispro- effective vocational education in the country. portion of labour force in Latvia, the people aging and urbanization process of the country as the main 2. Analysis of the situation of vocational educa- problem, as a result of which the regions of the tion in Latvia country are becoming less inhabited and economi- One of the preconditions for economic develop- cally retarded. In such a situation, the fundamental ment of a country is high-quality human resources, task of the EU regional development policy that the creation of which is diversified and influenced none of the regions of the country should be lag- by various factors. Professional education, as a ging economically is not being implemented. As the means for solving many global problems in today’s urbanization process interacts with the population world, must be of high-quality, competence-based, aging, a situation arises which requires new solu- lifelong and creatively oriented, responding to the tions. The implementation of the „silver” policy and challenges of global competition and demography, economy in Latvia and in its regions is become and is one of the preconditions for the existence of acute. The increment in the number of old people a knowledge-based economy. Vocational education imposes an inevitable challenge for the politicians is education that practically and theoretically pre- and strategies in health for the sake of to satisfy its pares individuals for activities in a certain profes- necessities and to offer them the possibility to live sion, for the acquisition and improvement of profes- its last years with excellent quality of life [2]. An sional qualifications. Vocational education is ac- essential objective of the „silver” policy is to make quired in basic, secondary and higher education the aging population a resource that could ensure institutions or outside of them. (LR MES, 2016) In the development of the national economy sectors, the Table 2, the authors have summarized the job creation, economic development and growth, types of vocational education that are part of the which is essential at the national, regional, mu- formal education system. nicipal, corporate and household levels, and which

Table 2. Types of vocational education in Latvia Serial Type of vocational Explanations No. education Vocational basic Basic level vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a first-level voca- 1. education tional qualification Partial secondary vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a second- 2. Vocational training level vocational qualification Vocational secon- Medium level vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a third-level 3. dary education vocational qualification First level vocational Higher-level vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a fourth-level 4. higher education vocational qualification Vocational higher Higher-level vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a fourth or fifth- 5. education level vocational qualification Vocational continu- Special type vocational education for adults with pre-education and professional experi- 6. ing education ence gives the opportunity to obtain a certain-level vocational education Special type vocational education, which enables individuals, regardless of age and pre- Vocational devel- 7. education or vocational qualifications, to acquire systematized professional knowledge opment and skills meeting labour market requirements Source: The National Database on Learning Opportunities, 2017.

The important role in the implementation of high- period of time that allows a quick response to quality and competitive vocational education is changes in the labour market and eliminates displayed by the centres of vocational education com- proportions in education and labour markets. The petences, implementing the functions of regional authors have summarized the main indicators char- methodological centres, continuing education of acterizing the vocational education system in Ta- teachers, cooperation with sectoral associations, ble 3. continuing education of adults, retraining of the According to Table 3, it is seen that both the unemployed and evaluating the professional com- number of vocational education establishments and petence acquired outside the formal education sys- the number of students tend to decrease, reflecting tem. Vocational education meets the requirements the demographic trends in Latvia. of national economy and becomes competitive if it is implemented in an efficient way and in a short

41 Andra Zencaka, Maija Senfelde

Table 3. The main indicators characterizing the voca- 3. The role of vocational education in the coun- tional education system in Latvia, 2013–2016 try’s economic development Se School Vocational Teach- Num- Sustainable development of Latvia is based on ria year education ers of ber of raising the productivity of human, economic, social, l establish- voca- stu- and natural, including location and space, capital in No ments tional dents . subjects response to the challenges of global trends. It is 1 2013/2014 66 3431 32 086 important to not reduce the value of the human 2 2014/2015 65 3329 31 055 capital base and to increase its productivity, as the 3 2015/2016 63 3515 29 858 number of people is decreasing and the population Data sources: [www.csb.gov.lv] is aging [1], on the basis of a competitive, efficiently functioning vocational education system that can The authors believe that this is not only a prob- meet the demands of national economy and labour lem for Latvia but for the whole EU, however, this market today and in the future. According to a gen- problem is particularly pronounced in Latvia due to eral definition, competitiveness is the ability of a the depopulation or decline in population. Youth company, industry or government to successfully unemployment is a significant problem in both Lat- market its products or services. Applying this defini- via and many other places in Europe: in 2016, it tion to vocational education, it is necessary to cre- was 25% in Latvia, 23% – average in the EU. One ate a situation in which trained specialists can ef- of the reasons is the inability of educated young fectively enter the labour market, which is particu- people in the traditional, theory-based education larly important as a result of an aging population. system to immediately enter the labour market and According to the authors, as a result of the imple- start working full-time. Employers need to spend mentation of competitive vocational education, dis- extra time and resources on their practical educa- proportions in the labour market are eliminated, the tion, and therefore, rationally evaluating investment state budget and EU funds directed to the educa- and benefits, its often advantageous to find other tion system are used more efficiently, the develop- solutions for recruiting the required staff, rather than ment of economic sectors and enterprises is stimu- recruiting a young single student without the neces- lated, the economic development and growth of the sary skills [12]. Vocational education in Latvia country are ensured. The factors influencing the should be as effective as possible in order to en- implementation of competitive vocational education sure that the goals of national economy are are reflected in Figure 1. achieved with the rational use of resources and the supply of educational programs must be in line with Competitive vocational the requirements of the labour market in order to education not cause a certain deficit or surplus of specialists of certain professions that hinders the country’s economic development. If we look at which Euro- Modern Highly- Work- Sufficient Retraining education qualified environment- funding opportunities pean countries are famous due to their industrial institutions educators based activities in various sectors, it must be recognized learning that besides a relatively large internal economy, Fig.1. The main factors influencing the implementation of competitive vocational education affective investment strategy and well-understood, organized business environment, they also have a Competitive vocational education is essential more systematic, long-term strategy for educating not only in the preparation of high-quality and new sectoral specialists. In other words, coopera- knowledgeable human resources, but also at the tion at the national level between employers and company and national level as one of the main educational institutions is organized, paying due factors contributing to the country’s economic de- attention both to promoting the prestige of voca- velopment. The most significant results of the im- tional education among young people and day-to- plementation of competitive vocational education day cooperation, providing practical, real-work- are summarized in Table 4. environment-based education [12]. The authors The most important of the forecasted labour conclude that in order to solve the youth unem- market risk factors until to 2030 are the population ployment problems in Latvia, to not create a short- aging, the imbalance in labour supply and demand, age or surplus of specialists of certain professions, which inhibits economic growth, that is, an increase which hinders the country’s economic development, in production over a period of time and flow of it is necessary to implement effective work- skilled labour to other countries (LR ME, 2016). The environment-based vocational education. possible relationship between the competitive vocational education and the country’s economic development is reflected in Figure 2.

42 COMPETITIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION –THE MAIN INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC …

Table 4. Results of the implementation of competitive vocational education At the level of households At the level of companies At the national level Intellectual investment in the future More efficient staff development The educational sector is an important Competitive salary options and retraining of employees national economy branch Higher mobility and competitive- Higher company’s productivity and Increased tax revenue in the State budget ness in the labour market resource efficiency More effective opportunities for the imple- Higher socioeconomic security Higher business competitiveness mentation of employment policies level Higher social responsibility Higher level of the society’s culture Higher growth opportunities Higher values Safer public environment Higher self-assessment Higher inner culture Higher technological adaptation to labour Higher quality of life market requirements Economic development

Fig. 2. Relationship between the implementation of competitive vocational education and the country’s economic development

As a result of competitive vocational work- The authors have developed a set of recom- environment-based education, high-quality human mended measures to be implemented in order to resources are prepared in the country, which con- ensure that the situation in the supply of vocational tributes to increasing the productivity and competi- education programs in the years of 2020–2030 tiveness of enterprises. The companies get the would be in line with the requirements of the labour opportunity to produce higher quality goods and market and not lead to a deficit or surplus of spe- services using more professional human resources cialists of certain professions and promote the na- and increase the ability to sell goods and services tional economic sectors and the country’s economic in the local, EU and global markets, achieving the development: country’s economic development, using other level 1. To solve the unemployment problems in human resources, namely using higher-quality hu- Latvia, to have no deficit or surplus of spe- man resources. cialists of certain professions, which hinders the country’s economic development, it is Conclusions necessary to implement effective vocational 1. Latvia is characterized by the disproportion work-environment-based education, based of the labour market and the population ag- on the example of German dual education, ing and urbanization processes, as a result where the objectives have been being suc- of which the regions of the country are be- cessfully achieved by involving students in coming less inhabited and economically un- working environment for many years. derdeveloped. 2. Vocational education meets the require- 2. The process of urbanization, interacting with ments of national economy and becomes the population aging, creates a situation re- competitive if it is implemented in an effi- quiring new solutions. The implementation of cient way and in a short period of time that the „silver” policy and economy is becoming allows a quick response to changes in the more and more acute. labour market and eliminates disproportions 3. As a result of effective vocational education, in education and labour markets. it is essential to achieve that the aging popu- 3. It is necessary to promote the competitive- lation is a resource for ensuring the devel- ness, attractiveness and prestige of the pro- opment of the national economy sectors, fession of teacher in society in order to creation of jobs, and economic development. make the best of the school graduates mas- 4. Vocational education develops according to ter the profession of teacher, as it is inherent the requirements of the national economy to Finland, where one of the most effective and becomes competitive if it is implemented educational systems in the world has been efficiently and in a short period of time, which functioning. allows to quickly respond to changes in the 4. The professional competences of teachers labour market and eliminate disparities be- and their compliance with the requirements tween the education and the labour market. of today’s education and labour market

43 Andra Zencaka, Maija Senfelde

should be improved, in order to be able to cation for 2014–2020. 22 May 2014. teach students to work with technologies [http://www.lsa.lv/wp- that are „one step ahead” in the labour mar- con- ket. tent/uploads/2013/03/Izglitibasattistibaspamatnostad nes.pdf]. 5. The urbanization and population aging 7. Ministry of Economics of the Republic of Latvia. should lead to significant changes in the im- Informative report on medium and long-term labour plementation of national key policies, which market forecasts. June, 2016. would contribute to the development of a fa- [https://www.em.gov.lv/lv/nozares_politika/tautsaimni vourable socio-economic environment that eci- would reduce a flow of skilled labour to other bas_attistiba/informativais_zinojums_par_darba_tirg countries and regions. us_videja_un_ilgtermina_prognozem/]. 8. Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of References Latvia. Higher Education. 2014. 1. Auers, D., Gubins, S. Latvian Demographic Portrait [http://www.izm.gov.lv/lv/izglitiba/augstaka-izglitiba]. Today… and Tomorrow. House CERTUS. Riga. 9. National Database on Learning Opportunities. Edu- June 2017. [http://certusdomnica.lv/wp-content/ up- cation System in Latvia. 2017. loads/2017/05/Certus_LatvijasDemografiskaisPortret [http://www.niid.lv/files/izglitibas-sistema.png]. s_2017_LV-1.pdf]. 10. Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of 2. Cornet, G. Europe's 'silver economy': A potential Latvia. Overview of Latvian Higher Education in source for economic growth? International Society 2015. 2016. for Gerontechnology. Grenoble. 2015. [http://www.izm.gov.lv/images/izglitiba_augst/Parskat 3. Cruz, R., Ones, D., Pena, M. Population agin gasch s_2015.pdf]. allenge of the science, the techniqu eand society. 11. LR Saeima. Latvian Sustainable Development Strat- Universidadde Ciencias Medicas de La Habana. egy for 2030. 2010. Cuba. 2015. [http://polsis.mk.gov.lv/documents/3323]. 4. Klimczuk, A. Comparative analysis of national and 12. Mengelsone, L. The first puppies have proven to be regional models of the silver economy in the Euro- viable – vocational work-environment-based educa- pean Union. International Journal of Ageing and tion is possible in Latvia. Latvian Employers` Con- Later Life. Warsaw. 10(2). 2016. 3159. federation. 2018. [http://www.lddk.lv/viedoklis/pirmie- 5. Kurek, S., Rachwal, T. Development of entrepre- kuceni-izglitiba/]. neurship in ageing populations of The European Un- 13. Mikusova, J., Rasticova, M. Employment policy with ion. Science Direct: Procedia Social and Behavioural focus on ageing population in the Czech Republic as Sciences. 2011. pp. 397–405. a service of general interest. University in Brno. [www.sciencedirect.com]. Brno. 26th International Business Information Man- 6. Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of agement Association Conference: From Regional Latvia. The Guidelines for the Development of Edu- Development to Global Growth. IBIMA. 2015.

44 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

PATTERNS OF PREPOSING OF SUBJECT-ORIENTED PREDICATIVE AND LOCATIVE COMPLEMENTS IN ENGLISH

Bilyana Ovcharova University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

In English, subject-oriented predicative complements (PCs) and locative complements (Cloc) may occur in clauses with preposing. The paper focuses on the structural patterns that such clauses may have: preposed phrases followed by subject-verb order or by subject-verb inversion. Attention is also paid to preposed discontinuous phrases when dependent elements of the phrase occur postverbally.

Key words: preposing, English, subject-verb order, subject-verb inversion.

JEL: I29.

Introduction tion. Here, in its every detail, was the plan for Subject-oriented predicative complements (PCs) that ‘War of Levels’ Shepherd had mentioned express a property of the subject [3], and this se- earlier. (BNC) mantics of the syntactic function allows them to be (4) Beside them was his bag, with more white realized by AdjPs in contrast to objects which can- linen spilling from it. On the seat of a chair not be realized by adjective-headed phrases. Such were some coins from his pocket, a packet of predicative complements are termed subject com- cigarettes, and sealing-wax. plements [4] or subject predicatives [1]. A complement of this type „tends to be more like a predicator 1. Patterns of preposing of subject-oriented than an ordinary complement such as a subject or predicative complements realized by AdjPs object; syntactically a PC is a complement but se- 1.1. Preposing without inversion mantically it characteristically has a predicative (5) You should have been there when that woman function”, expressing a semantic predicate [3]. came leaping out at me. Horrid it was. (BNC) In addition to PCs, a locative complement (Cloc) The clause in (5) shows the basic pattern of is a common element realizing the syntactic func- preposed AdjPs in which the phrase is minimal and tion after the verb be as in The dog is in the kitchen. is followed by subject-verb order. Such preposed A conclusion can be drawn that the structural simi- phrases aim at emphasizing the initial element, in larity between a predicative complement and a these cases the property assigned to the subject, locative complement „suggests that assigning a and are common in oral speech as they are typical location to something is comparable to assigning it of emotionally loaded speech. a property” [3]. Thus „locative complements cover A very common variation of this pattern is pre- expressions associated with the roles of source, posing of AdjPs which are expanded with pre-head goal and location” which, in some cases, extend modifiers as in (6) below: beyond the field of space and are applied to states (6) Completely innocent they were, too, but it and possession [3]. made no difference. Still, Sir Emmanuel had Examples (1)–(4) all show a preposed subject- the money. (BNC) oriented PC or Cloc, underlined by a single line. In (1) the preposed constituent is realized by an AdjP, 1.2. Preposing with inversion in (2) by an NP, in (3) by an AdvP and a PP and in ‒ Triggered inversion with initial such and so (4) by PPs. Examples (3) and (4) show locative English clauses with initial such and so are con- complements: sidered structures with triggered inversion [3] and (1) Mick Jagger wore a dress at his Hyde Park are not regarded as information packaging con- concert and very pretty he looked too. structions. (BNC)1 (7) He had never seen such a beautiful girl in all (2) They all tried. Big lads they were and all. his life. So unexpected was her appearance (BNC) that, for a moment, until she'd moved and (3) This was more than a simple distillation of the cried out, he'd wondered if she was real. man's thoughts on the current political situa- (BNC) (8) He had never seen such a beautiful girl in all his life. Her appearance was so unexpected 1 BNC indicates that the example is obtained from the British that, for a moment, until she'd moved and National Corpus.

45 Bilyana Ovcharova

cried out, he'd wondered if she was real. marked. In (13) and (14) the style is that of scientific (BNC) writing. The information packaging involves a dis- In such clauses discourse-old inverted subjects course-new, heavy, focused subject. There is a are observed. In the examples above the subject syntactic constraint that pronominal light subject, i.e. her appearance (double underlined) is discourse- anaphoric, discourse-old subjects, cannot appear in old and unstressed regardless of whether it is in- such constructions. The NPs headed by pronouns verted as in (7) or is in initial position as in (8). The in (11) and (12) are heavy as they are expanded by PC so unexpected is stressed regardless of its po- clausal postmodifiers sition, preposed or unmarked, but preposing it has The preposed AdjPs in scientific context, as in the effect of emphazing it additionally. Such clauses (13) and (14), are almost invariably in a compara- in English contain a that-complement, i.e. a delayed tive or superlative form, or premodified as in the phrasal constituent (see point 4 below for more ex- clauses above. The pattern is not infrequently used amples of such delayed constituents). and should be studied by Bulgarian learners of Here are two examples from scientific publica- English interested in writing scientific publications. tions: Here are two examples from scientific publica- (9) Such was the heat of the fire that the ground tions. In both example the intensifier even is used, was burned to a depth of six inches. which shows that the structure should be used to (10) So successful has the urban forest become communicate information which should be empha- that the Department of the Environment and sized in one way or another: Transport has transformed the Black Country (15) Even more remarkable is the fact that at a scheme into a National Urban Forestry Unit point 120 feet in the air the trunk of General with 15 staff. Sherman is still 17 feet in diameter. The clause in (9) shows the emphasis achieved (16) Perhaps even more concerning is that beetles by preposing, because the same clause without it are beginning to target novel species, such would most likely be: The heat of the fire caused as the jack pine – found across wide swaths the ground to be burned to a depth of six inches, of Canada – that had escaped assault until and would not include such at all. now. ‒ Locative inversion English clauses with preposed predicative or 1.3. Preposing of AdjPs in subordinate clauses locative complements may be followed by subject- In English, subordinate clauses with AdjPs in ini- verb inversion, and such a construction is often tial position followed by the subordinators as and called locative inversion or also subject-dependent though are a case of preposing in subordinate inversion [3]. It complies with the following con- clauses. Only AdjPs can occur in such construc- straints: the subject in clause-end position is heavy tions. For clarity the subordinate clauses in the ex- and discourse less familiar than the preposed amples below are given in square brackets: predicative or locative complement [3]. As the name (17) [Anxious as she was about the neighbours], locative inversion indicates, the structure is most she couldn't help laughing as she hurried frequent with a preposed Cloc (as in example (4)). downstairs. (BNC) Subject-oriented PCs may also occur in such con- (18) [Early though it was], his brain had fired up like structions but such clauses are of limited distribu- the V12 engine in his Ferrari, Toni thought. tion due to style specific requirements. Both as and though are placed after the pre- (11) Happy are they who never saw me and yet posed AdjPs, anxious and early in the above ex- have found faith. (BNC) amples. It is the contrastive emphasis of the initial (12) Fortunate are those who are alone and cho- position that is sought in the placement of the sub- sen, for you will find the kingdom. ordinator after the preposed predicative comple- (13) About 11,000 years ago, the enormous ment [1]. shaggy mastodons standing ten feet at the shoulder with outward curving tusks wan- 1.4. AdjP preposing in verbless clauses dered into this part of Wisconsin (…) Equally Preposed AdjPs in English may appear in verb- enormous were the woolly mammoths, which less clauses. In the examples below, there is an had high-domed skulls, smaller ears, and ellipsis of the copular be. In Bulgarian such verb- shorter trunks than mastodons. less constructions are ill-formed. (14) Exceptionally dramatic was the rotunda of fac- (19) She slithered along the muddy ruts of the eted black glass with its rotating globe, which overgrown lane. Getting her sandals filthy but attracted crowds of sightseers to the building. she didn't care. Delicious, the coolness of (BNC) mud between her toes. (BNC) In (11) and (12) the clauses appear in religious (20) The Deputy Under Secretary had no one but context, and, as such, they are strongly rhetorically himself to blame for the irritation that his

46 PATTERNS OF PREPOSING OF SUBJECT-ORIENTED PREDICATIVE AND LOCATIVE COMPLEMENTS IN ENGLISH

starched collar created just below the line of NP-inversion is difficult to identify on purely syn- his neatly cut hair. Silly and stupid, the sort of tactic grounds though syntactic evidence may be thing he might have done as a child, pathetic the use of an indefinite article or no article in the for a man of his age. structure of the initial NP [2]. It seems that the ellipsis of the copular be is In English, clauses with NP preposing and sub- predetermined by two constraints of preposing in ject-verb inversion occur only with the copular be: English discussed earlier: (i) the copular be cannot (25) Such a grober is this boy. be placed before the subject because clauses with (26) Quite a guy is this boy. preposed AdjPs and subject-verb inversion are only (27) When I arrived in Monrovia, the Ebola crisis style-specific in English, and therefore with limited was escalating – patients lay on the street occurrence. And (ii) the copular be cannot be outside treatment units waiting for a bed to placed after the subject, in end-clause position be- open up. But, as I saw it, an equally serious cause in this position it occurs only with pronoun crisis was the paralysis of the entire health subjects or lighter subjects than the ones above. system. The above preposing accompanied by verb ellipsis (28) We have put a lot of effort into improving the is by no means frequent in writing, but it is an inter- information which is available to our visitors, esting „roundabout route” of the English language. installing improved information boards at all It is observed, however, quite frequently in sports our monuments. At the most visited monu- commentaries, i.e. in emotional speech in which the ments, of course, we have been doing much preposed AdjPs are focused. more. A fine example is the new visitor cen- tre at St Andrews Castle. (BNC) 2. Patterns of preposing of subject-oriented In (25) and (26) the NPs in preposed position predicative complements realized by NPs contain the adjectival predeterminer such and the 2.1. Preposing without inversion peripheral premodifier quite, respectively, in their Preposing of NPs, minimal and with phrasal structure. The NPs in postverbal position are the premodifiers, occurs in clauses with subject-verb context-familiar ones: in both cases the deictic pro- order in English as these examples below show: noun this is used as a determiner in the respective (21) A hairdresser she was, very classy, lots of NP. These two clauses have the effect of exclama- money. (BNC) tions, realizing non-contextually bound preposing. (22) And very nice years they were. The structure of an exclamative clause as in What a In English it is possible for the indefinite articles grober is this boy is with an obligatorily preposed of preposed NPs to be dropped: constituent. (23) I don't know much about art,' said Crocker, Examples (27) and (28) can be considered sitting down and crossing one elegant lean cases of preposing for the following reasons. The leg over the other,' but there's one painting I preposed NP in (27) is premodified by the AdjP, would like to have. Rembrandt, The Anatomy equally serious, and, as we have seen, AdjPs of Lesson. Lovely thing it is. (BNC) this type can appeared in preposed position in aca- (24) ‘No, I had a call yesterday afternoon from demic style. By inference, when such AdjPs are Paul... Leamington’ ‘Lexington.’ ‘Yes. Pleas- premodifiers in NPs, these NPs in clause-initial po- ant young man he sounded.’ (BNC) sition function as preposed PCs. In example (28) the post-verbal NP is the heavy 2.2. Preposing with inversion NP bearing the clause focus while the preposed NP A clause with a preposed NP functioning as a has the function to provide text cohesion and is an subject-oriented PC and followed by subject-verb NP with an indefinite article as a determiner. It inversion has a structure of the type should be noted that such NPs as a fine example, a ‘NP + verb + NP’, and therefore its structure is iden- common example, a further example etc. are found tical to that of a clause with an NP subject and a PC in academic or formal style. In the example below, realized by an NP [3]. Such NP preposing with sub- two such cases can be identified: ject-verb inversion is possible only with the ascrip- (29) There are many subtypes of the argument tive use of subject-oriented PCs, i.e. when the PC from authority, essentially referring to the im- denotes a property, and the subject is ascribed this plied source of authority. A common example property as in Kim is beautiful/(such) a good per- is the argument ad populum – a belief must son; it is not possible with the specifying use, when be true because it is popular, essentially as- the PC denotes a variable, and the subject - a value suming the authority of the masses. Another as in The beautiful woman is Kim because chang- example is the argument from antiquity – a ing the order into Kim is the beautiful woman again belief has been around for a long time and constructs a clause with a subject-verb order and a therefore must be true. PC [3].

47 Bilyana Ovcharova

Another reason to consider is when the NP fol- the storeroom was also the cheese rack. lowing the verb be is in the plural: (BNC) (30) Another example is children with significant (36) Yesterday was also Arthur's 72nd birthday. emotional and behavioral problems. (BNC) ‘Друг пример са децата със съществени In the above examples, there are five instances емоционални и поведенчески проблеми.’ of preposing involving AdvPs (here and yesterday) As the Bulgarian translation of (30) shows, the and PPs (in the wheelchair, above the warehouse plural inverted NP agrees in number and person and in the storeroom). It should be noted that pre- with the verb, which signals its subject status. Re- posing of such constituents followed by subject- gardless of the fact that the plural inverted NP in verb inversion does not occur only with the copular English does not trigger plural verb agreement, it is be. Intransitive verbs such as stand, come, lie, sit not logical to assume that this NP’s syntactic func- and etc., may form clauses with preposed locative tion is different in the two languages. The English complements and inverted subjects, with the most clause in (30) is an example of preposing with a frequent type of preposed constituents being the special type of agreement that might be a potential locative PPs: difficulty for Bulgarian learners of English. (37) This path climbed to a stretch of wasteland, barren, treeless and stony. In the middle 3. Patterns of preposing of locative comple- stood a dark deserted tower. (BNC) ments realized by AdvPs and PPs (38) I know which place I would have chosen. On In English there are constructions beginning with the floor sagged his high leather boots, that here and there, followed by a subject, realized by a he had scraped the mud from and shined. pronoun, and a form of be as in the examples be- Beside them was his bag, with more white low: linen spilling from it. On the seat of a chair (31) As long as you are in this shoddy squadron, were some coins from his pocket, a packet of there are certain words you will not use. Here cigarettes, and sealing-wax. they are. Fair, sporting, honourable, decent, (39) He froze with fear and the lamp fell from his gentlemanly. trembling hand. There, in the Judge's chair, (32) Phoebe began to feel like a housewife. There sat the rat. (BNC) she was, ably supported by active and intelli- It should be noted that the copular be is the verb gent people while she sat at home feeling most often found in such structures in English. Also cold and tired and guilty. (BNC) the situations expressed are static not dynamic [3]. However, the initial AdvPs do not indicate spa- One other requirement is that „the verb must not tial location or rather denoting place is not the pri- represent information that is new to the discourse” mary objective of such constructions: they are a (ibid. 2002: 1386). The authors state that the verb stylistic device of narration, with here and there be, the most frequent one in such constructions, „largely bleached of their locative meaning” [3]. has little semantic content, and with the other verbs, The locative meaning may be quite transparent the information they represent must be evoked or in certain cases: inferred from the context. (33) Then he looked up, and a light flashed into his Though preposed locatives in English normally eyes. There it was – the lighthouse, only occur with static verbs, the examples with preposed three hundred metres away, to the north! prepositional particles are a characteristic feature of (BNC) the English syntax: Initial locative complements followed by subject- (40) The hours burned by on the green screen, and verb inversion realize the construction called loca- when they finally flopped in Lucy's living tive inversion discussed earlier. Spatial and tempo- room, sipping brandy, a key turned in the ral locative complements can be preposed in such lock and in came the charmingly dishevelled clauses: one and only son. (BNC) (34) In the wheelchair was a woman, wearing a (41) After a week of fevered speculation, John Ma- deep-crowned, wide-brimmed green felt hat, jor, Britain's prime minister, shuffled his cabi- obscuring her face, and a paisley silk scarf at net. Out went Norman Lamont, the unpopular the throat of a caped loden coat. (BNC) chancellor. (BNC) (35) Above the warehouse was the storeroom Preposed temporal expressions followed by the where there were shelves holding brightly verb come in English also occur in clauses with coloured tin canisters decorated with Indian locative inversion: and Chinese letters. Here was also a coffee (42) A few moments later came the smell of petrol machine in which we ground the beans when and exhaust. (BNC) a customer wanted freshly ground coffee. In (43) Now we have moved to Dulwich, my husband has had another go at joining. He filled out

48 PATTERNS OF PREPOSING OF SUBJECT-ORIENTED PREDICATIVE AND LOCATIVE COMPLEMENTS IN ENGLISH

the form. Three weeks ago came the omi- 4.3. In AdvPs nous phone call. ‘Are you a union member?’ In English an example with here and a delayed (BNC) postmodifier is observed in the it-cleft below, in (44) At some time after 1880 came a turning point which the AdvP is placed initially, before the in world history. (BNC) dummy it subject: (53) The central focus of all this railway activity 4. Preposing of phrases with delayed constitu- was, however, the railway station. Here it ents was that Foxwell and Farrer’s ‘flag of Hope’ 4.1. In AdjPs metaphorically waved. (BNC) (45) Certain he was that Antonio wasn't going anywhere, or warning anyone. Conclusions (46) Then I usually end with how amazed I am that i. In English, predicative and locative comple- I can survive in this crowd as a generalist… ments realized by AdjPs, NPs, AdvPs and in such esteemed company.[internet] PPs can occur in preposed position. Pre- (47) The more he reads, the more certain he is that posed AdvPs are very restricted in number, it's garbage. (BNC) and preposed PPs are exclusively locative (48) Whether or not there was a Mrs McWhirter complements occurring in copular be was a matter of some debate at Burleigh. clauses. The general opinion was yes, but certain it ii. Preposing of subject-oriented PCs occurs in was that no-one had ever seen her. (BNC) clauses with and without subject-verb inver- (49) Interesting though it is to be aware of the way sion. The clauses without inversion are the in which these various theological traditions norm in preposing of subject-oriented PCs in bear fruit in the mystics' accounts of their ex- English. The clauses with inversion occur in perience, it is important to remember that sentences with triggered inversion or locative they can not fully account for this experience. inversion. Preposed locative complements in (BNC) English trigger subject-dependent inversion. All examples above contain discontinuous AdjPs, iii. AdjPs occur in more varied patterns of prepos- i.e. constructions with delayed phrasal comple- ing in comparison to the predicatives or loca- ments realized by subordinate that-clause comple- tives realized by NPs, AdvPs or PPs. ments (wavy line). Example (45) is a clause with a iv. Interesting patterns of preposing are those preposed PC; (46) is an exclamative clause; (47) is with a delayed phrasal constituent. Phrasal a more-the-merrier clause; in (48) a clause with post-head elements are most often left post- subject extraposition has a preposed adjective verbally in wh-exclamatives and more-the- head preceding the dummy it subject and the that- merrier constructions. The structure is also clause complement; in (49) the preposed AdjP oc- observed in clauses with a dummy it-subject: curs in a though-subordinate clause. clauses with subject extraposition and it- clefts. 4.2. In NPs v. Preposing of subject-oriented predicative (50) She couldn't quite locate the nature of that complements occurs for emphasizing the terror, she didn't know exactly what evil it preposed constituent when the preposed was that would occur, but she felt it tangibly. constituent is followed by subject-verb order; (BNC) in clauses with locative inversion, pragmatic (51) It was Donald. Elinor was pleased to see him. structures with unmarked topic-focus articula- She it was who opened the door and Henry tion in which the inverted subject is the fo- heard a high-pitched giggle followed by a cused element are realized. lengthy squawk of pleasure. (BNC) (52) Lewis it was who broke the long silence be- References tween them. (BNC) 1. Biber, D., Conrad, S., Leech, G. Longman Grammar In (50) the delayed that-clause is a postpodifier of Spoken and Written English. Pearson Education of an NP head occurring in a subordinate wh-clause. Limited. Harlow. 1999. pp. 7, 909. 2. Dorgeloh, H. Inversion in Modern English: Form and An interesting case of preposed NP with a delayed Function. John Benjamins Publishing Company. constituent in English is the it-cleft sentence as in Amsterdam. 1997. pp. 25–26. (51) and (52). There is extra emphasis in such it- 3. Huddleston, R., Pullum, G. The Cambridge Grammar clefts. of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 2002. pp. 96–97, 217, 257–58, 266, 1385–89, 1390.

49 Bilyana Ovcharova

4. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik. J. A Longman. London. 1985. pp. 728. Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.

МОДЕЛИ НА ПРЕДПОСТАВЯНЕ НА ПОДЛОЖНИ ПРЕДИКАТИВНИ И ЛОКАТИВНИ КОМПЛЕМЕНТИ В АНГЛИЙСКИЯ ЕЗИК

Биляна Овчарова Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

В английския език е възможно подложни предикативни и локативни комплементи да се срещат в изречения с предпоставяне. Фокус на доклада са структурните модели, които подобни изречения могат да имат: предпоста- вените фрази са в изречения с подредба подлог–сказуемо или изречението е с инверсия на подлога и сказуемо- то. Специално внимание е отделено на предпоставените разкъсани фрази, при които зависими елементи на фразата се поставят след сказуемото.

Ключови думи: предпоставяне, английски език, подредба подлог–сказуемо, инверсия.

50 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

STUDY ON DYNAMIC LOADS OF CUTTING MECHANISM’S DRIVE SHAFT OF THE CARVED VENEER MACHINES

Georgi Vukov University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

This work presents a study on dynamic loads of cutting mechanism’s drive shaft of carved veneer machines in work regime. The variable torsional moments that form these loads are examined. These moments are caused by faults of the driving electric motor; inertial forces formed by the operation of the cutting mechanism; variable force from the cutting process. The applied variable moments form intense torsional vibrations in the drive shaft. They generate an extra dynamic moment that is superposed on the transmitted constant torque. A strategy is proposed and dependencies are derived for determining the extra dynamic moment. Determining the actual moment is a prerequisite for proper shaft dimensioning. Examining the dynamic load on the drive shaft is undoubtedly beneficial and assists in conducting research into the total work of the mechanism. The results of the study are applicable to the development, design and dimensioning of new machines of this type. They are useful in reconstruction and modernization of existing ones. These results can be used for analyzing and optimization of the operation of the machines with specific parameters for different operating regimes.

Key words: carved veneer machine, cutting mechanism.

JEL: L73.

Introduction take into account the dynamic moments in the The drive shaft is one of the basic elements of construction. These coefficients are based on the the cutting mechanism of the carved veneer experience gained in particular range. However, machine. This shaft accepts the movement from the when creating new or more specific constructions, gear and transfers it to the flywheels and the lack of accumulated data makes it difficult to associated elements of the cutting mechanism. choose such a coefficient. Along with this, this Some various constructions of drive shafts and approach may lead to incorrect dimensioning. One associated elements are encountered in practice. possibility is the choice of coefficient to result in The presence of significant dynamic loads in work insufficient shaft’s strength and its breakdown regime is typical for all these constructions. during operation. This inevitably leads to a serious The dynamic loads of the cutting mechanism’s damage in the machine. The other possibility is to elements of the carved veneer machine are dimension the shaft more than it is required. This complicated and it is difficult to study. The studying unnecessarily makes the construction heavier and of the dynamic loads is important because the more expensive. Along with this, the over- loads directly affect the work ability of the machine dimensioned shaft is often the cause of a further and they often causes troubles. Dynamic loads are increase in dynamic loads [3, 5]. Accurate generated from inertial forces and their moments. determination of dynamic loads is a prerequisite for These loads depend on the mass, elastic and proper dimensioning of the drive shaft and ensuring velocity parameters of the mechanism. The forces the machine's workability and efficiency. For this of the knife and material interaction in the cutting purpose, it is necessary to examine the operation of process as well as the friction forces in the the cutting mechanism of the veneer machine and mechanism elements also affect the formation of to analyze the factors determining the considered dynamic loads. loads. Complex loads are formed on the drive shaft, The free torsional vibrations of the cutting and these loads are particularly dangerous in mechanism of the carved veneer machine are resonant regimes. The examination of these loads modelled and investigated numerically in previous allows determining the maximum value of the studies of the author [8, 12]. A model is developed torsional moment in the drive shaft. This is and parametric torsional vibrations of the important for its proper dimensioning and for mechanism are investigated [9]. The amplitude ensuring the workability and efficiency of machine's frequency spectra are obtained [10]. Some cutting mechanism. possibilities for identification of typical defects in the The engineering practice of dimensioning shows mechanism are studied [11]. that some dynamics coefficients (coefficients of The influence of the inaccuracies and damages work regimes) are used to take into account the of the profile of the teeth of the gear on the torsional dynamic moments in dimensioning. Their aim is to vibrations in the drive mechanism of veneer

51 Georgi Vukov

machine is investigated [13]. The formation of the variable forces of the tool slide has also been Dimensioning of the drive shaft requires keeping investigated and analyzed [14]. The conducted to the strength condition. This condition ensures studies show that the components of the saw safety about reaching dangerous stress in the shaft. mechanism are subjected by intensive dynamic It is [15] loads.  ][max , (1) The aim of this paper is to investigate the where dynamic loads on the cutting mechanism’s drive max  is the greatest torsional stress along the shaft of carved veneer machine in work regimes. length of the shaft, For this purpose, it is necessary to study the [] – allowable tangential stress of the material influence of the different factors that form these from which the shaft is made. loads. These factors are the variable torsional moments acting on the shaft. The earnest study of The allowable tangential stress [], analogous to the dynamic loads on the drive shaft makes it the normal stress [], can be found experimentally. possible to determine the maximum torsional moment in this shaft. This is a prerequisite for its It is obtained []=0.6.[] for tough plastic materials, proper dimensioning and for ensuring the and for fragile materials []=0.75.[]. Another way to machine's cutting mechanism workability and determine [] is to apply one of the theories of effectiveness. strength. Dangerous section along the length of the shaft Methodology and results of the researches is the section with maximum torsional moment max Fig. 1 shows a general view of a carved veneer М. The strength condition can be written like this Мmax machine, which is often used in practice. This ma-  ][ . (2) chine is the subject of the presented study. WC

The strength dimensioning of the shaft requires knowing the resisting modulus of torsion at its cross section. The resistance modulus of torsion for a dense circle cross-section is  d. 3 W  . (3) С 16

The resistance modulus of torsion for a circular ring cross-section is

Fig. 1. Carved veneer machine – general view  D. 3 d W  4 ),1(  . (4) С 16 D The general scheme of this kind of carved veneer machines is shown in Fig. 2 [1, 4]. All its fun- The strength dimensioning of a shaft with a damental components are included – the electric dense circle cross-section and a circular ring cross- motor, the belt and gear drive, the drive shaft, the section requires replacing the W from (3) and (4) flywheels, the connecting rods and the tool slide. C in (2). Therefore

Мmax.16 d  3 (5)  ].[ Мmax.16 D  3 . (6)  4 )1].(.[

Making the correct dimensioning requires finding the maximum torsional moment M. The torsional vibrations that arise in the drive shaft during the operation of the veneer machine have a significant 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 impact on that moment. These vibrations are a Fig. 2. Scheme of a veneer machine Legend: 1 – electric motor; 2 – belt drive; 3 – gear drive; consequence of the applied variable moments. 4 – drive shaft; 5 – flywheels; 6 – connecting rods; These moments are caused by: faults of the driving 7 – tool slide electric motor; the inertial forces formed by the

52 STUDY ON DYNAMIC LOADS OF CUTTING MECHANISM’S DRIVE SHAFT OF THE CARVED VENEER MACHINES operation of the cutting mechanism; the variable necessary to ensure the safety exit of the knife from force from the cutting process. the processing prism. The unavoidable deviation of the correct shape Fig. 3 represents a diagram of the change of the of the stator and the unbalance of the rotor lead to cutting force during one rotation of the flywheels. the occurrence of a variable torsional moment on The tool slide does a working motion xW and a the drive electric motor. This moment is modeled by return motion xr. adding two components that have the type MM1 sin P ω1t and MM2 sin 2ω1t to its constant part MM [11].

1MMM  2M t2sinMtsinMMM , (7) Pm where θ is the frequency of rotation of the electric mo- x tor’s rotor; O MM1 and MM2 – amplitudes of variable compo- xs xv xc xv xs nents. xw xr

The variable inertial forces, formed during the Fig. 3. Diagram of the change of the cutting force operation of the machine’s cutting mechanism, Legend: Р – cutting force; Рm – maximal cutting force; generate corresponding variable torsional moments. хw – working motion; хr – return motion; The conducted analysis shows that the greatest хs – reserve motion; хv – motion with variable force; inertial forces are those from the tool slide. The хc – motion with constant force reason is its large mass and its uneven rectilinear The maximum value of the cutting force and the reciprocating movement. The other elements do a length of the separate parts in the diagram of the uniformly rotation movement and they are usually force’s change are determined according to the well balanced. That is why their inertia forces are parameters, which are specific to the concrete case. not considered in this study. The inertial force of the These parameters include the type and condition of tool slide is calculated as [14] the treated wood as well as its geometric  HНН ,aМФ (8) dimensions. Of course, all this inevitably takes into where account the characteristics and capabilities of the МН is mass of the tool slide with connected particular machine. The variable cutting force is components, transmitted via the connecting rods to the flywheels аН – acceleration of the tool slide. and thereby forms a corresponding variable torsional moments on the drive shaft. The acceleration of the tool slide is determined The applied variable moments on the drive shaft so give rise to intense torsional vibrations. These vi- 2 R brations form additional dynamic loads and lead to H t(cosRa  ),t2cos (9) B the emergence of a dynamic torsional moment MD. where The actual torsional moment in the shaft is obtained В is the length of the connecting rod, by adding the dynamic torsional moment MD to the R – radius of the circle described by the end of constant torsional moment M transmitted from the the connecting rods attached to flywheels, gear to the flywheels. ω – angular speed of flywheels.  MMM . (10) D The variable inertial force of the tool slide is transmitted via the connecting rods to the flywheels Shaft’s loading significantly changes and and thereby forms a corresponding variable requires a careful study of the dynamic torsional torsional moments on the drive shaft. moment MD. The force of interaction between the knife and The dynamic loading of the drive shaft of the the material in the cutting process is also variable carved veneer machine can be investigated by as a result of the fact that a working motion and a using the model shown in Fig. 4. It includes three return motion alternate during the process of discs connected to an elastic shaft. The drive sawing. The sawing force is zero during the return torsional moment M1 is applied to disk 1 (the motion. This force exists only during the time of gearwheel). The resistance torsional moments M22 working motion. The sawing force is not constant and M23 are applied on the other two discs (the throughout the entire period of working motion [2]. It flywheels). These moments are formed by the force is zero at the beginning and at the end of the period. of cutting (the force of the technological resistance), the force of the weight of the reciprocating moving This is so called reserve motion xS. This motion is

53 Georgi Vukov

parts of the mechanism, the friction forces and the the drive moment M1 and the resistance moment inertial forces. The mass inertia moments of the M2. gear wheel and the flywheels are I1, I22, I23. Concerning the mentioned facts about the operation of the carved veneer machine, these mo-

I22 I1 I23 ments are periodical with frequencies multiples of the rotational frequency and the inertia disturbance from the flywheels is proportional to the square of the rotational frequency ω. The searched dynamic moment obtained under these conditions is [7] M1 M M22 23  MIMI  cM 1221 . (15) D 2 a a 21  II)k()II(c 21

Fig. 4. Model of the drive shaft of a carved veneer machine The obtained dependence allows the dynamic Legend: I1, I22, I23 – mass inertia moments of the gear moment in the drive shaft to be determined. The wheel and the flywheels; M1, M22, M22 – moments on the parameters of the considered mechanism are in- gear wheel and the flywheels volved in this dependence and its work regimes are also taken into account. This dependence is useful The considered three-mass system is easily re- in dimensioning both the drive shaft and the entire duced to two-mass due to geometric symmetry and cutting mechanism. It allows to find appropriate val- forces symmetry. A conditional second disk re- ues of the parameters of the examined mechanism places the two flywheels. Practice proves that the and to optimize both the dimensions of its elements reduced mass inertia moments of the two flywheels and the machine's work regimes. are approximately equal and their loading does not differ significantly. Therefore, the parameters of the Conclusions and recommendations conditional second disk are I2=I22+I23, M2=M22+M23. Conducted study shows that during the work of The equation that determines the searched the carved veneer machine complex dynamic loads loads of the shaft has the type [6] on its cutting mechanism’s drive shaft is inevitably   1221D21D21 )MIMI(ccM)II(MII . (11) formed. The reason for the occurrence of these loads is the presence of variable torsional moments. When the shaft has a dense circle cross-section, These moments are caused by faults of the driving the coefficient c is calculated as follows electric motor; inertial forces formed by the operation of the cutting mechanism; variable force  4Gd c  , (12) from the cutting process. The applied variable a32 moments form intense torsional vibrations in the where drive shaft. They generate an extra dynamic d is the diameter of the shaft, moment that is superposed on the transmitted G – the modulus of shearing. constant torque. The proposed strategy and the derived dependencies in this study allow The two sides of dependence (11) are divided determining the extra dynamic moment. into I1.I2 and there is a replacement Determining the actual moment is a prerequisite for  c)II( proper shaft dimensioning. Examining the dynamic 21  k2 , (13) load on the drive shaft is undoubtedly beneficial II 21 and assists in conducting research into the total this dependence gets the form work of the mechanism. The results of the study are applicable to the development, design and  2 2 I1 I2 D D  (kMkM M2  1)M . (14) dimensioning of new machines of this type. These  II 21  II 21 results can be used for analyzing the work of the carved veneer machines in order to increase their The obtained equation provides a good oppor- reliability. tunity for exploring and analyzing the formed dynamic moment in the drive shaft. It is clear that the References dynamic moment depends on the geometric dimen- 1. Filipov, G. Woodworking machines. Technics. Sofia. sions of the shaft (the diameter d and the length a), 1977. pp. 283–294. (in Bulgarian). 2. Grigorov, P. Cutting of wood. Technics. Sofia. 1985. the material from which it is made (the modulus of pp. 48–51 (in Bulgarian). shearing G), the mass inertia moments of the fly- 3. Marinov, B., Hristov, H., Vukov, G. Dynamic wheels and the gears. But the main factors influ- dimensioning of multi-cylinder engine units reduced encing the formation of the dynamic moment are

54 STUDY ON DYNAMIC LOADS OF CUTTING MECHANISM’S DRIVE SHAFT OF THE CARVED VENEER MACHINES

to a two-mass system. Mechanics of Machines. Frequency Spectrum. Mechanics of machines. Varna Varna. vol. 4. 1999. pp. 50–53. (in Bulgarian). 3 (75). 2008. pp. 13–16. (in Bulgarian). 4. Obreshkov,. P. Woodcutting machines. Sofia. 1996. 11. Vukov, G., Marinov, B. Identification of the Typical pp. 115–128. (in Bulgarian). Defects of the Driving Mechanism of a Carved Ve- 5. Pisarev, A. Mechanical vibrations. Technique. Sofia. neer Machines Using Vibrodiagnostics, Scientific 1989. pp. 60–69. (in Bulgarian). and Technical Conference „Innovation in Forest In- 6. Pisarev, A. Optimal dynamic design in machines, dustry and Engineering Design”. Yundola. 2008. pp. Mechanics – Sixth Congress. Varna. 1981. pp. 23– 166–169. (in Bulgarian). 31. (in Bulgarian). 12. Vukov, G., Vlasev, V., Todorov, M., Marinov, B. Nu- 7. Vukov, G. On the Dimensioning of the Head Shaft of merical Investigation of the Torsional Vibrations of the Board Saw. Machinostroene. Sofia. 2001. pp.12– the Driving Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine. 14. (in Bulgarian). Scientific conference „50 years LTU”. Sofia. 2003. pp. 8. Vukov, G. Torsional Free Vibrations of the Driving 167–171. (in Bulgarian). Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine. Third 13. Vukov, G. Influence of Inaccuracies and Faults in a Balkan Scientific conference. Sofia. vol. IV. 2001. pp. Profile of Teeth of the Gear on Torsional Vibrations 305–312. (in Bulgarian). in a Driving Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine. 9. Vukov, G. On the Parametric Torsional Vibrations of DPM. Sofia. 2. 2009. pp. 8–12. (in Bulgarian). the Driving Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine, 14. Vukov, G. Study of the Variable Inertia Forces of the Proceedings of the 10TH Jubilee National Congress Tool Slide of the Carved Veneer Machines. Man- on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. Varna. 2005. agement and Sustainable Development. 2(57). 2016. pp. 92–96. pp. 75–78 (in Bulgarian). 10. Vukov, G. Torsional Vibrations of the Driving 15. Vukov, G. Strength of Materials. Avangard Prima. Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine. Amplitude- Sofia. 2010. pp. 65–72 (in Bulgarian).

ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ НА ДИНАМИЧНОТО НАТОВАРВАНЕ НА ЗАДВИЖВАЩИЯ ВАЛ НА РЕЖЕЩИЯ МЕХАНИЗЪМ НА ХОРИЗОНТАЛНИ ФУРНИРНИ МАШИНИ

Георги Вуков Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

В настоящата работа се изследва динамичното натоварване на задвижващия вал на режещия механизъм на хоризонталната фурнирна машина по време на нейната работа. Разглеждат се променливите усукващи моменти, формиращи това натоварване. Тези моменти се пораждат от: неизправности на задвижващия електродвигател; инерционните сили, формиращи се при работа на режещия механизъм; променливата сила от процеса на рязане. Приложените променливи моменти формират интензивни усукващи трептения в задвижващия вал. Те генерират допълнителен динамичен момент, който се наслагва с предавания постоянен въртящ момент. Предложена е стратегия и са изведени зависимости за определяне на допълнителния динамичен момент. Определянето на действителния момент е предпоставка за правилното оразмеряване на вала. Изследването на динамичното натоварване на задвижващия вал е от несъмнена полза и подпомага провеждането на изследвания на цялостната работа на механизма. Резултатите от изследването са приложими при разработване, проектиране и оразмеряване на нови машини от този тип. Те са полезни и при реконструкцията и модернизацията на вече съществуващи такива. Тези резултати може да се използват и за анализ и оптимизиране на работата на машини с конкретни параметри при различни работни режими.

Ключови думи: хоризонтална фурнирна машина, режещ механизъм.

55 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

FEM ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESSES OF UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE SKELETON MADE OF PINUS SYLVESTRIS L. AND PLYWOOD

Yancho Genchev, Nelly Staneva, Desislava Hristodorova University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

3D geometric model of a skeleton for upholstered furniture was created by CAD system Autodesk Inventor Profes- sional. A linear static analysis was carried out with CAE system Autodesk Simulation Mechanical by the method of finite elements (FEM) simulating light-service loading of the skeleton. The orthotropic characteristics of pine solid wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) for the rails and plywood (PW) for the side plates are considered in the analysis. Two variants of corner joints – case butt joints and end to face butt joints in the skeleton were considered. FEA was performed with regard to laboratory derived coefficients of rotational stiffness of used staple corner joints – model A: staples and PVA; model B: staples, PVA and strengthening elements under upper rails of the seat. As result the distribution of linear and rotational displacements as well as von Misses stresses and principal stresses in the 3D model of upholstered furniture skeleton with staple corner joints is derived and analyzed.

Key words: upholstered furniture skeleton, staple joints, PW, Pinus sylvestris L., deformations and stresses, CAE, FEM.

JEL: L68, L74, O31.

Introduction plywood and confirmed that the number and depth The strength properties of the upholstered furni- of penetration of the staples influence the lateral ture skeleton depend on the type of joints and on resistances. They have established also higher the mechanical and physical properties of the mate- lateral resistance at load perpendicular to the fas- rial used in their construction respectively. The tening member thickness direction than those at frame of upholstered furniture is usually wood parallel load; Zang et al. [15] have established face and/or wood-based products. Lately plywood is lateral and withdrawal resistances of staple joints in increasingly used in the construction of upholstered Southern Yellow pine plywood. For joints with a furniture frames. single 45° orientation staple higher shear and ten- There are limited number of references concern- sile strengths have been observed compared to ing the deformation and strength behaviour of up- those parallel and perpendicular to the veneer of holstered frames constructed with elements of ply- the plywood front layer, with the lowest values be- wood. ing measured in the parallel orientation of the sta- Erdil Y. et al. [4] have investigated the behaviour ple; Zang et al. [16] have investigated T-shaped of 3-seat upholstered furniture frames constructed joints with metal-plated of Yellow pine plywood in with ¾ inch thick plywood – Douglas-fir (hardwood bending fatigue and found out that failure in this plywood) and sweetgum (softwood plywood). They type of joints occurs at 25 000 cycles, which ac- have concluded that these materials may be used cording to the authors is about 46% of the maxi- in construction of upholstered furniture frames to mum static load strength; Simeonova [8], Sime- meet specific design loads. Also in the result of onova et al. [9], Simeonova et al. [10] have been previous researches (Erdil et al. [3], Eckelman et al. investigated the most commonly used dismountable [2], Zang et al. [12], Zang et al. [13], the authors and non-dismountable corner joints of structural have established that most joints of the structural furniture elements made of beech plywood. They elements of the sofa frame, especially front rail to have determined the destructive bending moments stump joints, top rail to back post joints, back post and stiffness coefficients of the tested joints at load- to arm joints constructed of plywood satisfy the ing in compression. stated design requirements for heavy service, The aim of the presented study was to define whereas the same joints of OSB would satisfy the and analyze the stress-strain behaviour of a skele- stated design requirements only for light service. ton of upholstered furniture with staple joints and Most reported researches are for furniture joints side plates of plywood in light-service loading using made of different kind of plywood: the method of finite elements (FEM) by CAD/CAE. Zhang et al. [11] have determined the bending strength and stiffness of T-shaped joints with spi- 1. Materials and methods rally striped dowels; Zang et al. [14] have investi- 3D discrete model of one-seat upholstered furni- gated the edge lateral resistances of T-shaped ture frame (skeleton) with length 600 mm, width through one or more staples of 19 mm thick 5-layer 680 mm and height 625 mm was created with

56 Yancho Genchev, Nelly Staneva, Desislava Hristodorova

Autodesk Inventor Pro® – Fig. 1. The used rails are with CAE system Autodesk Simulation Mechanical® with cross section 25х50 mm. by the Finite Elements Method (FEM). The linear A linear static analysis of 3D discrete model of static analysis was performed with plate elements – the upholstered furniture skeleton was carried out Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. 3D skeleton models A and B and loading

Two discrete models were created and two de- In order to simulate semi-rigid connections be- sign scenarios were performed - model A without tween rails and side plates of the skeleton two ac- and model B with strengthening details under the tions were performed: upper rails of the seat with a shape of triangle prism. First – narrow zones in the place of joints in the The generated Midplane mesh has 5130 orthotropic discrete model with established via tests by FEM finite elements and 33616 DOF's for model A and lower models of elasticity of the used materials 5230 orthotropic finite elements and 34096 DOF's perpendicular to the common edge of the corner for model B. joint were created. Orthotropic materials type was used for con- Second – the laboratory determined by struction elements of the skeleton: Hrisodorova [6] coefficients of rotational stiffness of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) for rails and the corner joints with 2 staples and PVA glue, load- strengthening details with measured density 430.65 ing under compression were introduced in the kg/m³ according to BDS EN 323:2001 and elastic nodes of the respective corner joints – case butt 6 2 characteristics: Ez=EL=9000.10 N/m , joints (с=1788.18 N.m/rad) and end to face butt 6 2 2 Ex=ET=593.10 N/m , GLT=554.5.106 N/m , joints (с=1432.69 N.m/rad). LT=0.027, TL=0.41, LR=0.03, RL=0.049. The both discrete skeleton models were loaded Plywood (PW) boards with birch (Betula) with with a total load of 800 N, distributed as follows thickness 15 mm and 11 layers according to BDS (Fig. 1): EN 14279:2004+A1:2009 were used for side plates. ‒ Seat: 80% were set as a remote force, dis- The characteristics of the plywood are: density tributed between upper rails of the seat with 628.89 kg/m³, measured according to BDS EN application point of 100 mm in front of the 323:2001; modulus of elasticity in bending upper rear rail, simulating upholstery base 6 2 6 2 Ex=EL=7224.10 N/m ; Ey=E=5709.10 N/m ; bend- made of zig-zag springs; 6 2 ing strength fm//=61.2.10 N/m ; bending strength ‒ Backrest: 16% were set as equal nodal 6 2 fm=57.1.10 N/m ; Poisson ratios xy=0.030 accord- forces, distributed on the edges of the two sides of the backrest simulating elastic belts. ing to Bodig et al. [1] and yx=0.237, calculated from equation 1: v v 2. Results and discussion xy  yx . (1) The results for linear displacemets u, nodal E E x y rotations θ, stresess σvon Mises, maximum Principal stresses σ1, minimum Principal stresses σ3 and Support boundary conditions were set: bottom equivalent strains ɛvon Mises, as well as the changed front rail – no translation on у direction and bottom angle γ between the joint shouders at upper front rear rail no translation on х-, у- and z directions – and rear rails of the seat for both models A and B Fig. 1. are shown in Table 1, Table 2 and Fig. 2 to Fig. 7 for the skeleton and for the side plates of the

57 FEM ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESSES OF UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE SKELETON MADE OF PINUS …

skeleton respectively. The visualizations of the mainly by the y-displacement (uy) – Table 1. The deformed model are shown with a scale factor 3% resultant displacements are bigger in the rear upper of model size for the skeleton and with a scale fac- rail than the same in the front upper rail of the seat tor 5% of model size for the side plates. for both models. This is due to the nature of the applied force with application point of 100 mm to Table 1. Maximal displacements and strains of the the rear upper rail [5], which coincides with the skeleton application of the weight of the discrete model of Parameters and location model А model B the skeleton. ux, [mm] side plates 0.01 0.02 For both models in the side plates the maximum front upper rail -1.16 -0.81 uy, [mm] values of the resultant displacements determined rear upper rail -2.23 -1.52 mainly by z-displacements (u ) are received in the u , [mm] side plates 0.20 0.31 z z places of the base of the seat where dissolution of θ , [°] rear upper rail 0.68 0.44 x the side plates is observed – Fig. 2, Fig. 3 and Ta- θy, [°] side plates 0.10 0.09 front upper rail 1.52 1.26 ble 2. The strengthening of the upper rails of the θ , [°] z rear upper rail -1.66 -1.35 seat leads to reducing of the resultant displacements of front and rear rails of the seat 1,4 times. In ɛvon Mises, m/m side plates 0.0069 0.0042 front upper rail 89.83 89.95 the side plates of model B maximal resultant linear , [°] rear upper rail 89.72 89.93 displacements in the field of upper front and rear rails decrease 1.4 and 1.7 times respectively. In the The distribution of resultant displacement is pre- base of the side plates however 1.47 times greater sented on Fig. 2. The maximal resultant displace- uz displacement (absolute value of 0.31 mm) was ments for both models are received in the middle of established in model B due to the redistribution of the upper rear rail of the seat and are determined the load – Fig. 3.

Fig. 2. Distribution of resultant displacements for model A and model B

Fig. 3. Distribution of resultant displacements in the side plates for model A and model B

58 Yancho Genchev, Nelly Staneva, Desislava Hristodorova

Fig. 4. Distribution of resultant rotational displacements for model A and model B

Table 2. Maximal displacements and stresses in the ence of strengthening elements (model B) – Ta- side plates ble 1. Parameters and location model A model B The distribution of von Mises stresses, maxi- ux, [mm] front upper rail -0.022 -0.021 mum principal and minimum principal stresses in front upper rail 0.050 0.031 the discrete models is presented on Fig. 5, Fig. 6 uy, [mm] and Fig. 7. rear upper rail -0.058 -0.28 For model A the maximal values of von Mises base of side plates 0.197 0.313 stress, the maximum principal stresses (tension uz, [mm] rear upper rail -0.034 -0.036 stresses) and minimum principal stresses (com- backrest -0.073 -0.049 pression stresses) are located in the side plates, in front upper rail 0.19 0.11 the field of joining with the rear upper rail of the seat θ ,[°] res rear upper rail 0.35 0.26 and are from 1.2 to 1.5 times greater than these for front upper rail -0.18 -0.10 model B, located in the strengthening details of the θx, [°] rear upper rail -0.35 -0.26 upper rear rail – Fig. 5 to Fig. 7. Higher values of θy, [°] rear upper rail -0.1 -0.1 von Mises stress are also established in the middle front upper rail 0.13 0.09 θz, [°] of the rear upper rail for both models with difference rear upper rail -0.08 -0.05 of 1.25 times. In the front upper rail of both models ɛvon Mises, m/m front upper rail 0.0042 0.0029 the maximum von Mises stresses are almost equal 2 front upper rail 6.91 5.69 σvon Mises, [N/mm ] and located in the field of the joining – Fig. 5. rear upper rail 11.24 3.36 front upper rail 3.55 3.54 For both models the tension stresses (maximum σ , [N/mm2] 1 rear upper rail 7.63 3.34 principal stresses) have high values located at the front upper rail -7.85 -3.78 bottom of the upper rails of the seat, the compres- σ , [N/mm2] 3 rear upper rail -12.88 -4.76 sion stresses (minimum principal stresses) – on the top of the upper rails with differences of about 1.2 The maximal resultant nodal rotations for both to 1.3 times. models are located in the rear upper rails and are In the side plates of model A the maximal values determined mainly by the rotations around z-axis – of von Mises stress, tension and compression Fig. 3. stresses are located in the field of joining with the The strengthening of the upper rails of the seat rear upper rail of the seat, while for model B the leads to decreasing of the resultant nodal rotations maximal values are redistributed in the strengthen- of front and rear rails of the seat 1.2 times coming elements of rear upper rail. pared with the same of model A. In the side plates maximal values of resultant Conclusions nodal rotations are received in the contact field with As a result of the static linear analysis by FEM the rear upper rail and are determined mainly by of one-seat upholstered furniture skeleton with side rotations around х-axis – Table 2. The difference for plates of PW the distribution of linear and rotational the resultant nodal rotations θres is approximately displacements, von Misses and principal stresses is 1.2 times for front and rear upper rails. received. The most loading construction part of the Expectedly, the deviation from angle 900 skeleton is the rear upper rail of the seat where the between the corner joint shouders at upper front maximum values for linear and rotational displace- and rear rails of the seat is also minor in the pres- ments and stresses are received due to the nature of the applied force.

59 FEM ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESSES OF UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE SKELETON MADE OF PINUS …

Fig. 5. Distribution of von Mises stresses for model A and model B

Fig. 6. Distribution of maximum Principal stresses for model A and model B

Fig. 7. Distribution of minimum Principal stresses for model A and model B

The additional strengthening detail in the corner The strengthening of the upper rails of the seat joints of the upper rails of the seat significantly im- improves the strength characteristics of the skele- proves the deformation characteristics of the skeleton. The maximal values of stresses in the field of ton side plates made of PW. In the field of the up- rear upper rail of the side plates for model A are per rear rail the resultant linear and rotational dis- relocated in the strengthening elements of rear placements are reduced approximately with 77% upper rail of the seat in model B and are reduced and 35%, in the field of upper front rail – 42% and about 29% for von Mises stresses, 20% for tension 72% respectively. In the upper front and rear rails of and 56% for compression stresses. the skeleton seat for model B displacements de- In the upper rear rail of the skeleton seat crease about 43% and 46% respectively. stresses in model B decrease about 25% (von

60 Yancho Genchev, Nelly Staneva, Desislava Hristodorova

Mises and compression stresses) and 33% (tension 9. Simeonova, R., Jivkov, V., Marinova, A. Bending strength under compression test of glued joints of stresses), because they are concentrated in the th rails of the seat made of pine solid wood. frame structural elements made of plywood. 25 In- ternational scientific conference „New materials and technologies in the function of wooden products”. Reference th 1. Bodig J., Jayne, B. Mechanics of wood and wood 17 of October. Zagreb. Croatia. 2014. pp. 75–83. composites. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Inc. New 10. Simeonova, R., Marinova, A., Jivkov, V. Study on York. 1982. stiffness coefficients under bending test of end cor- 2. Eckelman C., Erdil, Y., Zhang, J. Withdrawal and ner detachable joints of structural elements made of bending strength of dowel joints constructed of ply- plywood. Innovation in woodworking industry and wood and oriented strand board. Forest Products J. engineering design. 1(7). 2015. pp. 59–66. 52 (9). 2002. pp. 66–74. 11. Zhang, J., Quin, F., Tackett, B. Bending strength and 3. Erdil, Y., Eckelman, C. Withdrawal strength of dow- stiffness of two-pin dowel joints constructed of wood els in plywood and oriented strand board. Turkish J. and wood composites. Forest Products J. 51 (2). of Agriculture and Forestry. 25. 2001. pp. 319–327. 2001. pp. 29–35. 4. Erdil, Y, Kasal, A., Eckelman, C. Theoretical analysis 12. Zhang, J., Quin, F., Tackett, B., Park, S. Direct with- and design of joints in a representative sofa frame drawal strength of single-staple joints in pine ply- constructed of plywood and oriented strand board, wood. Forest Products J. 52 (2). 2002. pp. 86–91. Forest Products J. 58. 7/8. 2008. pp. 62–67. 13. Zhang, J., Erdil, Y., Eckelman, C. Torsional strength 5. Genchev, Y. Special productions and wood prod- of dowel joints constructed of plywood and oriented ucts. Production of upholstered furniture. Publ. strand board. Forest Products J. 52 (10). 2002. pp. house. University of Forestry. Sofia. (in print). 89–94. 6. Hristodorova, D. Stiffness coefficients in joints by 14. Zhang, J., Quin, F., Chen, H. Edge lateral resistance staples of skeleton upholstered furniture. Innovation of staple joints in furniture-grade pine plywood. For- in woodworking industry and engineering design. (in est Products J. 54 (7/8). 2004. pp. 85–95. print). 15. Zhang, J., Maupin, M. Face lateral and withdrawal 7. Мarinova, А. Methodology of stress and strain furni- resistances of staple joints in furniture-grade pine ture structure analysis. Proceeding of International plywood. Forest Products J. 54 (6). 2004. pp. 40–46. Science Conference „Mechanical technology of 16. Zhang, J., Yu, Y., Quin, F. Bending fatigue life of wood”. Sofia. 1996. pp. 257–267. (in Bulgarian). metal-plate-connected joints in furniture-grade pine 8. Simeonova, R., Study on bending strength of end plywood. Forest Products J. 56 (11/12). 2006. pp. corner detachable joints of structural elements made 62–66. of plywood. Innovation in woodworking industry and 17. Autodesk Simulation Mechanical. User manual. 2015. engineering design. 1(6). 2014. pp. 93–101. [www.autodesk.com].

АНАЛИЗ НА ДЕФОРМАЦИИТЕ И НАПРЕЖЕНИЯТА НА СКЕЛЕТ НА ТАПИЦИРАНА МЕБЕЛ ОТ БЯЛ БОР И ШПЕРПЛАТ ПО МКЕ

Янчо Генчев, Нели Станева, Десислава Христодорова Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Създаден е 3D геометричен модел на скелет за тапицирана мебел с CAD системата Autodesk Inventor Professional. Проведен е статичен анализ със CAE системата Autodesk Simulation Mechanical по метода на крайните елементи (МКЕ), симулирайки натоварването на скелета. В анализа са взети предвид ортотропните характеристики на бял бор (Pinus sylvestris L.) за фризовете и шперплат за страниците на скелета. Два варианта на ъгловите съединения в скелета са изследвани. Анализът по метода на крайните елементи е проведен отчи- тайки лабораторно получените коефициенти на ротационна коравина на използваните съединения с кламери – модел А: кламери и лепило PVA; модел Б: кламери, лепило PVA и укрепващи елементи под горните фризове на седалката. В резултат е получено разпределението на линейните и ъглови премествания и на напреженията фон Мизес и главните напрежения в 3D модела на скелета на тапицираната мебел с ъглови съединения с кламери, които са презентирани и анализирани.

Ключови думи: скелет на тапицирана мебел, съединения с кламери, шперплат, деформации и напрежения, CAE, FEМ.

61 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

GENERAL REGULARITIES IN THE HEIGHT STRUCTURES OF NORWAY-SPRUCE, SILVER-FIR AND OTHER DENDROCOENOSES

Roumen Petrin Forest Research Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

The height structures of natural, relatively even-aged Norway-spruce and silver-fir dendrocoenoses of the Rhodope Mountains (Velingrad, Devin, Belovo, Tsigov Chark, Chepelare and Shiroka Luka) and the Rila Mountains (Govedartsi and Kostenets) have been investigated in the present study. A total of 71 sample plots have been laid out, 44 of these being in spruce forests and 27 – in fir ones. The purpose of the study is to analyse the height structures of the natural dendrocoenoses of both tree species with a view to model their volumes and assortment structures. Yurdan Douhov- nikov’s method of natural indicators (MNI), developed in the Bulgarian science of forest mensuration, has been used for investigating the positions of the curves, and their steepness in particular, towards the abscissa. The availability of three groups of curves according to steepness levels has been found for both tree species: slanting curves, characteristic of the dendrocoenoses of a zero natural indicator SHo,n≥1.1, semi-steep curves, of 0.86≤SHo,n≤1.09, and steep curves of SНo≤0.85. The distribution according to types of steepness has been investigated for two groups of sample plots in two scenarios – separately, for each of them, and totally, for both. In this investigation, close distributions have been obtained in both scenarios. This provides a reason for investigating the dendrocoenoses’ height structures together, regardless of the tree species. In the second part of the investigation, the average, relative, height curves (or the average curves of normal numbers (quality indicators)) of the spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, as well as those of Scots-pine and common- beech ones, have been compared with Tyurin’s uniform, average curve of relative heights, and a statistically realistic proximity in their forms has been found. As Tyurin’s curve has been found for all tree species, this proximity proves the possibility of creating common, average, order curves of heights for spruce, fir, Scots pine, common beech and other tree species.

Key words: dendrocoenoses, height structure, natural indicators, steepness of curves, types of steepness.

JEL: Q20.

Introduction cause they occur mainly under mountain condi- It is substantially important to perfect perma- tions, and have specific peculiarities of their growth nently as the normative-and-reference base of for- and productivity in accordance with site conditions. est estimation so the respective models and tables. A number of authors have carried out studies of For this reason, it is always necessary for scientists the structures of forest stands [2, 4–7, 13–14, 16– to improve their knowledge of the regularities in the 17]. The more important inferences the above and growth and structures of forest dendrocoenoses. In other authors have made from their studies of stand connection with this have the height structures of structure according to height are as follows: natural, mainly mature and middle-aged, dendro- Tyurin [17] used in his studies not the absolute coenoses of Norway spruce and silver fir been heights for the particular thickness levels but the studied in the present investigation. relative ones, which are obtained by dividing each Forests of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) particular height by the average one, and he also Karst.) dominate in the coniferous-forest altitudinal introduced the natural levels of thickness instead of belts in the mountains of Bulgaria. The largest ar- the absolute ones. During his studies, the author eas under such forests are in the Rhodope Moun- found out that the height curves for homogenous, tains, the Rila Mountains and the Pirin Mountains, pure, even-aged growing stocks resembled one and not so large ones occur in the Western and another in their forms and were not influenced by Central Balkan Mountains, as well as in Vitosha tree species and site conditions; only age and eco- and Ossogovo Mountains. Spruce dendrocoenoses nomic activity were found to have some influence. grow mainly at altitudes between 1,500–1,600 and This gave him the reason for calculating a uniform 1,900–2,100 m. Fir ones occur mainly at altitudes average curve of relative heights for all tree spe- between 1,000 and 1,800 m. Their largest forma- cies. tions in Bulgaria are mostly in the Central Rhodope Tretyakov [15] based on data of his own and Mts. and the total area under silver fir (Abies аlba data taken from Weise, Kuntze and others, carried Mill.) amounts to about 30,000 ha. out a detailed study of the regularities in the struc- The forests of spruce and fir are important as for ture and variation of some dendrobiometric charac- timber production so for water conservation and teristics in pure even-aged stands and in mixed recreation, health improvement, and amenity be- uneven-aged ones of complex forms. He estab-

62 Roumen Petrin

lished that forest structure always has a constant lecturer of Forest Mensuration at the University of nature, regardless of spacing index, age, tree spe- Forestry, in Sofia, and Senior Research Associate cies and growth conditions, even though these Dr. Konstantin Shikov, at the Experiment Station for might pertain as to normal stands so to complex Coniferous Forests, near Velingrad. mixed ones. Thus he formulated the Law about the Uniformity of Stand Structure. Methods Dimitrov [2] has pointed out that the relative The natural indicators‘ method of Yurdan Dou- heights, alias reduction numbers, in Tyurin’s uni- hovnikov [3], which makes it possible to judge on form curve of relative heights need to be specified. the basis of only one number – the zero natural Mihov [4] shows the necessity of approximating indicator (SHo,n) – about the curve‘s form, has the height curves by means of a parabola equation been assumed as the main method of investigation. while using a polynomial rose to a certain power, or For each sample plot, natural levels of thickness a logarithmic function. This approximation has suc- (NLT) have been calculated after Tyurin [17] by cessfully been applied into the present study. dividing the absolute levels of thickness by the av- Tonchev [14] comparing the average curve of erage diameter, thus obtaining the relative, not relative heights for the coppice common beech round levels of thickness, or relative diameters, e. growing stocks he has investigated with Tyurin’s g. 0.56, 0.67, 0.76, etc., up to 1.43. Height curves uniform average curve, has found differences in- are further on expressed graphically, and for round, dicative of a specificity proceeding from the tree relative levels of thickness, which are called natural species and the origin of dendrocoenoses. levels of thickness, the absolute heights are re- We have carried out an investigation of the ported while choosing a reliable interval of curve height structures of natural, beech dendrocoenoses investigation. In our investigation, it is from 0.5 up [10]. Using the natural indicators’ method, we have to 1.6. The absolute values of heights are con- investigated the steepness of height curves and verted, in their turn, to relative heights by dividing found that dendrocoenosis height structure does these by the height where the average level of not depend on tree age and that it is possible to thickness, 1.0, which corresponds to the average create common, order curves of the heights for diameter, is. The curves of the relative heights, in more than one tree species. this aspect of theirs, have been called in our The investigations of the above-mentioned and method „normal numbers” alias „quality indicators”. other authors have provided the methodic instruc- The normal numbers’ curves are used for calculat- tion for our investigation. ing the average curve of normal numbers (qxav) for the particular aggregates of curves according to the The Purpose of the Study was: tree species. Further on, each curve of normal 1. To analyse the height structures of natural numbers (qxi) is divided by the average one (qxav) dendrocoenoses of Norway spruce and silver and the straight lines of natural numbers are ob- fir. tained (y=a.x+b). The coefficients of the obtained 2. To compare as the average curves of the straight lines are calculated through the least- normal numbers for spruce and fir dendro- square method by working-out and solving a sys- coenoses so those found for natural beech tem of two equations with two unknown values, and and Scots-pine dendrocoenoses with A. V. just these coefficients are the so-called natural Tyurin‘s uniform average curve of the normal indicators – the angular one (a) and the zero one numbers for all tree species. (b). There is a rectilinear relationship between the On the basis of Points 1 and 2, to find methodi- two coefficients, which can probably be found. For cal prerequisites to be used as the basis of creating the purposes of our investigation, however, only the generalised systems of order curves and improved zero natural indicator (Coefficient b) is used; it is models for estimating volumes and assortment presented as SHo,n, where „S” means structure, structures. „H” – height, 0 reveals that it is zero and n – that it is natural. Objects and Methods of Investigation According to their values, we have arranged the The present investigation pertains to natural zero natural indicators (ZNI) of height structure spruce and fir dendrocoenoses in regions of the (SHo,n) in three groups, namely: SHo,n≤0.85, Rhodope Mountains (Velingrad, Devin, Be- 0.86≤SHo,n≤1.09 and SHo,n≥1.1. Then, the influ- lovo,Tsigov Chark, Chepelare and Shiroka Luka) ence of tree species upon the distribution of the and the Rila Mountains (Govedartsi and Kostenets). investigated height curves according to types of A total of 71 sample plots have been laid out, 44 of steepness was investigated. The investigated these being in spruce forests and 27 – in fir ones. spruce and fir stands were distributed according to The people who have laid out the sample plots and types of steepness depending on the values of the delivered them to us to use are Prof. Ivan Mihov, a zero natural indicators (ZNI), while using the above

63 GENERAL REGULARITIES IN THE HEIGHT STRUCTURES OF NORWAY-SPRUCE, SILVER-FIR AND OTHER … scale, and this distribution was done for two scenar- ence in the heights for two levels of thickness, and ios of calculating the zero natural indicators – sepa- this difference is bigger when the curves are rately for spruce and fir, and while considering steeper. The steeper curve reveals a higher incre- these as a total aggregate. So we have obtained ment in average height between two thickness lev- average curves of the normal indicators (qxav) els within a dendrocoenosis, or growing in height, separately for the spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, and the opposite – less steep curves reveal lower and a common average curve has been calculated increment. Therefore, under all conditions equal, regardless of the tree species. the larger volume of the dendrocoenosis, in this case, will be provided by the thicker and taller trees, Results and Discussion i.e. by assortments of higher quality. Such dendro- 1. Types of Height Structure according to the Slope coenoses eventually yield higher volumes and bet- (or Steepness) of the Height Curves ter assortment structures. The performance of height curves is investi- Through the above method, the zero natural in- gated while using the curve’s slope (declivity) to- dicators have been obtained for the investigated wards the abscissa. The less acute the slope angle sample plots, which are used for characterising the is, the steeper the curve is, hence, we have intro- height-structure curves (or height curves) of the duced the notion ‘steepness (declivity) of the curve’. natural spruce and fir dendrocoenoses by steep- The steepness of the curves suggests the differ- ness, and these have been presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Values of the Zero Natural Indicators (SHo,n) of Height Structures of the Spruce and Fir Dendrocoe- noses according to Sample Plots, Depending on the Average (Separate or Total) Curve of the Normal Numbers Separate Total No Separate Total No Separate Total No Separate Total No Spruce Fir 1 0.80 0.75 23 0.79 0.74 1 1.28 1.37 23 1.06 1.15 2 0.89 0.84 24 0.76 0.72 2 1.17 1.26 24 0.83 0.90 3 1.06 1.01 25 0.59 0.54 3 1.13 1.22 25 0.90 0.98 4 1.12 1.08 26 0.61 0.57 4 0.72 0.78 26 1.03 1.11 5 1.34 1.28 27 1.27 1.22 5 0.94 1.02 27 0.85 0.93 6 0.89 0.84 28 0.95 0.90 6 1.10 1.19 7 1.07 1.02 29 1.46 1.40 7 1.01 1.09 8 1.05 1.00 30 1.16 1.11 8 0.84 0.92 9 1.08 1.03 31 1.09 1.04 9 0.89 0.97 10 1.01 0.96 32 1.02 0.97 10 1.18 1.28 11 0.78 0.74 33 0.81 0.77 11 0.91 0.99 12 1.00 0.95 34 0.92 0.87 12 0.91 0.99 13 1.36 1.31 35 1.09 1.04 13 1.16 1.25 14 1.16 1.10 36 1.10 1.05 14 1.12 1.21 15 1.19 1.14 37 0.95 0.91 15 0.89 0.96 16 0.89 0.85 38 1.02 0.97 16 1.10 1.18 17 0.99 0.94 39 1.11 1.06 17 0.82 0.90 18 1.09 1.04 40 0.89 0.84 18 0.85 0.93 19 1.18 1.13 41 1.01 0.96 19 0.96 1.04 20 0.96 0.92 42 0.90 0.85 20 1.08 1.16 21 0.90 0.85 43 0.88 0.84 21 1.00 1.07 22 1.04 0.99 44 0.77 0.73 22 1.25 1.33

As seen in Table 1, the zero natural indicators’ It can be seen from Fig. 1 that a steep curve values vary for the whole aggregate, regardless of corresponds to the low values of SHo,n, a slanting the tree species, within the range from 0.54 up to curve – to the high ones, and a semi-steep one – to 1.46. Exact correspondence has been found be- the natural indicators whose values amount to tween the natural indicators’ values and the steep- about 1. The steeper the curve is, the higher the ness of height curves, namely: steep curves corre- elevation between two thickness levels, or height spond to low natural indicators, slanting curves – to increments, is between two thickness levels in a high ones, and three types of height curves are dendrocoenosis. Therefore, though of equal aver- actually available in accordance with the differenti- age heights, dendrocoenoses of steeper height- ated intervals – steep, semi-steep and slanting. structure curves can be expected to yield higher These three types of curves, and the correspon- volumes and have better assortment structures. dence between them and the natural indicators’ values (SHo,n), can be seen in Figure 1.

64 Roumen Petrin

the low values of the zero natural indicators (SNo) characteristic of dendrocoenoses of higher vol- ht, [m] g umes, with equal average diameters [12]. hei Based on the above-differentiated intervals for the different types of height-curve steepness, the Slanting SH0, n=1,28 distribution of the sample plots where these types

Semi-Steep SH0, n=1,08 occur has been obtained in the two scenarios of investigation through the method of natural indica- Steep SH , n=1,28 0 tors – separately and totally. The difference pro- ceeds from the average relative curves used for the natural degrees of thickness particular aggregates according to tree species. For Fig. 1. Three Types of Height Curves according to the separate investigations, we have used particu- SHo,n: Semi-Steep (0.86≤SHo,n≤1.09), Steep lar average curves, and for the total one – one av- (SHo,n≤0.85) and Slanting (SHo,n≥1.1) erage curve. The results of the distribution of the sample plots have been presented in Table 2. This inference coincides with the better interpretation the thickness-structure curves of a right- hand-side asymmetry, to which, again, correspond

Table 2. Distribution of the Sample Plots (SP) according to the Steepness of the Height Curves with the Different Aggregates in Both Scenarios of Investigation Height-Curve Separate Investigation Total SP, % of Total Investigation Total SP, % of Steepness Spruce, n Fir, n N SP Spruce, n Fir, n n SP Slanting 10 9 19 27 4 11 15 21 Semi-steep 26 12 38 53 24 15 39 55 Steep 8 6 14 20 16 1 17 24 Total 44 27 71 100 44 27 71 100

It is seen from Table 2 that almost one and the 2. Comparing the Average Curves of Relative same tendency of the distribution of sample plots Heights (the Curves of Normal Numbers /Quality according to types of steepness is observed as a Indicators/) of Natural Spruce, Fir, Scots-pine and whole for both tree species with both studies – as Beech Dendrocoenoses with Tyurin’s Uniform separate aggregates and as a total one. The in- Curve of Heights crease in the sample plots under spruce trees of In Table 3, we have presented the comparison steep height curves is on account of the diminution between our average relative curves of the heights of those under fir trees of such steep curves; the of the spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, as well as increase and diminution occurring at the same rate. those of the previously investigated Scots-pine [11] In both cases, for both of the tree species – spruce and beech ones [10], and Tyurin’s uniform average and fir – the semi-steep curves prevail as a whole; curve of relative heights, which pertains to all tree with the separate investigations, semi-steep curves species. have been found with 53% of the dendrocoenoses, As one can see in Table 3, our curves for and 55% of the dendrocoenoses have been found spruce, fir, Scots pine and common beech are very to have semi-steep curves while investigating the close to that of Tyurin [17], which is seen also from two species as a whole. Also, for both species, the calculated statistical indicators: coefficient of there is almost the same overlapping of plots char- correlation, standard deviation, coefficient of varia- acterised by slanting (27% and 21%) and steep tion, and error of the arithmetic mean. curves (20% and 24%). It follows from the obtained The coefficient of correlation is almost 1 and, re- results that it is possible to make a total and an spectively, the standard-deviation values are of the average models of height structure for both aggre- order of hundredths of the unit. Besides, the close gates of curves for spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, proximity of the particular values of the normal as well as to assume a common type of intermedi- numbers (quality indicators) for the particular natu- ate or semi-steep curves for both aggregates. This ral levels of thickness is clearly seen. This is an result is confirmed also by the fact that both tree important proof of the correctness of Tyurin’s uni- species have almost equal ecological-and- form average curve of relative heights, and it sug- geographic natural ranges of distribution and gests a real possibility of developing average growth, as well as similar biological characteristics. height-order curves for spruce, fir, Scots pine and seed-tree common beech. Height-order curves are known to form the basis of finding timber volumes

65 GENERAL REGULARITIES IN THE HEIGHT STRUCTURES OF NORWAY-SPRUCE, SILVER-FIR AND OTHER …

Table 3. Average Curves of Normal Numbers (qxav) Compared with Tyurin’s Uniform Average Curve of Normal Numbers Natural Levels of Thickness Precision Indicators The Coeffi- Stan- Coeffi- Error of Curve cient of dard cient of Arith. Belongs 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Correla- Devia- Varia- Mean to tion [R] tion [S] tion [V] [m] Spruce 0.71 0.79 0.87 0.94 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.17 1.000 0.075 7.542 0.025 Fir 0.76 0.83 0.89 0.95 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.11 1.13 0.999 0.044 4.483 0.015 Scots 0.79 0.86 0.91 0.96 1.00 1.03 1.05 1.08 1.09 0.994 0.025 2.492 0.008 Pine Com- mon 0.78 0.85 0.91 0.96 1.00 1.03 1.07 1.09 1.12 0.998 0.031 3.113 0.010 Beech Tyurin’s Average 0.85 0.89 0.93 0.97 1.00 1.03 1.06 1.08 1.10 1 - - - Curve and their assortment structures, and this is a pre- ‒ The results obtained prove the possibility of requisite for developing a common model of such creating common average height-order volumes and structures. curves for spruce, fir and beech, which is a prerequisite for developing common models Inferences and Conclusions of their timber volumes and assortment The more important inferences and conclusions structures. from the investigation are the following ones: ‒ In the natural spruce and fir dendrocoe- Acknowledgement noses subjected to our investigation, the We wish to express our gratitude to Prof Ivan Mihov, availability has been found of three types of at the University of Forestry, in Sofia, and Dr Konstantin height-structure curves: steep curves, semi- Shikov, at the Experiment Station for Coniferous Forests, near Velingrad, for allowing us to use its sample plots, steep curves and slanting curves; low val- thus making the carrying-out of our investigation possi- ues of the zero natural indicators ble. (SHo≤0.85) correspond to steep curves, in- termediate values (within the range References 0.86≤SHo,n≤1.09) – to semi-steep curves, 1. Dimitrov, E. Using Mathematical Modelling for Ana- and high values of ZNI (SHo,n≥1.1) – to lytical Expression of the Relationship between the slanting curves. Height and Thickness of Spruce Trees. Gorskosto- ‒ There is obvious prevalence of dendrocoe- panska Naouka. 2 1978. pp. 27–32. (in Bulgarian). noses of height curves of the average or 2. Dimitrov, E. Modelling the Structure, Volume and semi-steep type (over 50%), as well as bal- Assortments of Middle-Aged and Maturing Dendro- anced overlapping of those of slanting and coenoses of Scots Pine, Norway Spruce and Silver Fir. Simolini 94. Sofia. 2003. pp. 13–22. (in Bulgar- steep curves, which is a reason for consid- ian). ering the investigated dendrocoenoses’ 3. Douhovnikov, Y. The Morphological Classification as height curves as total and average when the Basis of Increasing Forest Productivity. Zemiz- developing models. dat. Sofia. 1966. pp. 25–40. (in Bulgarian). ‒ The detailed distribution according to height- 4. Mihov, I. Forest Mensuration. Litera Publishing structure curve steepness of the investi- House, Sofia. 2005. pp. 101–111. (in Bulgarian). gated spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, when 5. Mihov, I., Poryazov Y., Dobrichov, I. Height-Order, these are investigated as separately accord- Tapering and Assortment Tables about Hungarian ing to tree species so as a total aggregate, Oak, Durmast and Turkey Oak of the Re-Growing (Transformation) Class. NIS /Unions of Scientists leads to the inference that the height struc- and Researchers, University of Forestry. 1993. pp. tures of these dendrocoenoses do not de- 3–5. (in Bulgarian). pend significantly on the tree species, and 6. Nedyalkov, S. Basic Principles of the Organisation of they can be studied as an entire whole. Forestry in Mountain Forests. Zemizdat. Sofia. 1964. ‒ The average relative curves of heights (or pp. 80–92. (in Bulgarian). the average curves of normal numbers 7. Nedyalkov, S. Organisation of the Forestry in Nor- /quality indicators/) for spruce, fir, Scots pine way-Spruce Forests. Publishing House of the Bul- and seed-tree common beech, as well as garian Academy of Sciences. Sofia. 1967. pp. 68– Tyurin’s uniform average curve of relative 78. (in Bulgarian). 8. Petrin, R. Investigations of the Structure according to heights, are very close in their forms. Thickness of Common-Beech Dendrocoenoses. Di-

66 Roumen Petrin

gest „145 Years since the Establishment of the Bul- 13. Sirakov, G. Improved Permanent Curves of Heights, garian Academy of Sciences”. Vol. 49. 2014. pp. 76– Form-Factor Tables and Volumetric Tables for Scots 81. (in Bulgarian). Pine in Our Country. Digest of the CGI Institute. 3. 9. Petrin, R., Markoff, I., Mihov, I. Structures of Natural 1947. pp. 20–25. (in Bulgarian). Seed-Tree Common-Beech Dendrocoenoses in Bul- 14. Tonchev, T. Studies of the Structure and Growth of garia according to Thickness and Height. Manage- Coppice Common-Beech Stands in the Balkan ment and Sustainable Development. 43(3). 2013. pp. Mountains. PhD Thesis. Sofia. 2007. pp. 49–60. (in 82–87. (in Bulgarian). Bulgarian). 10. Petrin, R., Markoff, I., Mihov, I. Comparative Investi- 15. Tretyakov, N. Law about the Unity of Stand Struc- gations of the Structure according to Height of Ma- tures. New Village. Moscow-Leningrad. 1927. pp. ture and Middle-Aged Natural Common-Beech Den- 26–34. (in Russian). drocoenoses. Management and Sustainable Devel- 16. Tretyakov, N. Some Principles of Soviet Forest Men- opment. 49(3). 2014. pp. 76–81. (in Bulgarian). suration. Reference Book for the Forest-Mensuration 11. Petrin, R. Height Structure of Scots-Pine Stands. Specialist. Moscow-Leningrad. 1952. pp. 5–15. (in Forestry Ideas. vol. 21. No 2 (50). 2015. pp. 241– Russian). 249. 17. Tyurin, A. Forest Mensuration. Goslestehizdat Pub- 12. Petrin, R., Markoff, I. Thickness Structure of Norway- lishing House, Moscow. 1938. pp.13–15. (in Rus- Spruce and Silver-Fir Dendrocoenoses. Manage- sian). ment and Sustainable Development. 55. 2015. pp. 97–102. (in Bulgarian).

ОБЩИ ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ В СТРОЕЖА НА СМЪРЧОВИ, ЕЛОВИ И ДРУГИ ДЕНДРОЦЕНОЗИ ПО ВИСОЧИНА

Румен Петрин Институт за гората, Българската академия на науките, София

Резюме

В настоящето изследване е проучен строежа по височина на естествени, относително едновъзрастни, смър- чови и елови дендроценози от района на Родопите (Велинград, Девин, Белово, Цигов чарк, Чепеларе и Широка лъка) и Рила планина (Говедарци, Костенец). Общо бяха заложени 71 броя пробни площи, от които 43 броя в смърчови и 27 броя в елови гори. Целта на изследването е да се анализира строежа на естествените дендроце- нози от двата дървесни вида по височина с оглед съвместно моделиране на запаса и сортиментната им структу- ра. За изследване поведението на кривите и по-точно стръмността на кривите по отношение на абсцисната ос, беше приложен разработения в българската таксационна наука метод – метода на натуралните показатели (МНП) на Ю. Духовников. За двата дървесни вида е установено наличието на три групи криви според степента на стръмност, а именно: полегати криви, характерни за дендроценозите с нулев натурален показател (ННП) SHo,n≥1,1; полустръмни криви с 0,86≤SHo,n≤1,09; и стръмни криви с SНo≤0,85. За двете групи пробни площи беше изследвано разпределението им по типове на стръмност в два сценария на изследване – поотделно за всяка от тях, и съвместно. При това изследване бяха получени близки разпределения в двата сценария. Това дава основание строежа по височина на дендроценозите да се изследва съвместно независимо от дървесния вид. Във втората част на изследването бяха сравнени средните относителни криви на височините (или средните криви на нормалните числа) на смърчовите, елови, а също така и на бялборови и букови дендроценози с Един- ната средна крива на относителните височини на Тюрин и беше установена статистически достоверно голяма близост в техния ход. Тъй като Единната средна крива на Тюрин е установена за всички дървесни видове, тази близост доказва възможността за създаване на общи средни разредни криви на височините на смърча, елата, белия бор, бука и други дървесни видове.

Ключови думи: натурални показатели, стръмност на кривите, типове на стръмност.

67 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

STUDY OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE CELLS OF THE CORE BEAMS

Nikolai Burdarov University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

Core rays are defined in tangential cross-sectional dimensions and density and provide a large amount of diagnostic information on the structure of the wood. The work investigates the degree of variation in the dimensions of the cells of the core rays. The tangential size of the ray cells is expressed as mean diameter „g” is determined. The influence of the type of rays, their dimensions and density on this indicator is studied. Dependence between the density of the wood and „g" is sought. Its variation, both in individual taxonomic units (in particular the family) and in individual structure subgroups, has been investigated.

Key words: wood, wood rays, ray cells.

JEL: Q23, Q29.

Introduction made on a heterogeneous core beam, what cell According to their type, the rays are homogene- does the resulting average mean? The cells meas- ous (ie made up of one type of cell) and heteroge- ured at the top and at the base of the core beam neous (ie made of different cell types). However are usually much larger than the rest. For rays with even cells of one type have differences in cross- fewer cells, such as the narrow ones, it may be that sectional dimensions. No matter how persistent the resulting mean value is a non-existent cell. Reg- these metrics are for the individual species, the istered minimum and maximum values will not be cells are probably different not only for individual enough to orientate. Obviously, there will be a need tree species but also depending on the location, the similar to mode. Moreover, people who make such position in the stem, etc. measurements know that there are species with The dimensions of the cross-section are rela- very similar in size ray cells and those with very tively easy to find in a tangential section. Such different. That is, for these measurements, we will measurements have already been made with most need the dispersion. Here, we have to point out that industrially used species [6]. However, the pub- it is possible for species with different rays to have lished values are most likely arithmetic mean. And the same size cells (Fig. 1). here comes the question: If measurements are

a) b) Fig. 1. Wood rays of Fagus silvatica (a) and Castanea sativa (b) with the same average cell size (9.5 μm)

For any correct conclusions to be drawn in these size in the south and southwest, and those in the measurements, the variation between the tree spe- north. cies must be greater than the variation between the The purpose of the work is to investigate the individual test sites and the variation between the degree of variation in the cross-sectional dimen- individual stems is greater than the variation in the sions of the cells of the core beams. values in one stem. It would be very useful if there were variations in dimensions in different directions Methods and materials of the world. Surely the sunshine has affected the The studies were conducted on microscopic cambium and the formation of the rays. Therefore, photographs of the most widely used commercial it is expected that there will be differences in cell tree species provided by H. G. Richter and M. J.

68 Nikolai Burdarov

Dallwitz [5]. The subject of the survey is 111 tropi- coefficient can be used to compare the variance of cal and locally growing tree species. the values in the various samples as a whole, and The tangential size of the radiant cells and its this is probably more accurate because it does not basic statistical metrics are determined – mean depend on the size of the cells. The dispersion can arithmetic „g”, dispersion and variation coefficient. only be used at the same average beam size, i.e. if The boundary (minimum and maximum) values of two tree species are in a group according to the these dimensions are also defined. This is because average cell size, the differences can be searched the mode does not exactly serve the purpose of for in the dispersion. pointing out those cells that are most common. In However, the accuracy of these measurements, most cases, however, a microscopic photo is not as well as the correctness of their conclusions, will sufficient to achieve a 5% indicator of accuracy. In require very little variation within a study. That is this case, several consecutive shots should be why it is particularly important here that a micro- taken in the longitudinal direction. scopic preparation can provide a sufficient number Factors that affect the size of the radiant cells of cells so that the measurement is within the toler- are the height and width of the rays, the density of able limits of the precision indicator. their location. The relationship between density and cell size using the tabular value of the species for Influence of beam width on the dimensions of this property is sought. the radiant cells Let's look at Beech's rays, Chestnut and Horse- Typically, the rays of tree species have the tail (Fagus silvatica, Castanea sativa and Celtis same categories – low and narrow, medium to me- australis). Obviously, rays have nothing to do with dium and high, wide and high. Few species deviate it, not only because of their width but also because from this trend (for example, lime). Therefore, this of their size. But exactly the values of the average dependence can be considered as the influence of arithmetic for cell size are very close. Then there the beam size on the dimensions of the radiant must be a mathematical metric, according to which cells. these three tree species may differ. The maximum In the measurements made, the following trend and minimum values can also highlight the differ- was formed. Single-beam rays have slightly larger ences, but in this case not so categorically. cells than narrow and medium-wide rays (Fig. 2). Such an indicator is the value of the dispersion. Then, with increasing the width of the rays, the size Here, as if the differences became obvious. But if of the radiating cells also increases. we assume that they are similar, then there should be another analytical indicator to show us the difference. It is important to emphasize that comparisons in these studies may be either with the same indicator of accuracy (P=5.0%) or with the same number of measurements. However, in wood research, we can not always find as many cells as we can to provide the same precision indicator (for example 5.0%). Then, for sample comparison, we can provide at least the same number of measured cells or use the Man- Whitney test. It takes into account the number of Fig. 2. Sampling averaging and variation of the mag- tests, the arithmetic mean and the dispersion. nitude of the radiant cells depending on the width of When two different species of wood approximate the rays very much on the values of the radius cell dimensions, this is a way of proving the presence or ab- It is important to know if the deviation from these sence of differences in the values of the indicator. values is the result of the difference between the It is also important to determine the frequency of species or another indicator (for example location occurrence of individual cells. In the heterogeneous or location of the timber examined in the stem). rays formed by lying and standing cells, there is a We should point out that oak wood is not in- very large difference in the dimensions of the cells cluded in these studies, which have both uniform at both ends and inside the beam. There can be and wide rays. This is because it is not correct to two ways here: one is to examine the frequency of average the cell size of the different types of rays encountering cells of different sizes. The other is to (as shown in the figure). That is why they will be the use Interval Variation Order. subject of a separate study. In order to compare the variance of the values in It would be interesting to consider separately the the different samples, both the dispersion and the dimensions of the rays of different widths when they variance coefficient can be used. The variation are present simultaneously in a particular wood (for

69 STUDY OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE CELLS OF THE CORE BEAMS

example maple or other elm). Here, however, their values are averaged by placing them in the appro- Density is a complex quality parameter, strongly priate category depending on the maximum width of dependent on the construction of the wood. Low the rays. density does not necessarily mean more or larger rays. The fact is, however, that the lowest density Influence of beam density on the dimensions of species have the largest cell size. It is known that the rays species having light wood are usually fast-growing. This indicator is somewhat linked to the upper This may also require larger cells of the core rays. one, because the larger-sized rays are of lesser The average value of all tested species is 13 density. Therefore, the largest size of the radiant mm. When examining the factors that affect cell cells is expected here in the first group (Fig. 3). The size, the samples are of varying size. Various de- other different value is the highest density rays. viations from this average for individual factors can These are values determined to a large extent by be explained by the size of the samples. Therefore, the presence of single-beam core beams that have in the present study, no dependence was also a larger size. sought between the affiliation of tree species to the botanical family. In most families, the surveyed representatives were one or two, which could not be an indicator for the whole family.

Conclusions Because most of the groups have similar values, each group can be subdivided into subgroups (for example, three), regardless of the research factor. So each species will fall into a certain category. The deviation of each subsequent tested wood can contribute to the analysis of factors affecting cell Fig. 3. Sampling averaging and variation factor of the size. size of the radiant cells according to the density of Deviation of the values of each species from the the rays displayed values may also indicate the effect of the site or location of the timber examined in the stem Previous research has found that habitat affects on the cell sizes. the density of the rays. It is also possible to influ- Knowledge of these values could be used as an ence the location of the studied specimen in the important sign (eg diagnostic). different parts of the stem. This is why it is important here to determine whether the habitat affects References cell size. 1. Bardarov, N. Determination of tree species according to the anatomical markings of wood. Publishing Influence of the density of the wood on the di- house at University of Forestry. Sofia. 2014. mensions of the radiant cells 2. Core, H., Cote, W., Day, A. Wood – structure and Another indicator that affects the cells is the identification. Syracuse University Press. New density of the wood (Fig. 4). York. 1979 3. Greguss, P. Identification of living Gymnosperms on the basis of xylotomy. Akademiai Kiado. Buda- pest. 1955. 4. Grosser, D. Die Holzer Mitteleuropas. Springer- Verlag. Munchen. 1977. 5. Richter, H., Dallwitz, M. Commercial Timbers: De- scriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Informa- tion Retrieval. [http://delta- intkey.com/wood/en/index.htm]. 6. Wagenfuhr, R., Scheiber, C. Holzatlas. VEB Fachbuchverlag. Leipzig, 1996. 7. Wagenfuhr, R. Anatomie des Holzes. VEB Fachbuchverlag. Leipzig. 1984. Fig. 4. Sampling averaging and variation of the mag- nitude of the radiant cells depending on the density of the wood

70 Nikolai Burdarov

ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ НА РАЗМЕРИТЕ НА КЛЕТКИТЕ НА СЪРЦЕВИННИТЕ ЛЪЧИ

Николай Бърдаров Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Сърцевинните лъчи се определят в тангенциален разрез като размери и гъстота и дават голямо количество диагностична информация за строежа на дървесината. В работата се търси степента на вариране на размерите на клетките на сърцевинните лъчи. Определена е големината на тангенциалния размер на лъчевите клетки, представени като среден диаметър „g”. Изследвано е влиянието на вида на лъчите, техните размери и гъстота върху този показател. Потърсена е зависимост между плътността на дървесината и „g”. Изследвано е вариране- то му както в отделните таксономични единици (в частност семейството), така и в отделните подгрупи строеж.

Ключови думи: дървесина, сърцевинни лъчи, лъчеви клетки.

71 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

A STUDY OF THE STATISTICAL INDICATORS OF THE SIZE OF THE WOOD RAYS

Nikolai Burdarov University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

The characteristics of the xylem rays are most often defined easily and accurately. Although they are small (only in size and density), they give detailed information about the structure of the wood in a tangential section. However, the tree species are too many, and only by these characteristics cannot be determined the affinity of the studied wood for particular tree species. In addition, there are often many differences between the literary values and the measured values in the specific case. The article seeks the degree of variation in the dimensions of the core rays. The rays are grouped according to their width. A statistical analysis of the values of the dimensions of the core beams was made. By comparison, the Man-Whitney method is used. The frequency of occurrence of rays of different sizes is determined.

Key words: wood, wood rays.

JEL: Q23, Q29.

Introduction The wood rays sizes (in this case, only the width The wood rays are transverse radial elements is shown) are recorded relatively simply – (1–)2–3 that perform a conductive and essentially backup (in Canarium schweinfurthii Engl.), (1–)2–4(–10) (in function. They encounter a wide variety of shape, Avicennia officinalis L.), (1–)2–3(–4) (in Albizia structure and location. However, these characteris- procera Benth.) and so on. (Fig. 1). According to tics are relatively constant in each individual tree this record, the displayed pictures should be almost species. There is some variation in trees growing in the same, but this is not the case. Here, it is not different habitats, in individual trees in a given habi- clear how statistically how many of the rays are tat and in the different parts of the stem from which uniform, how many are two-rows, and so on. More- the sample is taken. over, it does not make it possible to understand the rays' variation in the above three cases.

a) b) Fig. 1. Wood rays at Canarium schweinfurthii (a) and Albizia procera (b)

Very often there is a difference between the de- Even if it has an accurate average, it is not scribed dimensions and the measured real ones. enough. It is also worth range of variation of differ- For example, on the figure shown, most of the rays ent species. Probably, for many species with the of the Canarium schweinfurthii are 4-row, and the same mean values, there will be a difference in the record shows 2–3. It is unclear how many meas- range of variation (except for one- rows). Further- ured beams this recording is made of. It is possible more, a measured dispersion will show up us how to obtain different records depending on the author many individual beams are close or not (at the who publishes them or depending on where the same or near average). sample was taken. However, even with these values, it is not clear what exactly the rays are most common. For many

72 Nikolai Burdarov

rays with the same (or close) mean values and The frequency of occurrence of rays of different close variation values, there are cases where a sizes is determined given class size is predominant in one type and During the measurement the width and height of another size class for the other species. From what each ray were determined. The exception is only has been said so far, it is clear that only detailed the largest rays that come out of the field of view. measurements with correct statistics can describe The width is measured in the widest part of the ray the characteristics of the rays of a given species the and the maximum reading is recorded. When the most complete and accurate. rays are connected to each other in height, they are The analysis of the statistical indicators also assumed to be two separate beams and are meas- makes it clear another thing. In order to use the ured separately. Some species are better to meas- variance for some conclusions, it must be larger ure in µm rather than in cell numbers due to very than the variation between the different habitats, small and unclear rays, but they are not the subject and the variation between the individual stems is of this study. greater than the variation in the values in one stem. When the rays are made up of a single row but Before making any conclusions, it is a good idea to have only one place, two cells one next to each are study the variation in the beam size in the different considered to be one- row (not two-row). In most parts of the stem. cases, however, a microscopic photo is not suffi- In addition, the variation in the dimensions of the cient to achieve a 5% accuracy indicator. In this rays (and eventually of the rays cells) in different case, several pictures must be taken in the longitu- directions of the world should be researched. This dinal direction. is related to the effect of sunshine on the formation The work is not intended to rewrite or change of backup tissue. This would help to solve a very the theory of core rays. It simply tries to show that important anatomical question: Can the quantitative when working with sets, the same record can be indicators of a microscopic preparation state which used twice in exploring diagnostic information. part of the stem (north or south, sharply or shaded) is the timber to be studied. Analysis of the recording of the dimensions of The purpose of the work is to create a method- the core rays ology for the comparison of the wood rays accord- Unlike the classic record, the description of the ing to their size. statistical metrics of the core rays allows us to ex- tract some more information. While the classical Methods and materials record relies more on the limits of variation of the The studies were conducted on microscopic respective size and the frequency of occurrence, photographs of the most widely used commercial when recording the statistical indicators, the record tree species provided by H. G. Richter and M. J. presents in a uniform way all types with the mean Dallwitz [5]. The subject of the survey is 87 tree arithmetic and the range of variation. The new here species. The dimensions of the rays (width and is the variable width and height variation. Even if height) and their basic statistical metrics - mean the accuracy limit is not reached (this is 5%), these arithmetic, dispersion and variation coefficient are values are indicative and will allow the division of determined. The boundary (minimum and maxi- the species into separate groups. mum) values for this indicator are also determined.

Fig. 2. Record of the dimensions of the core rays

Recording of the beam sizes in this way will al- that this grouping is only valid when the 5% accu- low the distribution of species in separate groups racy indicator is reached. and work with multitudes. It should be emphasized

73 A STUDY OF THE STATISTICAL INDICATORS OF THE SIZE OF THE WOOD RAYS

Rays width (Mean arithmetic and maximum value) Table 2. Separation of species according to the val- By examining this indicator, according to the ues of the variation coefficient of the width and the width of the rays, we can divide the species into five height of the rays groups (Table 1). According to the height of the Variation in Variation in rays, the species can also be divided into 5 groups Degree of variation width, height, [1]: number/% number/% Very slight variation ‒ very low – they reach up to 5 rows of cells 36/41 0/0 (50 to 100 μm); (V<2.0) Slight variation ‒ low – they reach a height of 5 to 15 rows of 19/22 19/22 cells (101 to 300 μm); (V=2.1–5.0) Medium variation ‒ medium high – they reach a height of 15 to 24/28 41/47 25 rows of cells (301 to 500 μm); (V=5.1–8.0) ‒ high – they reach a height of 25 to 50 rows High variation 6/7 18/21 of cells (501 to 1000 μm); (V=8.1–12.0) ‒ very high – they reach a height of more than Very high variation 2/2 9/10 50 rows of cells (more than 1000 μm). (V>12.0) However, the record may take into account the arithmetic average or, as of now, the maximum The values shown for species with the same achieved value. Of course, these are the leading variation coefficient are common to all species, indicators that we divide the species. In the first regardless of their width or height. separation, the second indicator is the arithmetic The survey data show that there are species mean of the height, and the third is the variance with very close statistical indicators – a total of 14 coefficient. Variable boundaries are shown with groups of two or more species. Of these, 18 spe- informative value only. cies are distributed in 9 pairs, and the rest are of three or more species. These groups are in the Table 1. Distribution of species according to their narrow and mainly in the single-row wood rays. It is width therefore necessary to include more statistical indi- According to According to cators to better differentiate between species. The the arithmetic the maximum Category width following indicator, which is examined, is the fre- mean, reached value, quency of encountering rays with a specific height number/% number/% (Fig. 3). Species having only single-rows 37/43 35/40 rays Species having narrow (2-3 rows) 33/38 14/16 rays Species having an medium-wide 14/16 26/30 (4-5 rows) rays Species having an medium-wide 3/3 10/11 (6-8 rows) rays Species having wide (more than 9 0/0 2/2 rows) rays Fig. 3. Distribution of rays of different heights in three species with close statistical indicators

In the second separation, the second indicator is If we look at the records of the species repre- the maximum reached height, the third is the vari- sented in the figure (Duabanga moluccana 1x7(2– ance coefficient. Following them is the arithmetic 18), 6.3; Lophopetalum spp. 1x7(2–18), 6.2; Termi- mean value of the width and height. By using these nalia spp. 1x9(2–19), 5.1), we will not find a quanti- diagnostic categories, however, it may happen to tative difference between them. The distribution of miss a possible assumption of the species we rec- rays (frequency of occurrence) of different heights ognize. It is therefore necessary to use both ways shows very significant differences between the of separation of the species. three types. While at Duabanga the highest amount According to the variation coefficient, we can is the rays of 6 cells (15 pieces), then at Terminalia also divide the species into five groups (Table 2). such a beam is only one. Conversely, rays highest

74 Nikolai Burdarov

of 9–10 cells are only 4 at Duabanga, while in Ter- tracted, which can also be used in the diagnosis of minalia there are a total of 19. This extreme distri- species. bution of these two species of Lophopetalum occu- Preparations should be photographed in several pies an average position and also differs a lot from longitudinal directions in order for the number of them. rays to be sufficient to fit the accuracy indicator to the required 5.0%. In addition, some of the rays are Quantitive estimations used to identify species very high and cannot fit into one preparation. When grouping the studied species in both Therefore, such measurement requires more ways, in a single group, where several tree species measurement material than it can allow (i.e show) fell. With very close characteristics, to the extent single picture. This also requires continuing work that they are not statistically distinct, there are two with species that have wide and high rays and (very rarely three) species. These groups are ob- where a microscopic photograph is not enough. tained in this form in one division (for example, on When dividing groups add the size of the cross average). In the second division, however, such section of the radiant cells. species differ sufficiently that they are not close in our assumptions. References In the specific situation we accept all tested 1. Bardarov, N. Determination of tree species accord- species for tabular. This is because we do not have ing to the anatomical markings of wood. Publishing such wood in stock (like most labs) and do not fall house at University of Forestry. Sofia. 2014. 2. Core, H., Cote, W., Day, A. Wood – structure and in our measurements at 5% accuracy indicator. identification. Syracuse University Press. New When we have to recognize a pattern, we compare York. 1979 it to them. 3. Greguss, P. Identification of living Gymnosperms In some cases, the available statistics may not on the basis of xylotomy. Akademiai Kiado. Buda- be sufficient. Then, besides grouping, you can use pest. 1955. the Man-Whitney test. Of course, in the complete 4. Grosser, D. Die Holzer Mitteleuropas. Springer- analysis of the construction of the wood, the marks Verlag. Munchen. 1977. of the other incisions are also included. 5. Richter, H., Dallwitz, M. Commercial Timbers: De- scriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Informa- tion Retrieval. [http://delta- Conclusions intkey.com/wood/en/index.htm]. Using the existing principles of categorization 6. Wagenfuhr, R., Scheiber, C. Holzatlas. VEB and the new way of recording the dimensions of the Fachbuchverlag. Leipzig, 1996. wood rays, much more information can be ex- 7. Wagenfuhr, R. Anatomie des Holzes. VEB Fachbuchverlag. Leipzig. 1984.

ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ НА СТАТИСТИЧЕСКИТЕ ПОКАЗАТЕЛИ НА РАЗМЕРИТЕ НА СЪРЦЕВИННИТЕ ЛЪЧИ

Николай Бърдаров Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Характеристиките на сърцевинните лъчи най-често се определят лесно и точно. Макар да са малко (само размери и гъстота), те дават подробна информация за строежа на дървесината в тангенциален разрез. Дървес- ните видове обаче са твърде много и само по тези характеристики не може да се определи принадлежността на изследваната дървесина към определен дървесен вид. Освен това често има много разлики между литературни- те стойности и измерените в конкретния случай. В работата се търси степента на вариране на размерите на сърцевинните лъчи. Лъчите са групирани в зависимост от широчината им. Направен е статистически анализ на стойностите на размерите на сърцевинните лъчи. За сравнение е използван методът на Ман-Уитни.

Ключови думи: дървесина, сърцевинни лъчи.

75 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

ИННОВАЦИИ, ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-КОММУНИКАЦИОННАЯ СФЕРА И НЕМАТЕРИАЛЬНОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КАК СОСТАВЛЯЮЩИЕ РАЗВИТИЯ ЭКОНОМИК СТРАН МИРА

Наталья Скоробогатова, Сергей Войтко Национальный технический университет Украины „Киевский политехнический институт имени Игоря Сикорского”, Киев, Украина

Резюме

В данной статье исследована динамика изменения структуры валового внутреннего продукта в разрезе промышленность, сельское хозяйство, услуги и др. Выявлена тенденция роста удельного веса нематериального производства в масштабе мировой экономики, экономики стран ЕС и Украины. Доказано, что на формирование объемов и структуры валового продукта каждой страны влияют свои специфические факторы. На основе исполь- зования методов математической статистики выявлены определяющие факторы формирования национального производства. Доказано, что в условиях современной экономики все большую роль в материальном и нематери- альном производстве влияют информационно-коммуникационные услуги, что вызывает повышенный риск кибе- ругроз. Выявлено отсутствие единого подхода к формированию кибербезопасности стран-лидеров инновацион- ного развития.

Ключевые слова: структура ВВП, экономическое развитие, добавленная стоимость, нематериальное произ- водство, инновации, кибербезопасность. Key words: GDP structure, economic development, value added, intangible production, innovation, cybersecurity.

JEL: E20, F29, O13.

Введение Целью данного исследования является Проблема разработки и реализации страте- выявление влияния инноваций, информацион- гии экономического развития государства явля- ного-коммуникационной сферы и нематериаль- ется актуальной в любой исторической эпохе. ного производства на развитие экономик стран Вопросами формирования эффективной эконо- мира. Для достижения данной цели были пос- мической стратегии на макроуровне занимались тавлены и решены следующие задания: выя- такие ученые, как Л. Довгань, Ю. Каракай, Л. вить закономерности формирования структуры Артеменко [5], Я. Жалило [6], М. Портер [7], а валового внутреннего продукта стран мира в также другие ученые. Однако, реалии совре- абсолютном и относительном измерении; оце- менной экономики накладывают специфические нить влияние инноваций и информационно- условия на развитие и благополучие той или коммуникационных технологий на благосостоя- иной страны. ние разных стран. Ограниченность природных ресурсов способ- Объектом исследования является процесс ствует усовершенствованию существующих формирования валового внутреннего продукта технологий, разработке новых, а также посте- разных стран с учетом различных определяю- пенному переходу от первичных отраслей про- щих факторов. Предмет исследования – теоре- изводства к высокотехнологичным, активному тико-методические и практические аспекты оце- развитию нематериального производства. нивания влияния инноваций, информационно- При этом все большее значение в современ- коммуникационных технологий и нематериаль- ном обществе занимают информационно- ного производства на развитие экономик стран коммуникационные технологии, которые позво- мира. ляют повысить производительность и эффек- В процессе исследования были использо- тивность производства. А это, в свою очередь, ваны общенаучные и специальные методы, ос- приводит к перераспределению структуры вало- новными из которых являются следующие: ком- вого произведенного продукта, как в мировом паративного динамического анализа (использо- масштабе, так и в разрезе каждого государства. ван для выявления зависимостей формирова- Изучение факторов и предпосылок формирова- ния структуры валового внутреннего продукта ния структуры валового продукта с целью пов- различных стран), факторного анализа (исполь- ышения конкурентоспособности национальной зован для идентификации факторов, определя- экономики позволяет разработать эффективную ющих структуры валового внутреннего продукта), стратегию развития государства. корреляционного анализа (использован оценки влияния инноваций, информационно-

76 Наталья Скоробогатова, Сергей Войтко

коммуникационных технологий на экономику Как показывают результаты проведенного стран мира, а также для оценивания влияния динамического анализа макроэкономических киберугроз на экономику страны). Результаты показателей, в течение 1991–2015 гг. наблюда- исследования, выводы и рекомендации обосно- ется рост добавленной стоимости всех состав- ваны на основе комплексного подхода. ляющих ВВП: промышленность, сельское хо- зяйство, нематериальное производство (фиг. 1). 1. Анализ структуры валового внутреннего Данная тенденция наблюдается как на уровне продукта мировой экономики глобальной экономики, так и среди стран Евро- Выходными взяты данные Всемирного банка пейского Союза (ЕС), Украины. Следует отме- [1]. Авторами проанализирована структура ва- тить, что если рост указанных составляющих лового внутреннего продукта (ВВП) в динамике ВВП в масштабах глобальной экономики имеет за период 1991–2016 гг. в разрезе: мировая эко- более поступательных характер, то в странах номика, Европейский Союз, Украина. Графичес- ЕС присутствуют колебания значений макроэко- кое изображение результатов представлено на номических показателей. фиг. 1.

а) б)

в) Источник: [1]. Фиг. 1. Динамика структуры ВВП в дол. США а) Динамика ВВП – мировая тенденция, б) Динамика ВВП – Европейский Союз, в) Динамика ВВП – Украина

Особенно нестабильной в анализируемом лом в экономике Украины наблюдается положи- периоде является экономическая ситуация в тельная линия тренда (фиг. 1в). Украине (фиг. 1в): кризисные 1998–1999 гг. и В целях исключения влияния фактора инф- 2007–2008 гг., военная агрессия Российской Фе- ляции, колебаний курса национальных валют дерации и аннексия Крыма 2014 г. и по сегод- была также проанализирована структура ВВП в няшний день приводят к резкому снижению ВВП относительных показателях (фиг. 2). в разрезе всех его составляющих. Однако, нес- Что касается удельного для веса каждой из мотря на влияние негативных факторов, в це- составляющих (промышленность, сельские хо-

77 ИННОВАЦИИ, ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-КОММУНИКАЦИОННАЯ СФЕРА И НЕМАТЕРИАЛЬНОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КАК …

зяйство, услуги и т.д.) в ВВП, то тут прослежи- структуры ВВП в процентном соотношении так- вается четкая тенденция роста нематериально- же демонстрирует определенную волатильнос- го производства как в разрезе глобальной эко- тью экономического развития Украины. номики, так и среди стран ЕС и Украины. Анализ

а) б)

в) Источник: [1]. Фиг. 1. Динамика структуры ВВП в % а) Структура ВВП – мировая тенденция, б) Структура ВВП – Европейский Союз, в) Структура ВВП – Украи- на

2. Влияние инноваций на экономическое ‒ Северная Америка: США, Канада; развитие государства ‒ Латинская Америка и Карибский бассейн: Ежегодный рейтинг инновационного развития, Чили, Коста-Рика, Мексика; который составляется для 127 стран мира на ‒ Европа: Швейцария, Швеция, Нидер- основе Глобального индекса инноваций [3], поз- ланды; воляет определить позицию того или иного го- ‒ Юго-Восточная Азия, Восточная Азия и сударства в данном направлении в сравнении с Океания: Сингапур, Республика Корея, другими. Так, согласно данных [3], в десятку ли- Япония; деров инновационного развития за 2017 г. вош- ‒ Центральная и Южная Азия: Индия, Иран, ли Швейцария (67,7), Швеция (63,8), Нидер- Казахстан; ланды (63,4), США (61,4), Соединенное Коро- ‒ Северная Африка и Западная Азия: Из- левство (60,9), Дания (58,7), Сингапур (58,7), раиль, Кипр, ОАЭ; Финляндия (58,5), Германия (58,4), Ирландия ‒ Страны Африки к Югу от Сахары: Южная (58,1). Если учитывать распределение лидеров Африка, Маврикий, Кения. по регионам, то картина выглядит следующим образом:

78 Наталья Скоробогатова, Сергей Войтко

Группы стран по уровню дохода представ- удельным весом нематериального производства лены следующими лидерами инновационного в структуре ВВП являются одновременно и бо- развития: лее инновационными. Поскольку сфера услуг ‒ страны с высоким уровнем дохода: Швей- имеет большую добавленную стоимость, чем цария, Швеция, Нидерланды; сельское хозяйство и промышленность, то и ‒ страны с уровнем дохода выше среднего: макроэкономические показатели таких стран Китай, Болгария, Малайзия; будут лучше, чем у других стран соответствую- ‒ страны с уровнем дохода ниже среднего: щей группы. Данное утверждение подтверждает Вьетнам, Украина, Монголия; корреляционный анализ статистических данных, ‒ страны с низким уровнем дохода: Танза- представленных в базе Всемирного центра ния, Руанда, Сенегал. данных по геоинформатике и устойчивому раз- Анализ представленных данных позволяет витию [2] (табл. 1). сделать вывод о том, что страны с большим

Табл. 1. Корреляционный анализ основных показателей стран-лидеров инновационного развития и Укра- ины Глобальный ин- Коэффициент кор- Коэффициент кор- Коэффициент кор- Страны декс инноваций реляции между І и реляции между І и реляции между І и (позиция в рейтинге) 1 1 1 [3] І2 (*) І3 (*) І5 (*) 1. Швейцария 67,7 0,536 0,679 0,729 2. Швеция 63,8 0,226 0,418 0,652 3. Нидерланды 63,4 0,176 -0,146 0,787 4. США 61,4 0,782 0,903 0,962 5. Соединенное Коро- 60,9 0,101 0,363 0,698 левство 6. Дания 58,7 0,523 0,281 0,679 7. Сингапур 58,7 0,965 0,984 0,930 8. Финляндия 58,5 0,264 0,462 0,355 9. Германия 58,4 0,000 0,405 0,295 10. Ирландия 58,1 0,222 0,862 0,697 .... … ...... 33. Латвия 44,6 0,518 0,597 0,922 34. Словакия 43,4 0,667 0,724 0,981 35. Объединенные … 43,2 … … Арабские Эмираты 36. Болгария 42,8 0,123 0,744 0,960 37. Малайзия 42,7 0,768 0,840 0,968 38. Польша 42,0 0,426 0,718 0,906 ... … ...... 50. Украина 37,6 0,588 0,981 0,159 ...... 127. Йемен 15,6 -0,785 -0,792 -0,735 (*) – рассчитано авторами на основании данных [1].

Для анализа было выбрано 141 государство, ределить взнос сельского хозяйства в математической обработке подлежали данные ВВП; за период с 2004 по 2016 годы, а именно: ‒ промышленность, добавленная стои- ‒ валовый внутренний продукт на душу на- мость (І3) – включает добавленную стои- селения (І1) – сумма валовой добавлен- мость в горнодобывающей промышлен- ной стоимости всех производителей- ности, производстве, строительстве, резидентов плюс налоги на продукты и электроэнергии, воде и газе. Аналогично минус субсидии с учетом численности предыдущему показателю, учитывает населения; чистый результат и определяет взнос ‒ сельское хозяйство, добавленная стои- промышленности в ВВП; мость (І2) – включает в себя лесное хо- ‒ количество пользователей интернета (І4) зяйство, охоту и рыболовство, выращи- – данный показатель позволяет оценить вание сельскохозяйственных культур и степень распространенности и доступ- животноводства. Добавленная стоимость ности ИКТ, интернета в частности; учитывает только чистый результат сек- ‒ индекс развития ИКТ (І5) – показатель, тора. Данный показатель позволяет оп- характеризующий достижения стран мира

79 ИННОВАЦИИ, ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-КОММУНИКАЦИОННАЯ СФЕРА И НЕМАТЕРИАЛЬНОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КАК …

с точки зрения развития информационно- хозяйством и ВВП на душу населения не сущес- коммуникационных технологий (ИКТ), ко- твенна (коэффициент корреляции меньше 0,5). торые являются полем внедрения инно- В этих странах промышленность оказывает ваций в современной экономическом большее на ВВП, что свидетельствует о высо- пространстве; ком уровне индустриального развития. Исклю- ‒ глобальный индекс кибербезопасности чения составляют США и Сингапур, которые (І6) – оценивается уровень кибербезопас- сохраняют баланс между промышленностью и ности государств по пяти основным пока- сельским хозяйством, которые одинаково су- зателям: законодательная база, техни- щественно влияют на ВВП этих стран. Экономи- ческие данные, организационные воп- ческий уклад Нидерландов имеет свою специ- росы, повышение качества и кооперация. фику, что проявляется в отсутствии взаимо- Поскольку в настоящее время каждый связи между ВВП и сельским хозяйством, пром- субъект хозяйствования, государствен- ышленостью. ные органы, домохозяйства и др. так или В то же время, практически во всех странах, иначе связаны с глобальной сетью, вели- находящихся в первой трети по уровню иннова- ка важность защиты от киберугроз и ки- ционного развития, прослеживается существен- бератак. Чем более инновационные тех- ная связь между индексом развития ИКТ и ВВП. нологии внедряют компании, тем больше Такая ситуация свидетельствует о высокой сте- риск влияния данных негативных факто- пени зависимости социально-экономической ров. Для оценки кибербезопасности в сферы от информатизации общества. К сожале- разрезе отдельных стран предлагаем ис- нию, несмотря на активизацию внедрения ИКТ в пользовать данный индекс. Украине в течение последних лет, данные тех- Анализ данных, представленных в табл. 1, нологии не являются определяющими при фор- показывает, что в странах, являющихся лиде- мировании ВВП нашей страны. рами в сфере инноваций, связь между сельским

Табл. 2. Корреляционный анализ показателей распространения ИКТ и кибербезопасности Страны Глобальный индекс Коэффициент корреля- Коэффициент корреля- (позиция в рейтинге) инноваций [3] ции между І5 и І4 (*) ции между І5 и І6 (*) 1. Швейцария 67,7 0,948 0,743 2. Швеция 63,8 0,789 -0,569 3. Нидерланды 63,4 0,878 0,961 4. США 61,4 0,872 0,966 5. Соединенное Королев- 60,9 0,981 0,822 ство 6. Дания 58,7 0,895 -0,693 7. Сингапур 58,7 0,922 0,961 8. Финляндия 58,5 0,954 -0,600 9. Германия 58,4 0,967 -0,829 10. Ирландия 58,1 0,958 0,890 .... … ...... 33. Латвия 44,6 0,959 0,693 34. Словакия 43,4 0,981 -0,960 35. Объединенные Араб- 43,2 … … ские Эмираты 36. Болгария 42,8 0,978 0,951 37. Малайзия 42,7 0,940 0,903 38. Польша 42,0 0,960 0,896 ... … ...... 50. Украина 37,6 0,945 0,945 ...... 127. Йемен 15,6 0,967 0,254 (*) – рассчитано авторами на основании данных [1].

Как показывают данные табл. 2, практически реальности. С изобретением смартфонов любой во всех странах, принимающих участие в нашем пользователь мобильной связи имеет практи- исследовании, прослеживается сильная взаи- чески постоянный доступ в интернет. мосвязь между количеством интернет-пользо- В то же время, как уже упоминалось ранее, вателей и развитием ИКТ, что соответствует повсеместное распространение ИКТ вызывает

80 Наталья Скоробогатова, Сергей Войтко

высокий риск киберугроз. Согласно данных стоимость, чем промышленность и сельское хо- Международного союза электросвязи (ITU), еже- зяйство. годно публикуется рейтинг – „Глобальный ин- Развитие материального и нематериального декс кибербезопасности” [4]. По результатам производства неразрывно связано з развитием опроса оценивается уровень кибербезопасности ИКТ, особенно сильно данная взаимосвязь государств по пяти основным показателям: за- прослеживается среди стран-лидеров иннова- конодательная база, технические данные, орга- ционного развития. низационные вопросы, повышение качества и Вместе с проникновением ИКТ в экономичес- кооперация. В 2017 году индекс включал 193 кую систему стран повышается уровень кибер- страны. Первое место в „Глобальном индексе угроз. Но в мировой практике не существует кибербезопасности” занял Сингапур, далее сле- единого подхода к формированию политики ки- дуют США и Малайзия. На последнем месте бербезопасности стран, не зависимо от уровня рейтинга находится Экваториальная Гвинея [4]. развития страны и распространения в ней ИКТ. Проведенное исследование показало, что в Дальнейшие исследования предполагают данном направлении отсутствует однозначная систематизацию принципов и методов разра- точка зрения. Так, например, часть стран- ботки стратегии кибербезопасности Украины. лидеров среди инноваторов имеет существенную прямую взаимосвязь между развитием ИКТ и ки- Литература бербезопасностью (Швейцария, Нидерланды, 1. Всемирный банк. Официальный сайт. США, Соединенное Королевство, Сингапур, Ир- [http://www.worldbank.org/] 2. Всемирный центр данных по геоинформатике и ландия), другая же половина, наоборот, абсо- устойчивому развитию. [http://wdc.org.ua]. лютно противоположное влияние (Швеция, Дания, 3. Глобальный индекс инноваций. Финляндия, Германия). Очевидно стратегия ки- [https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/analysis- бербезопасности каждой страны разрабатывает- indicator]. ся с учетом индивидуальной специфики и не 4. Глобальный индекс кибербезопасности. имеет единого правила. Что же касается Украины, [https://digital.report/globalnyiy-indeks- то тут несущественное влияние ИКТ на ВВП, од- kiberbezopasnosti-ot-itu-gruziya-i-rossiya-voshli-v- нако, согласно официальных рейтингов, присутс- top-10/]. твует тесная взаимосвязь между ИКТ и кибербе- 5. Довгань, Л., Каракай, Ю., Артеменко, Л. Страте- гическое управление: учебное пособие. Изд. зопаснотью. „Центр учебной литературы”. Киев. 2009. 440 стр. 6. Жалило, Я. Экономическая стратегия государ- Выводы ства: теория, методология, практика. Изд. Результаты проведенного исследования сви- НИСИ. Киев. 2003. 368 стр. детельствуют о том, что в мировой экономике 7. Портер, М. Стратегия конкуренции: перевод с растет удельный вес нематериального произ- англ. Изд. „Основа”. Киев. 1998. 236 стр. водства, которое имеет большую добавленную

INNOVATIONS, INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SPHERE AND NON- MATERIAL PRODUCTION AS THE DEVELOPMENT COMPONENTS OF THE ECONOMY OF THE WORLD'S COUNTRIES

Natalia Skorobogatova, Sergii Voitko National Technical University of Ukraine „Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute”, Kyiv, Ukraine

Abstract

In this article, the dynamics of changes in the structure of the gross domestic product in the context of industry, agriculture, services, etc. has been studied. The tendency of growth in the relative importance of intangible production on the scale of the world economy, the economies of the EU and Ukraine has been revealed. It is proved that the formation of the volumes and structure of the gross product of each country is influenced by its specific factors. Based on the use of methods of mathematical statistics, the determining factors for the formation of national production have been identified. It is proved that in the conditions of the modern economy information and communication services play an increasingly important role in material and non-material production, which causes an increased risk of cyber threats. The lack of a unified approach to the formation of cybersecurity of the countries-leaders of innovative development is revealed.

81 УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЯ АЭРОВОКЗАЛЬНОГО КОМПЛЕКСА МОСКОВСКОГО МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО АЭРОПОРТА ДОМОДЕДОВО

Евгений Сафонов1, Сергей Кирсанов1, Галина Паламаренко1, Бо Ванг2 1 Российский государственный гуманитарный университет (Домодедово), Московская обл., Российская Федерация 2 Технологический университет, Нингбо, Китай

Резюме

В настоящее время совершенствование системы управления по предоставлению услуг является ключевым фактором в борьбе за потребителя, что в полной мере относится к аэропортовой деятельности. В статье рас- смотрена деятельность „Аэровокзального комплекса „Домодедово””, которое создано в целях реализации прог- рамм развития и совершенствования процессов, связанных с обслуживанием пассажиров, а также эффективного использования и модернизации аэровокзального комплекса московского международного аэропорта Домодедо- во. Развитие аэропортового комплекса Домодедово происходит темпами, значительно превышающими средние показатели по отрасли. На сегодняшний день Международный аэропорт Домодедово является вторым по вели- чине аэропортом в Восточной Европе по пассажиропотоку и ведущим аэропортом в московском авиационном узле по грузообработке. Стоит отметить, что аэровокзальный комплекс Домодедово стал первым пассажирским терминалом аэропорта в России, получившим сертификат ISO 9001:2000. Достижение столь значительных ре- зультатов стало возможным благодаря активной инвестиционной политике АПК Домодедово, направленной на реконструкцию и переоснащение аэропорта на базе передовых мировых технологий (например, была завершена реконструкция вышки контрольно-диспетчерского пункта, которая позволила повысить качество и безопасность управления авиалайнерами в зоне аэродрома). Среди технологических конкурентных преимуществ аэропорта отметим: высокую пропускную способность аэродромного комплекса: Домодедово – единственный аэропорт МАУ с двумя независимыми параллельными ВПП, обеспечивающими одновременное и независимое приземление; высококачественное покрытие обоих ВПП обеспечивает возможность принимать любые типы и модели ВС; цен- трализованную систему подачи топлива на 31 место стоянки ВС; новый реконструированный пассажирский тер- минал Домодедово – современный комплекс для обслуживания пассажиров. Наиболее актуальная проблема в деятельности по обслуживанию пассажиров в аэропортах России – отсутствие общих инструментов оценки уров- ня качества аэропортовых услуг. Успешное развитие аэропортов в части качественного оказания услуг может быть достигнуто за счет разработки единой модели и методики для оценки уровня качества оказываемых услуг. Отметим, что в последние годы, несмотря на проблемы развития аэродромной сети гражданской авиации Рос- сии, рынок аэропортовых услуг Московского авиационного узла, и в первую очередь, аэропорта Домодедово, динамично развивался. Необходимы дальнейшие последовательные действия по созданию инфраструктурных условий и повышению конкурентоспособности на международном рынке аэропортовых услуг с целью удовлетво- рения потребностей пассажиров в воздушных перевозках.

Ключевые слова: аэровокзальный комплекс, аэропортовые услуги. Key words: air terminal complex, airport services.

JEL: М21.

Введение В. Спивак, В. Томилов, Ф. Хедоури, М. Шишкина, Стремительное формирование рынка услуг и Дж. Эванс, И. Яковлев и др. усиливающееся конкурентное давление со сто- Необходимо продолжение исследований роны других фирм делают вопросы развития комплекса внутренних и внешних систем управ- системы управления на предприятиях сферы ления организацией, образующих неразрывное услуг особенно актуальными, поскольку их ус- коммуникативное пространство фирмы и сос- пешное решение становится важным фактором, тавляющих „материю” управления предприяти- во многом определяющим конкурентоспособ- ем. ность и выживание предприятия на рынке. В работе использованы методы проектного Проблемы теории управления, подходы к управления, системного анализа и управления, формированию управления в сфере маркетинга, прогнозирования и моделирования экономичес- проблемы формирования имиджа предприятий ких процессов. разрабатывались многими учеными и практика- ми, в числе которых С. Блэк, Ж-П. Бодуан, Г. Развитие аэропорта „Домодедово” Брум, Ф. Буари, А. Вайсман, Дж. Вернет, В. Глу- Развиваясь бурными темпами, Домодедово хов, М. Кастельс, Ф. Котлер, Ю .Красовский, Ж.- стал крупнейшим аэропортом России и Восточ- Ж. Ламбен, М. Мескон, С. Мориарти А. Сентер, ной Европы, лидером пассажирских перевозок.

82 Евгений Сафонов, Сергей Кирсанов, Галина Паламаренко, Бо Ванг

Стратегия активного развития позволила Домо- оснащен самым современным радиотехничес- дедово предложить авиакомпаниям-партнерам ким и светосигнальным оборудованием, что и пассажирам широкий спектр услуг, качество позволяет аэропорту принимать и отправлять которых соответствует высочайшим европейс- воздушные суда практически в любую погоду. ким стандартам. В современном высокотехноло- Аэропорт Домодедово, единственный в России, гичном терминале созданы максимально ком- имеет две параллельные взлетно-посадочные фортные условия для предполетного пребыва- полосы на расстоянии двух километров друг от ния пассажиров. Инфраструктура аэропорта друга, что делает возможным их одновременное находится в постоянном развитии, открываются независимое использование. Обе ВПП серти- новые кафе, магазины, рестораны, кинотеатры. фицированы по категории ICAO CAT IIIА – это Аэродромный комплекс аэропорта Домодедово высшая категория сертификации [26]. сегодня является одним из лучших в России по Отметим, что аэропорты, имеющие две и бо- своему оснащению и уровню развития инфраст- лее ВПП, позволяют более эффективно исполь- руктуры. Он рассчитан на прием всех типов пас- зовать возможности по увеличению пассажиро- сажирских и грузовых самолетов, включая и потока. В табл. 1 приведены данные по неко- таких гигантов, как A-380 и Ан-124. Домодедово торым крупным аэропортам мира [20].

Табл. 1. Информация по пассажиропотокам, количеству взлетно-посадочных полос и др. по некоторым аэропортам мира Итоги 2002 г. Количество Наименование аэропорта, страна Площадь, га Пассажиров, млн. Грузов, тыс.т. ВПО, тыс. ИВПП Атланта, США 76,8 734 890 4 (паралл.) 1518 Чикаго, США 65,1 1436 922 7 2832 Орландо, США 26,7 218 288 4 (паралл.) 5869 Нью-Йорк, США (им. Дж. Ф. Кеннеди) 29,9 1914 287 4 1995 Хитроу, Англия 63,4 1234 461 3 1200 Мюнхен, ФРГ 23,3 н/д 319 2 (паралл.) 1500 Шарль де Голль, Франция 71,5 1750 709 4 3100

С вопросами нехватки пропускных способ- ранные, 28 – российские, 14 – из стран СНГ. ностей взлетно-посадочных полос уже столкну- Маршрутная сеть аэропорта включает 211 нап- лись в ряде базовых узловых аэропортов. Воз- равлений по всему миру. Если в 2008 году услу- можности строительства новых ВПП жестко гами международного аэропорта Домодедово ограничены законами об окружающей среде и воспользовалось около 20 миллионов пассажи- отсутствием соответствующих зарезервиро- ров, то в 2016 г. уже более 28 миллионов. ванных площадей. В этой ситуации расширение Так, Московский аэропорт Домодедово летом пропускной способности других аэропортовых 2017 года обслужил более 10 млн пассажиров, объектов, например, пассажирских терминалов что на 6,2% превышает показатель аналогично- и других, становится бессмысленным. С такими го периода прошлого года. Пассажиропоток на проблемами столкнулись ведущие аэропорты, внутрироссийских рейсах за этот период соста- такие как Хитроу (Лондон), Орли, Шарль де вил 5,3 млн человек. В числе наиболее востре- Голль (Париж), Амстердам, Франкфурт, Нарита бованных маршрутов – Сочи, Санкт-Петербург, (Токио) и др. Новосибирск, Краснодар и Анапа. На междуна- Благодаря транспортной доступности, родных направлениях самые высокие показате- удобным стыковкам, широкой маршрутной сети ли пассажиропотока зафиксированы в Анталью. и множеству уникальных направлений Домоде- В числе самых популярных зарубежных марш- дово привлекателен для клиентов не только как рутов также Тиват, Барселона, Бургас, Ларнака, конечный аэропорт своего путешествия, но и как Франкфурт, Дубай. крупный стыковочный узел, через который мож- Международное рейтинговое агентство Fitch но улететь более чем по 200 направлениям Ratings подтвердило кредитный рейтинг Мос- России, стран СНГ и мира. ковского аэропорта Домодедово на уровне Сегодня аэропорт Домодедово – лидер по „ВВ+”, присвоив „стабильный” прогноз. Fitch объему пассажирских перевозок среди аэропор- Ratings отмечает, что структура выручки аэро- тов России, его доля в общем пассажиропотоке порта диверсифицирована, что придает бизнесу московского авиационного узла составляет бо- Группы DME устойчивость. Домодедово обла- лее 47%. На сегодняшний день из Домодедово дает наиболее разветвленной маршрутной совершают полеты 78 перевозчиков: 36 – иност- сетью в Московском авиационном узле и пре-

83 МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЯ АЭРОВОКЗАЛЬНОГО КОМПЛЕКСА МОСКОВСКОГО МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО АЭРОПОРТА ДОМОДЕДОВО

доставляет авиакомпаниям-партнерам широкий систем и коммуникаций аэровокзального спектр услуг, что выражается в устойчивой комплекса; структуре доходов [16]. ‒ предоставление помещений в зданиях На направлениях внутренних воздушных ли- аэровокзала и комплекса деловой авиа- ний с начала 2017 года также наблюдается ус- ции в аренду; тойчивый рост. За восемь месяцев число путе- ‒ предоставление в аренду рекламных но- шествующих по стране через аэропорт Домоде- сителей в здании аэровокзала и на при- дово составило 11,6 млн человек, что на 2,2% легающей территории, включая феде- больше чем в 2016 году. Из них в августе было ральную автодорогу. обслужено 1,9 млн пассажиров. Среди самых Для решения этих задач предприятие приме- быстрорастущих направлений последнего лет- няет передовые технологии, многие из которых него месяца – Краснодар, Калининград, Уфа, были внедрены впервые в России и Московском Махачкала, Сабетта. авиационном узле, в частности. В январе–августе 2017 года также зафикси- В 2004 году была начата реализация широ- ровано увеличение грузоперевозок через аэро- комасштабной программы по расширению пло- порт Домодедово. За восемь месяцев грузопо- щадей и увеличению пропускной способности ток составил 98 509 тонн, что на 12,4% больше, аэровокзального комплекса. В результате реа- чем в аналогичный период прошлого года [25]. лизации этой программы, площадь аэровокзала Московский аэропорт Домодедово подвел была увеличена до 123 000 кв. м., а к концу 2008 итоги ежемесячного конкурса пунктуальности г. достигла 220 000 кв. м, количество стоек ре- среди авиакомпаний-партнеров. Самыми точн- гистрации возросло с 64 до 132 единиц. ыми перевозчиками в августе 2017 года стали: Аэровокзальный комплекс Домодедово S7 Airlines, „РусЛайн”, „Северсталь”, ЮВТ АЭ- первым в России предложил авиакомпаниям РО, Aegean Airlines, British Airways, Singapore технологии трансферных перевозок, основан- Airlines, Etihad Airways. Пунктуальность авиа- ные на рекомендациях ICAO (International Civil компаний оценивается в восьми категориях, на Aviation Organization – Международная органи- которые перевозчики делятся в зависимости от зация гражданской авиации) и IATA (International частоты выполнения рейсов и максимальной Air Transport Association – Международная ассо- взлетной массы воздушного судна. Кроме того, циация воздушного транспорта). Эффективное Московский аэропорт Домодедово принял учас- осуществление трансферных стыковок стало тие в World Routes Forum 2017 – форуме по раз- возможным благодаря тому, что обслуживание витию авиамаршрутов для представителей аэ- международных и внутренних рейсов произво- ропортов, авиакомпаний и туристических орга- дится в Домодедово в рамках единого термина- низаций, который состоялся в Барселоне. Деле- ла. гаты от Домодедово провели ряд встреч с пред- В аэропорту Домодедово, впервые среди аэ- ставителями авиакомпаний и аэропортов из ропортов Московского авиационного узла, при разных стран. Итоги переговоров подтвердили обслуживании международных и внутренних положительную динамику рынка междуна- рейсов стали использоваться телескопические родных авиаперевозок [16]. трапы (телетрапы). На сегодняшний день аэро- порт располагает тремя десятками телетрапов, Анализ деятельности „Аэровокзального включая мосты с двумя телетрапами, предназ- комплекса „Домодедово”” наченными для обслуживания воздушных судов „Аэровокзальный комплекс „Домодедово”” большой вместимости (типа В-747, B-767, B-777, создан в целях реализации программ развития и A-340, A-330 и т.п.). совершенствования процессов, связанных с Интеллектуальная система управления зда- обслуживанием пассажиров, а также эффектив- нием BMS (Building Management System) в авто- ного использования и модернизации аэровок- матическом режиме контролирует около 30 000 зального комплекса Московского международно- точек внутри аэровокзального комплекса Домо- го аэропорта Домодедово. дедово (по завершении реконструкции пасса- Основные виды деятельности акционерного жирского терминала их число увеличится до общества: 60 000). Основная функция BMS – мониторинг и ‒ организация и обеспечение полного ком- управление инженерными и технологическими плекса работ по обслуживанию авиаком- системами аэровокзального комплекса (отопле- паний и пассажиров и обработке багажа ние, вентиляция, кондиционирование, освеще- на внутренних и международных воз- ние терминала, перрона, парковок, привокзаль- душных линиях; ной площади, система транспортировки багажа, ‒ эксплуатация торговых площадей и зда- лифты, эскалаторы), а также мониторинг пере- ний, сооружений, инженерно-технических мещений пассажиров в пределах терминала.

84 Евгений Сафонов, Сергей Кирсанов, Галина Паламаренко, Бо Ванг

Кроме того, применение BMS позволяет макси- туроператоров в аэропорту Домодедово дейст- мально использовать возможности энергосбе- вует туристическая зона, оснащенная 25 стой- режения. ками. В рамках программы по развитию информа- Для верующих на втором этаже аэровокзала ционного обслуживания пассажиров в Домоде- действуют православная часовня во имя Архан- дово внедрена и функционирует Система авто- гела Михаила и мечеть Сафар, что в переводе с матических объявлений (САО). Система, явля- арабского означает „Путешествие”. ющаяся уникальной разработкой, созданной в Кроме того, свои услуги предлагают бизнес- результате совместного сотрудничества рос- залы авиакомпаний British Airways, Swiss сийских и зарубежных компаний, с помощью International Air Lines, Austrian Airlines, Трансаэ- специальных программ осуществляет формиро- ро, S7 Airlines, AirUnion, а также UTG Travel Club вание речевых объявлений для пассажиров (для пассажиров авиакомпаний UTAir, Когалы- аэровокзала голосом профессионального дик- мавиа, Волга-Авиаэкпресс и Белавиа). тора о событиях, связанных с регистрацией Аэропорт связан со столицей железнодо- авиабилетов, оформлением багажа и изменени- рожным сообщением. Комфортабельный ско- ем статуса рейса. Уникальность системы обус- ростной электропоезд „Аэроэкспресс” доставля- ловлена многопотоковым вещанием (одновре- ет пассажиров из аэропорта до станции „Паве- менная подача до 16 объявлений в различные лецкая”. Гарантированное время в пути от аэро- зоны аэровокзала) и повышенной надежностью. порта до центра Москвы составляет 40 минут. В настоящее время, объявления подаются на Терминал на Павелецком вокзале оборудован 8 русском, английском азербайджанском, армянс- стойками регистрации и 23 авиакассами. Таким ком, иврите, испанском, итальянском, киргизс- образом, пассажиры имеют возможность заре- ком, китайском, немецком, норвежском, тайском, гистрироваться на рейс и оформить багаж, а узбекском, украинском, французском, хинди, также приобрести билеты на все направления. японском и других национальных языках стран Для удобства пассажиров, следующих из аэро- отправления и прибытия рейсов. Система поз- порта Домодедово в различные районы Москвы воляет организовать вещание на неограничен- или другие регионы страны, также организовано ном количестве языков. движение „Аэроэкспресса” до ключевых транс- Высокое качество услуг аэровокзала подт- портных пунктов столицы – станций „Курская”, верждено международными сертификатами. „Каланчевская” и „Белорусская”. Терминалу присвоена категория „С” по класси- Кроме того, совместно с авиакомпаниями- фикации (IATA). Аэровокзальный комплекс До- партнерами реализуются интермодальные модедово первым в России получил междуна- программы, позволяющие пассажирам макси- родный сертификат Системы менеджмента ка- мально сократить маршрутное время поездки из чества предприятия ISO 9001:2000 (International центра Москвы в другой город. Organization for Standardization – Международ- В рамках программы по повышению качества ная организация по стандартизации), что свиде- обслуживания в Аэровокзальном комплексе тельствует о высокой степени организации уп- Домодедово внедрена новая технология – элек- равления в компании, профессионализме сот- тронные стойки обратной связи, при помощи рудников, а также о наличии четко отлаженной которых клиенты аэропорта могут высказать процедуры контроля выполняемых работ. свои замечания, комментарии и предложения по На территории аэровокзального комплекса поводу предоставляемых в аэропорту услуг. действует круглосуточный интернет-центр, пре- Стойки расположены в общей зоне аэровокзала дусмотрена возможность выхода в сеть интер- и в галерее вылета международных воздушных нет с использованием технологии беспроводно- линий. го соединения (wi-fi). Последние годы рынок аэропортовых услуг В зоне ожидания действует DVD-кинотеатр, Московского авиационного узла динамично раз- оборудованный одно-, двух- и четырехместными вивался. Основными факторами, оказывающи- мини-залами с широкоэкранными телевизорами, ми влияние на состояние в отрасли, являются: DVD-плеерами, наушниками и удобными крес- ‒ набор предлагаемых клиентам услуг; лами. К услугам пассажиров – более 500 филь- ‒ уровень развития аэропортовой инфрас- мов различных жанров. труктуры и сервиса; Аэропорт Домодедово является лидером в ‒ уровень цен, устанавливаемый аэропор- Московском авиационном узле по обслужива- том. нию туристического сегмента авиационного Для отрасли в целом в последние годы было рынка. Для повышения качества обслуживания характерно значительное увеличение доли аэ- пассажиров чартерных и регулярных рейсов и ропорта „Домодедово” в общем объеме переве- создания благоприятных условий для работы зенных пассажиров. Прогнозируется, что в бли-

85 МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЯ АЭРОВОКЗАЛЬНОГО КОМПЛЕКСА МОСКОВСКОГО МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО АЭРОПОРТА ДОМОДЕДОВО

жайшие годы „Домодедово” обгонит „Шере- трассы А-105 и создание зон для стоянки об- метьево” по размеру доли рынка и станет лиде- щественного транспорта. ром Московского авиационного узла, так как Среди географических конкурентных преи- „Шереметьево” работает на пределе своих про- муществ аэропорта Домодедово можно выде- пускных способностей, а у „Домодедово” имеет- лить: ся ресурс для наращивания объема переве- ‒ удачное расположение ВПП – по направ- зенных пассажиров. лению господствующих ветров – дает на- Конечно, есть в работе аэропорта недостатки именьшее время закрытия по метеоусло- по обслуживанию авиапассажиров, среди ко- виям; торых следует отметить: невысокую пропускную ‒ удобство стыковочных рейсов: обработка способность притерминальной развязки; дли- транзитных пассажиров и грузов произ- тельное время прохождения пассажирами пунк- водится в одном терминале; тов контроля; отсутствие доступной информа- ‒ существует план строительства прямой ции об общественном транспорте и др. автотрассы к аэропорту; Московский аэропорт Домодедово планирует ‒ к аэропорту прилегает незастроенная построить притерминальную развязку, которая территория в 125 800 га земли. Она отно- разделит транспортные потоки „на вылет” и „на сительно равнинная и свободна от каких- прилет” и повысит транспортную доступность либо значительных застроек. аэропорта. Сооружение первой очереди двуху- На фиг. 1 представлена действующая струк- ровневой транспортной развязки синхронизиро- тура управления „Аэровокзальным комплексом вано со строительством нового сегмента пасса- „Домодедово””. Она представляет собой иерар- жирского терминала Т2. Оба объекта будут вве- хическую структуру и характеризуется линейно- дены в эксплуатацию к началу Чемпионата мира функциональными связями между работниками по футболу в 2018 г. Кроме того, для удобства аппарата управления. Руководство предприяти- пассажиров будет построена пешеходная гале- ем осуществляет генеральный директор, в ли- рея, которая соединит многоуровневый паркинг нейном подчинении к нему находятся замести- и Т2. Также предусмотрено расширение цент- тели по функциональным направлениям, конт- рального подъездного участка федеральной ролирующие соответствующие функциональные блоки.

Генеральный директор Секретарь референт

1-й заместитель генерального Сменные Зам.ген. Зам. ген. Зам. ген. директора по директора зам. ген. директ. директора экономике и финансам Секретарь директора по АНО по АБ

Директор Директор Директор Директор Директор Главный Директор Договорно- Помощн по по по по по бухгалтер по правовой ик перевозк производ- эксплуата- ПТ экономик кадровой отдел ген. ам ству ции е и директо социаль- ра ной по ОВ и Главный политике ЛП инженер

Отдел кадров СОПП ПДСП ЭСТОП СПТ Инспек- УВД Отряд ПЭО ОМТС ОБУФ ВАП ция ВОХР Здравпункт по БП База Коммер- СПАСОП Аэродро ЭРТОС ООТ и ОНД Ревизо ческий м Группа ЗП р ДТУ ГСМ склад досмот ССТ Штур- -ра ТАВС Канцелярия ТиСТО манс- ЦСВ Профила кая -кторий Спец- Культбыт ИВЦ группа отдел торий АХО Комме- рчески АМСГ Общежитие й РУ База отдыха

Техотдел Библиотека

СОК ОЭНС

Фиг. 1. Структура управления „Аэровокзальным комплексом „Домодедово””

Для осуществления основных функций по функции маркетинговой деятельности организа- оказанию услуг в организации создан коммер- ции. ческий отдел, который параллельно ведет и Руководством компании функции маркетинга

86 Евгений Сафонов, Сергей Кирсанов, Галина Паламаренко, Бо Ванг

разделены на две части: стратегические и теку- Первым шагом на пути создания службы щие. Выполнение первых взяло на себя высшее маркетинга на предприятии является определе- руководство компании, вторые функции испол- ние ее системы организации. Наиболее полно няются непосредственно коммерческим отде- современным требованиям отвечает организа- лом. ция службы маркетинга, представленная на Сбытовая стратегия „Аэровокзального комп- фиг. 2. лекса „Домодедово”” разрабатывается гене- Директор по ральным директором и предоставляется для маркетингу обсуждения на общем собрании учредителей общества. Им же утверждаются основные нап-

равления маркетинговой деятельности предп- Группа Группа Группа Группа рекламы и маркетингового маркетинговых экономического стимулирования риятия и бюджет коммерческого отдела. планирования и исследований анализа и ценовой сбыта контроля политики В соответствии со стратегией „лидера на рынке” руководство компании и строит свою сбытовую стратегию. Во главу угла поставлена Группа управления Группа разработки товарными марками новых услуг основная стратегическая цель – достижение максимальной прибыли путем наиболее полного удовлетворения потребностей потенциальных Фиг. 2. Организация службы маркетинга „Аэро- клиентов. вокзального комплекса „Домодедово”” (департамент маркетинга)

Совершенствование системы управления Основные принципы, которые предлагается „Аэровокзального комплекса „Домодедово”” заложить при создании службы маркетинга, Наиболее значимыми для высшего руководс- следующие: тва факторами, которые напрямую оказывают ‒ служба маркетинга организуется в виде воздействие на деятельность предприятия в самостоятельного подразделения (де- сфере услуг, является развитие маркетинговой партамента); и рекламной деятельности. ‒ департамент маркетинга имеет в своем Среди недостатков в организации управлен- составе группы (отделы), которые плани- ческой деятельности выделим отсутствие еди- руют, организуют и контролируют выпол- ного методологического подхода к маркетинго- нение определенных маркетинговых вой концепции компании; а также отсутствие функций компании; единой службы маркетинга на предприятии и ‒ в процессе своей деятельности департа- целенаправленной деятельности в области уп- менту маркетинга в специальном (функ- равления маркетинговой деятельностью. циональном) отношении подчиняются со- С методологической точки зрения, причиной ответствующие подразделения компании; всех выше приведенных недостатков и упуще- т.е. департамент маркетинга выполняет ний является недопонимание персоналом ком- роль своеобразного „интеллектуального пании роли и места маркетинга в управлении штаба” компании. предприятием, так как с точки зрения нижнего Предложенная структура департамента мар- уровня управления эти факторы не являются кетинга и уровень полномочий его сотрудников первостепенными. максимально адаптированы к особенностям и На наш взгляд, комплекс мероприятий по потребностям „Аэровокзального комплекса „До- преодолению сложившейся ситуации должен модедово”” на данном этапе деятельности. Не быть направлен на формирование единой исключено, что в процессе внедрения данного службы маркетинга, состоящей из высококва- предложения, понадобится пересматривать лифицированных специалистов–маркетологов. функции отдельных подразделений или вводить При подборе специалистов во вновь форми- дополнительные группы в сам департамент. руемую службу маркетинга, следует уделить

достаточно большое внимание профессиональ- Заключение ной подготовке и универсальности навыков В статье показано, что высокий уровень ка- новых сотрудников. Созданной службе марке- чества аэропортовых услуг в аэропорту Домо- тинга кроме чисто маркетинговых проблем при- дедово обеспечивается путем повышения уров- дется решать вопросы, связанные с перерасп- ня сервиса и культуры обслуживания пассажи- ределением функциональных обязанностей и ров. структурных взаимоотношений внутри компании, Принятие менеджментом аэропорта управ- вести разъяснительную работу среди сотрудни- ленческих решений по повышению и поддержа- ков о роли и месте маркетинга в современной нию уровня качества обслуживания пассажиров рыночной экономике.

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MODERNIZATION OF THE AIRPORT COMPLEX OF THE MOSCOW DOMODEDOVO INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Eugene Safonov1, Sergei Kirsanov1, Galina Palamarenko1, Bo Vang2 Russian State Humanitarian University (Domodedovo), Moscow Region, Russian Federation Technological University of Ningbo, China

Abstract

At present, the improvement of the management system for the provision of services is one of the most pressing factors in the struggle for the consumer, which fully relates to airport activities. In connection with the need to continue research into the complex of internal and external management systems of the enterprise, forming an inseparable commu- nicative space of the company and making up the „matter” of management, the article examines the activities of the Domodedovo Air Terminal Complex, which was created for the effective use and modernization of the airport complex at Domodedovo International Airport, as well as the implementation of programs for the development and improvement of processes related to passenger service. The methods of project management, system analysis and management, forecasting and modeling of economic processes were used in the work. The development of the Domodedovo airport complex is at a pace much higher than the industry average. Today, Domodedovo International Airport is the second largest airport in Eastern Europe for passenger traffic and the leading airport in the Moscow aviation hub for cargo handling. It should be noted that the Domodedovo airport terminal became the first passenger terminal of the airport in Russia, which received the ISO 9001: 2000 certificate. Achievement of such significant results became possible due to the active investment policy of the AIC Domodedovo aimed at the reconstruction and re-equipment of the airport on the basis of advanced world technologies (for example, the reconstruction of the tower of the control and dispatching station that allowed improving the quality and safety of airliner management in the terminal area) was completed. Among the technological competitive advantages of the airport are: high capacity of the airfield complex: Domodedovo is the only UIA with two independent parallel runways providing simultaneous and independent landing; high-quality coverage of both runways provides the ability to accept any types and models of aircraft; a centralized fuel supply system for 31 aircraft seats; Domodedovo new renovated passenger terminal – modern passenger service complex. Thus, the most actual problem in the service of passengers at airports in Russia is the lack of common tools for assessing the level of quality of airport services. The successful development of airports in terms of quality service delivery can be achieved through the development of a unified model and methodology for assessing the level of quality of services provided. It should be noted that in recent years, despite the problems of the development of the airfield network of Russian civil aviation, the market of airport services of the Moscow aviation hub, and primarily of Domodedovo airport, has been dynamically developing. Further sequential actions are needed to create infrastructure conditions and increase competitiveness in the international market of airport services in order to meet the needs of passengers in air transportation.