SINGAPORE, UNLIMITED
First published in 2020
Editor Ken Lee translators Heng Tien Tien Tan Wan Lin
This book is an adapted translation of the 2017 CLC publication , edited by Dr Liu Thai Ker, authored by Han Xin Yu and produced by Dr Lin Guangming and Wong Chock Fang.
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Published by The Centre for Liveable Cities First published in 2020
CLC is a division of cEntrE for livEaBlE citiEs Set up in 2008 by the Ministry of National Development and the then Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, the Centre for Liveable Cities (CLC) has as its mission ‘to distil, create and share knowledge on liveable and sustainable cities’. CLC’s work spans four main areas – research, capability development, knowledge platforms, and advisory. Through these activities, CLC hopes to provide urban leaders and practitioners with the knowledge and support needed to make our cities better. For more information, visit www.clc.gov.sg. for Production information, PlEasE contact: CLC Publications +65 66459560 Centre for Liveable Cities 45 Maxwell Road #07-01 The URA Centre Singapore 069118 [email protected]
Table of Contents
Foreword Introduction
1 The 1971 Concept Plan 01 2 Urban Renewal in the City Centre 11 3 Public Housing 25 4 Economic Transformation 39 5 A Wired Nation 53 6 The Port of Singapore 63 7 The Land Transport Network 73 8 The Mass Rapid Transit System 85 9 Singapore Changi Airport 99 10 Water Security 113 11 The Garden City 129
Bibliography 143 Singapore, Unlimited
Foreword Desmond Lee Minister for National Development Singapore Foreword
Singapore as we know it today is a modern The issues that Singapore faces today city, with well-planned districts and good are very diferent from what we faced more infrastructure amidst a quality living than fve decades ago. These include urban environment. Most of our resident population renewal, climate change, and most recently, stay in afordable, well-designed public ensuring that we can be a resilient city which housing, where they have easy access to can weather the storm of a pandemic. Though green spaces. This is a far cry from what these issues may seem less tangible in nature, Singapore used to be, when it was a challenge they are no less complex, and are just as to meet even basic needs such as clean water, important. We must hence fnd scalable and electricity and sanitation. sustainable solutions to address our new set of challenges, to ensure that Singapore can The transformation of Singapore from a third- continue to transform and progress with time. world country into a liveable and sustainable city-state came about through the concerted Singapore, Unlimited pays tribute to the efort of many, including long-term planning by vision and hard work of those who planned, ofcers from various government agencies and shaped and built modern Singapore, in spite strong support from Singaporeans. From the of the difcult historical, political and social development of Changi Airport to the cleaning constraints of the era. I hope that Singaporeans up of the Singapore River, our pioneering will be able to draw on the lessons from our past leaders and public ofcers displayed resilience, experiences, and values of our early planners, creativity, and sheer grit in overcoming to continue to build and develop Singapore into complex problems with daring and innovative an endearing home and a distinctive global city urban solutions. for future generations. Singapore, Unlimited
Introduction Khoo Teng Chye Executive Director * Centre for Liveable Cities
* Mr Khoo served as Executive Director of the Centre for Liveable Cities from July 2010 to December 2020. Introduction
In 2017, the Centre for Liveable Cities published reading the book, contacted us to request Xiao hongdian, da geju ( ), a additional copies for their superiors, Chinese language book that documented the colleagues and subordinates so that they, planning and development of modern Singapore. too, could acquire a better understanding and The book was the brainchild of the Centre’s then appreciation of Singapore. Chairman Dr Liu Thai Ker, and was authored by Singaporean writer Han Xin Yu. Assisting Ms Han By this measure, the book has been a big were two researchers from the Centre, Wong success. The positive response prompted us Chock Fang and Lin Guangming. to decide on publishing an English translation, so that it could reach a wider audience both in In putting together the book, the project Singapore and overseas. team interviewed thirteen individuals who had made signifcant contributions to the The result of this is Singapore, Unlimited, an country’s transformation into a leading global adapted translation of Xiao hongdian. It retains city. Among them were Singapore’s frst chief much of the original’s content, but is updated planner, an expert who advised the government with new research that yielded additional on the development of the Mass Rapid Transit information and details on Singapore’s System, and the country’s frst Commissioner urban changes, especially in recent years. of Parks. The team also conducted rigorous Appropriate adjustments have also been made research on Singapore’s development, poring to the narrative style and structure, so that the over countless primary documents, books and book would be clearer and more engaging to other materials. the English reader.
With Dr Liu’s guidance, Ms Han, Ms Wong Otherwise, both books share a common and Dr Lin put together an excellently researched objective: to document Singapore’s and written publication that accurately development not only through intensive documented Singapore’s development research but frst-person accounts of thirteen experience. The book was enriched by a strong pioneers who devoted so much of their personal angle that drew on the recollections professional lives to Singapore. I had the and anecdotes of the interviewees, and the honour and pleasure of working with some narrative skill of the author. of them, including as their subordinates in the public service. They were dedicated, Since its publication, we have given copies resourceful and hard-working, capably of Xiao hongdian to many visiting ofcials, translating the ambitious policy directions and experts and academics from Mainland China instructions of Singapore’s founding leaders and other Chinese-speaking countries who such as Mr Lee Kuan Yew, Dr Goh Keng Swee visited the Centre, as well as others whom and Mr Lim Kim San, into concrete plans and my colleagues and I met at meetings and outcomes that have improved the lives of conferences abroad. Many of them, after generations of Singaporeans.
Introduction
There are countless publications on At the Centre, we are continuing our eforts Singapore’s modern development. But there to come up with new insights on how cities are very few that transport the reader to the should develop and evolve. These eforts meeting rooms and corridors where many of build on the longstanding research we have the key policies that shaped our country were conducted into the key systems that contribute debated and decided on, and to the mudfats, to the liveability of a city. tunnels and development sites where this group of extraordinary individuals translated In particular, we have distilled the process them into action. behind Singapore’s urban development into a framework that outlines how the country More importantly, this book takes the reader achieved its liveability outcomes, which into the minds of these pioneers. It explores the are: a high quality of life, a competitive sense of mission, duty and responsibility that economy and a sustainable environment. The fuelled their work, whether it be to rejuvenate systems underlying these outcomes are key, a decaying city centre, clean up a fetid river, emphasising the importance of integrated build up sustainable sources of potable water, master planning and development, and develop a world-class public transport network dynamic urban governance. or create hundreds of beautiful parks and gardens. Together, they helped Singapore to Since its founding, the Centre has built overcome its limited land, fnancial and natural up a valuable body of research centred on resources, and grow into an economically this liveability framework and how it relates vibrant, stable and attractive country. to Singapore’s past and future development. Singapore, Unlimited, like many of our other Their vision of Singapore’s possibilities and publications, is a product of the work we have their belief in its limitless potential are what been doing over the past 12 years. inspired the title of this book. I would like to express my thanks to Minister Singapore, Unlimited is intended to inform Desmond Lee for contributing the foreword and inspire leaders, ofcials and all others to this book. I also wish to acknowledge Ms seeking to improve their cities. Today, this task Heng Tien Tien and Ms Tan Wan Lin for their is more pertinent than ever before, as we face excellent efort in translating Xiao hongdian, the incredible challenge of rehabilitating cities, and Mr Ken Lee for conducting additional economies and societies in a world ravaged by research, and adapting and editing the the COVID-19 pandemic. translated manuscript. A view of the Singapore River and Boat Quay, in Singapore’s city centre, 1950s. (Arthur B Reich Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) 1 The 1971 Concept Plan The government of newly independent Singapore formed a group of planners and experts to establish a comprehensive plan for the long-term physical development of the country.
Chua Peng Chye was one of Singapore’s pioneering urban planners, and served as the country’s Chief Planner from 1973 to 1976.
Chua joined the public service in 1959 as a town planner with the Singapore Improvement Trust. In 1967, he was appointed to a project team established by the Singapore government with the support of the United Nations, to develop the country’s frst island-wide land-use plan—the Concept Plan of 1971. This plan served as a blueprint for the physical development of Singapore, guiding the creation of infrastructure such as housing estates and transport networks across the country.
Chua led many of the country’s early planning initiatives and measures. He received several accolades for his contributions to Singapore. In 2015, the DesignSingapore Council recognised him as a distinguished designer in the feld of urban development with the Singapore Design Golden Jubilee Award.
He passed away on 16 April 2019 at the age of 87. Singapore, Unlimited
PLANNING THE CROWN COLONY SEEKING ASSISTANCE FROM THE UNITED NATIONS In the early 1950s, the British authorities in Singapore commissioned Sir George Lionel Lacking the technical expertise and fnancial Pepler—a well-known town planner—to resources to do this on its own, the Singapore craft a series of land-use plans to guide the government turned to the United Nations (UN) development of the colony. Pepler led a team for assistance. In 1962, the UN dispatched of planning experts to conduct a survey of a Norwegian town planner, Erik Lorange, to Singapore’s infrastructural conditions and study the possibilities of urban renewal in prepare a comprehensive master plan. Singapore. Lorange conducted a six-month 3 His plans were adopted by the colonial preliminary planning study and proposed a government as Singapore’s frst ofcial Master staged approach to the redevelopment of the Plan in 1958, intended to guide the island’s Central Area. He further recommended urgent development up to 1972. Modelled after the revisions to the 1958 Master Plan, and the Greater London Plan of 1944, the 1958 Master establishment of another team of UN experts to Plan envisaged the development of residential, conduct further planning studies on Singapore. commercial, industrial and community In 1963, the UN sent a three-man team functions in various parts of the colony. It also comprising urban planner Otto Königsberger, considered the need to safeguard land for land expert Charles Abrams and economist uses such as open spaces, recreational areas, Susumu Kobe to Singapore. They embarked nature reserves and water catchments. on consultations with the government and The architects of the 1958 Master Plan crafted specifc action plans for the country’s assumed that Singapore’s development would urban renewal. The team also proposed a new proceed at a slow but steady pace, and mostly spatial concept for the country, which came to retained the pre-existing spatial structure of be known as the Königsberger Plan. the colony. The plan was designed on the basis that Singapore’s population would increase THE STATE AND to about two million by 1972. However, CITY PLANNING DEPARTMENT Singapore’s population grew more rapidly than projected, exceeding two million as early as The Singapore government subsequently the late 1960s. The growing population created established the State and City Planning problems such as uncontrolled urbanisation, Department (SCPD) to further study the rising unemployment, poverty, housing Königsberger Plan and prepare a comprehensive shortages and poor public hygiene. plan for Singapore’s spatial development. As Singapore made further strides towards The SCPD quickly put together a project full self-governance in the latter half of the team comprising 12 experts from the UN 1950s, it became clear to its early leaders and an equal number of local ofcers from that new development plans had to be government agencies such as the Ministry of established urgently. National Development (MND), the Housing The 1971 Concept Plan
and Development Board (HDB) and the Public Singapore. This was because many parts of Works Department (PWD). Chua Peng Chye the country were covered with impenetrable remembered the team as being inter-disciplinary, foliage, rendering them impossible to map and with experts drawn from a variety of planning, study accurately. There was also the problem of technical and policy felds. squatter settlements and slums in and around the One of the team’s frst tasks was to conduct city centre. The redevelopment of these locations detailed projections of indicators such as could not take place until the inhabitants were population growth, housing demand, motor successfully resettled and the areas cleared. vehicle stock, household income, employment The project team conducted door-to-door 4 rate and gross domestic product (GDP). surveys and interviews with Singaporeans as Chua recalled that the project team accorded a means to better understand their needs. particular importance to population growth. Chua conceded that the team, particularly This was a crucial indicator in the land-use plan, the UN experts from other countries, did not because it would determine not only the number always design these interviews efectively of new houses that had to be built, but also the because they did not fully understand the types and locations of these developments. lifestyles and societal conditions in Singapore. Equally important was to consider how Some of the questions posed by the team the economic and industrial structure of the members—how many parks they wanted in country would evolve in the coming years, their neighbourhoods, for example—revealed because these changes would have an blind spots in their understanding of ordinary impact on matters such as the composition Singaporeans at the time, who were more often of Singapore’s workforce and the location of concerned about bread-and-butter issues employment centres. In addition, the changes afecting their livelihoods. would comprise more granular issues such as the type and scale of factories, ofces, THE CONCEPT PLAN IS FINALISED commercial centres and other developments needed to support Singapore’s growth. The project team completed its work in four Many of the methods employed by the years, fnalising a Concept Plan for Singapore’s team to collect data, statistics and other forms development in 1971. This plan mapped out of information were innovative for the time. various land-uses for Singapore over a 20-year These included in-depth surveys with the local timeline, on the assumption that the population population, devising economic growth models would increase to four million by 1991. and conducting sociological studies. The team According to Chua, the 1971 Concept Plan is prepared multiple iterations of plans, testing each notable for its integrated approach to land-use of them against diferent sets of assumptions, planning. The most tangible expression of this before deciding on the best outcome. approach is the Ring Plan, a spatial strategy to link Chua recalled the difculties the project residential, industrial, commercial, environmental team encountered, particularly in conducting and other developments across the country site surveys of undeveloped areas around through a comprehensive transport network. The East Coast Parkway (ECP) and Benjamin Sheares Bridge, 1986. The ECP was completed in 1981. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) The 1971 Concept Plan
The 1971 Concept Plan. The plan was the frst strategic land- use blueprint for Singapore’s development. (Urban Redevelopment Authority)
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Under the Ring Plan, the development of the to the government to adjust each phase of country would be concentrated in a southern development in accordance with prevailing swathe of Singapore between Jurong and economic, social and other conditions. Changi. High-density satellite towns would Another key advantage of the Ring Plan was be located around the three sides of the that it enabled the creation of a comprehensive Central Catchment Reserve, and an extensive round-island transportation system. transportation network of expressways and an urban rail system would connect these towns A TRANSPORTATION-FOCUSED PLAN to commercial and industrial centres in various parts of the island. In the 1960s, the government was deeply Chua recalled that the project team concerned with trafc congestion and the considered at least six planning options before impact it could have on the country’s growth. In deciding on the Ring Plan. There were several Singapore, the amount of land then allocated to advantages to this plan. For one, it meant the transport infrastructure was 12%, much lower Central Catchment Reserve could be retained than the 20% average in other major cities. as a green space and reservoir network. New and extensive transport infrastructure The Ring Plan also allowed for the country to was urgently needed; simply widening the be developed in stages, providing fexibility existing road network would not sufce. Singapore, Unlimited
Housing and Development Board (HDB) fats under construction at Marine Parade in 1973. (Marine Parade Community Centre Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
The project team conducted several transport Rapid Transit (MRT) system’s North-South and surveys and studies to develop a deeper East-West Lines. There was also a transportation understanding of the complex psychology of network to serve satellite towns. commuters as they moved from one point to another. Beyond merely connecting spaces, it AN IMPORTANT PLANNING MILESTONE was important to consider qualitative features of planned roads and expressways: whether, for To Chua, the Concept Plan of 1971 was example, they would be convenient, reasonable an important milestone in Singapore’s or even logical routes for people to take. development. From an urban planning The project team proposed the integration perspective, it was the frst blueprint to of a public bus and urban rail system with an efectively integrate land-use planning for a extensive network of expressways to promote variety of major land-uses, providing guidance cross-island connectivity and accessibility, on the allocation and development of land minimising commuting times for residents parcels for each use. It was thus an efective between their homes and workplaces. tool for the government to conduct long-term The plan marked out the location of key trafc planning at both the macro and micro levels. arteries such as the Central Expressway (CTE) The plan provided space for nature and Pan-Island Expressway (PIE); and established reserves and commercial centres; industrial the contours of what were to become the Mass parks and public parks; housing estates and The 1971 Concept Plan
Industrial estate at Eunos Crescent, 1981. (Quek Tiong Swee Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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military camps, all comprehensively linked provided a long-term guide for the construction by a transport network. In the industrial of these facilities without interfering with other sector alone, for example, the Concept Plan plans for national development. safeguarded land parcels for the development Another distinctive feature of the plan was of industrial corridors and business parks, such its introduction of the concept of reserved land as at Jurong, Pulau Ayer Merbau (to support the parcels: tracts of land which have no specifed use petrochemical sector), Sungei Kadut and Kranji in the immediate term. The reserve land concept (for carpentry and construction), and Changi thus provided a bufer stock of land for future (for the aviation industry). development. Dr Liu Thai Ker, the former Chief Beyond safeguarding the Central Executive Ofcer of the Urban Redevelopment Catchment Reserve as a green lung and key Authority (URA), once remarked that if not for the water resource, the Concept Plan envisioned concept of reserve land, Singapore would have the construction of reservoirs and drainage quickly exhausted its land resources, with no reserves across the country. Separately, land to spare for further development. areas for parks, green spaces and nature Over time, the Concept Plan would not only reserves were also safeguarded, refecting the prove to be the government’s key instrument government’s focus on managing air, water and for conducting long-term spatial planning, but other forms of pollution in the 1970s. an important guide to planners in formulating More broadly, the Concept Plan made space detailed spatial plans at the local level. for the provision of strategic infrastructure According to Chua, the Singapore such as power stations, water supply lines and government had always placed high priority waste incineration plants—developments that on urban planning. In fact, the Planning generally take substantial time and capital. It thus Department was established in 1959 as part of Singapore, Unlimited
the Prime Minister’s Ofce (PMO). It was only investigations and social experiments. moved to the MND in 1962, as the ministry One of the key areas of inquiry was took on a larger role in formulating policies on transport—specifcally, to determine the housing and employment. location of roads and expressways. The project “But Mr Lee Kuan Yew was still very team considered the location of housing concerned about national planning, often estates and their respective resident profles, asking us to report to him on the planning and studied commuting routes to and from situation. If he had any questions on this matter, employment centres. Apart from this, the team he would call us up directly for replies. He was also had to develop an understanding of social very serious about it,” recalled Chua. patterns and habits—for example, where people 9 travelled to for recreational and entertainment LESSONS FOR SINGAPORE purposes. All this would infuence transport needs at the local, regional and national levels, To Chua, the success of the 1971 Concept and had to be carefully considered when Plan ofers many lessons for policymakers and designing an island-wide transport network. planners. Urban planning is a complex feat of Chua emphasised that governments engineering that requires an assessment of must enact robust institutions such as objective indicators as much as a consideration planning committees to hold planners of subjective ones. And national planning is a accountable in matters of implementation and monumental efort that demands substantial execution, along with serving as platforms time and energy. How can one properly answer for communication, coordination and confict the question of what to plan for a country of resolution. Related to this is the need to several million people without careful study establish clear legislation and rule of law: and precise calculation? collectively, these provide a solid foundation For example, a central consideration in any for the implementation of approved plans. successful planning efort is the projected rate There is also a need to inject planning of population growth. To accurately determine fexibility, so that unanticipated problems the land-use needs of a country, planners must that could place limits on implementation work closely with statisticians who accurately timelines and spatial allocations can be more project trends in births, mortality, migration and easily tackled. Flexibility also provides room other indicators. This is no easy task, especially for innovation, enabling planners to capitalise over a long planning horizon. on advancements in expertise and technology, Chua added that for planning to be efective, yielding better development outcomes. it is necessary to carry out sociological surveys, Finally, to execute planning efectively, public consultation and research to better governments must build a corps of planners understand the needs and preferences of the with expertise and technical knowledge. population. In designing the 1971 Concept The Singapore government understood this Plan, the project team conducted extensive and made it a point to cultivate talent from research, including through surveys, samples, the very start. For example, it assigned one The 1971 Concept Plan
A view of Marina Bay and skyscrapers in Singapore’s Central Business District. (Stijn Dijkstra)
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Singapore ofcial to partner each of the UN coordination among all parties. This could be technical experts on the SCPD’s project team. challenging, given that diferent individuals The government wanted to capitalise on a have diferent personalities, experiences, vital learning opportunity and ensure that cultures and expectations. even after the UN experts left Singapore, their Ultimately, Chua remembered his professional skills and expertise would be experience in the project team as a positive retained in the Public Service. one, describing it as a good opportunity for learning and practice. “These were all A VALUABLE EXPERIENCE real lessons from practical experience and extremely valuable.” Chua’s experience in the SCPD project team taught him several lessons about mediating between diferent parties and navigating bureaucracy. Apart from working with other members of the team, he also had to engage with consultants from the UN and Singapore government agencies, ensuring there were smooth channels of communication and
2 Urban Renewal in the City Centre A team of pioneering urban planners helped transform Singapore’s deteriorating city centre into a modern, fourishing mixed-use district.
Mr Alan Choe joined the Housing and Development Board (HDB) in 1962 as an architect and town planner. He worked on the planning and development of Singapore’s earliest public housing estates. Choe also led the Urban Renewal Department, which was tasked with planning and redeveloping Singapore’s city centre.
In 1974, the Urban Renewal Department separated from the HDB and was established as a new statutory board, the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), under the Ministry of National Development (MND). Choe headed the URA as its frst General Manager until 1978.
In his distinguished public service career, Choe has also served as Chairman of the Sentosa Development Corporation (1985–2001) and a member of the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board (1968–1998).
Hock Lam Street, prior to urban renewal works in the city centre, 1969. The street was subsequently expunged. (George W. Porter Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Singapore, Unlimited
A CITY OF SLUMS of the urban poor, homeless, destitute and unemployed. Many of the shophouses By the early 20th century, Singapore had and buildings that served as their developed into a flourishing port city with an accommodations were dilapidated, poorly established city centre located at the mouth maintained slum dwellings. of the Singapore River in the southern part of One of the main reasons for the state of the the island. Immigrants from China, India, the city centre was the enactment of rent control Malay archipelago and elsewhere streamed by the British authorities in the 1940s. Their into Singapore, many of them settling into aim was to reduce homelessness by preventing the existing buildings and tenements in the landlords from indiscriminately raising housing 13 city centre. rents, so that the masses could aford housing. At that time, Singapore’s city centre Ironically, the controls depressed rental extended for about a mile along both banks revenues and discouraged landlords from of the Singapore River, spanning an area of maintaining their properties. about 7 km2. At only about 1% of Singapore’s As the demand for housing soared in the total land area, the city centre was densely post-war years, many tenants divided their populated. The area sufered from over- already narrow living quarters into even crowding, homelessness, poverty, pollution, smaller spaces, in order to earn some money disease and other urban woes. by subletting them to others. In many cases, The British authorities that governed dozens of overworked labourers were squeezed Singapore established the Singapore into a single room, triggering outbreaks of Improvement Trust (SIT) in 1927 to clear urban diseases like tuberculosis and dysentery. slums and do proper town planning across The situation was serious enough for the the island. The SIT built a number of housing authorities to establish a Housing Committee projects in areas around the city centre, in 1947 to strengthen the SIT’s eforts at slum including at Tiong Bahru, but their eforts clearance and building new houses. However, were disrupted by the outbreak of the Second their eforts were inadequate to tackle the World War and the Japanese occupation of problems faced by the urban poor in the city Singapore (1942–1945). centre, especially as Singapore’s population The city centre survived much of the aerial grew rapidly after the Second World War. bombings during the war and was largely The 1959 General Election gave Singapore a intact. But many of Singapore’s residents had fully elected parliament and a cabinet that held fed the country for rural areas in Malaya and powers of full self-government for the frst time. elsewhere to escape the confict. When the The People’s Action Party (PAP), which won the war ended, many that returned once again elections by a landslide, quickly put in place crammed into the city centre, seeking jobs in various measures to resolve the problems a war-ravaged economy that had only started faced by many working class Singaporeans. to recover. One of these was the establishment of the HDB The city centre came to house thousands in 1960 to build afordable housing. Urban Renewal in the City Centre
The HDB’s founding chairman Lim Kim and kitchens. By 1965, the year Singapore San witnessed the problems faced by the gained full independence, the government had urban poor, as he described in an interview built 54,430 fats. By the late 1960s, almost 40% conducted in May 1985: of the population lived in HDB fats.
Some of the labourers were so poor A NEW PLAN FOR THE CITY they shared trousers between them… Some people will work at night and In 1958, the colonial authorities had issued a others will work during the daytime. Master Plan to guide Singapore’s development 14 So, when the one who works in the up to 1972. The plan assumed that Singapore’s daytime is out, the one who works development would proceed at a conservative at night sleeps in the bunk. And I pace, with most of the country’s pre-existing came across one with a blanket right spatial structure kept intact. However, these up to his neck. Of course it’s very dark. assumptions did not anticipate the rapid pace You don’t see light. It’s very dark and it of Singapore’s economic and population takes time to get your eyes accustomed, growth, especially in the early 1960s. adjusted. I came across one and I told The PAP government realised that the him, ‘Are you sick? You are covered up 1958 Master Plan was inadequate in providing with a blanket.’ He says, ‘No. I’ve got sufcient room for the country’s growth. A new no pants on…my other brother has just master plan was needed to guide the country’s taken my pants out. I’m wearing briefs.’ spatial development over the long term. …The smell and conditions were Lacking technical expertise and resources, the terrible, really terrible. government sought the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to HOUSING THE PEOPLE review the 1958 Master Plan and propose a new blueprint to guide Singapore’s development. Alan Choe, who joined the HDB in 1962, The UN sent a Norwegian planning expert, recalled that then Prime Minister Lee Erik Lorange, to study the urban conditions in Kuan Yew set an ambitious target for the Singapore. Choe spent a considerable amount government to build 10,000 flat units each of time with Lorange: “I literally walked every year between 1960 and 1965. In comparison, street in Singapore’s city centre with the expert. the SIT had only built 32,000 flats in its It took us a few months to investigate the whole roughly 30-year period of operations between of Singapore. In the end, we prepared a report, 1927 and 1959. recommending that Singapore needed to In its frst year, the HDB built about 11,000 undergo urban renewal.” fats, all of them one-room units that shared The UN approved Lorange’s report, sending toilets and kitchens. It was only in the second a three-man team of experts to help Singapore year that it started building larger two- and three- develop a plan for urban renewal. Choe was room fats equipped with their own bathrooms put in charge of assisting the team, which Singapore, Unlimited
Children playing in the “fve- foot way” of a shophouse, 1960s. (Urban Redevelopment Authority Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
comprised urban planner Otto Königsberger, renewal. Choe’s visits to the United States, where housing expert Charles Abrams and economist he met several mayors, senators and urban Susumu Kobe, in their study of Singapore. The planners, were the most instructive, albeit in an HDB assigned two other ofcers to assist Choe unexpected way. “Knowing what we should not in this efort. do, was the most valuable lesson,” Choe recalled. “At that time, all three of us had no His exposure to methods of urban planning experience. I was the architect and planner, the and renewal in America convinced him of the other two were assistant planners. We had no need to devise “a Singaporean way”. idea about urban renewal when we started the work,” recalled Choe. URBAN RENEWAL COMMENCES By the time the UN experts completed their work in Singapore, the HDB’s three-man In the early 1960s, Singapore’s city centre, team had gained considerable expertise and which comprised slightly more than 1% of the experience. The HDB established an Urban country’s total land mass, housed about 18% Renewal Department (URD) comprising Choe of the country’s resident population. Most of and his two colleagues. the area’s buildings were one to three storeys Choe said the government sent him on many in height, and many were at least a century overseas missions to learn how countries such old. The majority were poorly maintained as Great Britain, Germany, the United States and and lacked basic amenities such as proper Japan implemented urban development and plumbing, sanitation and electricity. Urban Renewal in the City Centre
Shophouses being demolished as part of urban renewal works, 1980s. By this time, intensive urban renewal was taking place across the city centre, enabling the development of modern skyscrapers such as the Furama Hotel, pictured in the background. (Ronni Pinsler Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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It was not uncommon for seven to eight of mission, showing them that their eforts to families to share a house with only one lavatory rebuild the city centre were closely linked to and kitchen. The streets and back-lanes of the broader needs of the country. shophouse blocks—where human excrement For Choe, this was a realisation that urban and household rubbish were collected— renewal should not solely be about building had become multi-functional spaces where roads and public areas. There was a need to think children played, families ate their meals and about how to build a comfortable and attractive the itinerant congregated. environment, and to inject life in the city. In 1966, the UNDP allocated funds to In the years that followed, the urban renewal Singapore for the implementation of urban project would be conducted on a large scale, renewal eforts. The process was led by the with the government having to acquire privately MND, which began work on preparing a held land, resettle individuals and families in comprehensive urban renewal plan for the newly constructed public housing, demolish country, starting with the city centre. old buildings and build new developments. In 1971, the publication of Singapore’s frst Concept Plan, a strategic land-use plan A CHALLENGING, intended to replace the 1958 Master Plan, gave COMPLEX AND SENSITIVE PROJECT a strong boost to the urban renewal project. The 1971 plan clearly outlined Singapore’s spatial The government frst divided the city centre into needs over the next 20 years and provided 19 precincts, each covering an area of between guidance to planners on how land across the 60,000 m2 and 800,000 m2. Urban renewal island would be allocated and developed. The commenced from the northern-most and plan also gave the URD ofcers a greater sense southern-most precincts, proceeding in phases Singapore, Unlimited
into the heart of the city centre. One of the There was also the need to plan and reasons for this was that the proportion of land implement the construction of essential under private ownership tended to be lower in the infrastructure, including electricity cables and outer precincts, with more land parcels owned substations, drainage channels, roads, lamp by the state. This made it much easier and faster posts and vehicle parking facilities; as well as for the government to undertake redevelopment parks, green spaces and landscaping. These eforts there. In turn, the redevelopment of eforts required substantial capital investments these outer precincts generated momentum for and detailed coordination with a range of subsequent phases of the urban renewal project. government agencies. Once the government approved a plan Moreover, the renewal of the city centre was 17 for the redevelopment of a precinct, urban a politically sensitive project. For one, there renewal ofcers would conduct site surveys was a fragmented system of land ownership in to obtain information on the number and the city centre, with individual landlords owning composition of households there. They also shophouses and other buildings on very small collected information on matters such as the plots. But if renewal was to be carried out in employment and income profles of residents. a meaningful way, entire street blocks and This data was intended to help the authorities districts—including those containing privately determine plans for resettling each household. owned property—needed to be redeveloped. For example, individuals whose jobs were To do this, the government had to use located in the city centre would be resettled in a colonial-era law, the Land Acquisition new housing developments nearby. Act, to expropriate privately held land for
A view of Clarke Street (now part of the Clarke Quay entertainment complex), with People’s Park Centre in the background, 1985. People’s Park Centre, completed in 1973, was built on one of the frst land parcels sold through the Sale of Sites programme. (Ronni Pinsler Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Urban Renewal in the City Centre
comprehensive redevelopment. The Act essay to the Nanyang Siang Pau, Singapore’s was amended in 1966 to strengthen the main Chinese language newspaper. He government’s power to acquire land for public explained that the urban renewal project was purposes. The government compensated land aimed at rebuilding the city centre, clearing owners at market value, as was required under slums, improving the physical environment, the Act; but many land owners were nonetheless enhancing the quality of public services and unhappy with the acquisition efort. creating new employment opportunities for The efort to resettle families and individuals the people. Spaces would also be created for displaced by the redevelopment plans was also diferent commercial uses such as ofces, 18 a prickly one. It required URD ofcers to have banks, hotels and shops to spur the country’s courage and sensitivity, especially since many economic growth. were reluctant to leave their existing premises. Leaders like then Prime Minister Lee The URD ofcers had to assure them that personally chaired several meetings with provisions would be made to resettle them in residents who would be afected by resettlement. other locations. He wanted to give them a proper and complete In cases of large-scale resettlement, where account of the government’s plans, so as to gain the clearance area was of a signifcant size, the trust and support of the public for the urban the government would re-house residents and renewal efort. shop-owners in new public housing complexes close to the clearance site, thus reducing THE SALE OF SITES PROGRAMME disruption and inconvenience to them. A new HDB estate at Outram Park, for example, was Following land acquisition, resettlement and developed to house many former residents of demolition, the government had to implement nearby Chinatown. plans for the construction of new commercial On average, six new fats were needed and residential developments. One of the key to house those who had been displaced features of the urban renewal project was the following the demolition of a single old government’s partnership with real estate shophouse building. Between 1960 and 1972, developers from the private sector to do so. the government had to resettle about 50,000 In 1967, the URD launched the Sale of Sites households afected by urban renewal and programme to sell land parcels in the city centre related public works. The rapid development to private developers for the development of of public housing in HDB new towns such as new buildings. In the run-up to the frst Sale of Toa Payoh just outside the city centre greatly Sites programme, the URD conducted in-depth aided this efort. Ultimately, the government market studies to understand issues such as the successfully resettled all individuals and families business considerations of developers and the displaced by the city centre’s urban renewal. market demand for housing and shop space. During this period, the government also At Choe’s suggestion, a committee of cabinet made eforts to explain the necessity and goals ministers—the Ministers for Law, National of urban renewal. In 1967, Choe contributed an Development and Finance—was formed to Singapore, Unlimited
A view of high-rise ofce blocks along Shenton Way, 1973. The Sale of Sites programme provided land for the development of many commercial buildings in the city centre. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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oversee the programme, determine conditions they would be rejected. of tender and approve the sale of each site. Choe explained that it was important to The URD designed the Sale of Sites ensure the best designs were chosen for the programme such that it was transparent and fair. redevelopment of the city centre. It was therefore The sites were ofered for sale through an open not necessary for a site to be sold to the highest tender process, with available sites advertised bidder. However, if the working group wanted in local newspapers. Those who wanted to to recommend the sale of a site to a tenderer purchase a site had to submit their bids to the with a strong design proposal but lower bid, URD at a prescribed time, depositing them in it would have to submit robust justifcations a tender box. After all bids were received, URD to the ministerial committee. This approach ofcers would review each submission and ensured that the URD remained fscally prudent, post the tendered prices on a notice board. responsible and accountable to the government. In the case of the frst sites ofered for sale Today, the Sale of Sites programme is through the programme, bidders were also known as the Government Land Sales (GLS) required to submit design proposals for the programme, and the approach pioneered by developments they wished to build on each Choe to evaluate tender proposals on the basis site. A group of ofcials, chaired by Choe, of both design and price continues. Choe said would assess each of these design proposals. this approach encouraged enterprises to give To eliminate any form of personal prejudice opportunities to young architects and designers. or bias in the evaluation process, the design “For one project, we get a few designs, proposals could not be labelled with the names giving diferent architects the chance to show of the designers who had prepared them; if so, their talent. From there, we pick one. Every time Urban Renewal in the City Centre
we do this, more and more good architects are tangible way. Urban renewal should not simply given a chance to realise their plans. In this way, be a process of demolition but also include we helped promote design and architectural plans for preservation and rejuvenation. To knowledge in the industry.” execute preservation efectively, governments From 1967 to 1989, the Sale of Sites and GLS must have proper plans to retain and enhance programme released about 1.8 km2 of land for old structures. There must also be institutions 155 development projects, facilitating the city to conduct research on the historical and centre’s redevelopment and expansion. Over aesthetic value of these structures; and a 20-year period, the city centre transformed legislation to provide for their retention, 20 into a modern fnancial and business centre. upgrading and maintenance as historic sites, Perhaps the largest physical changes occurred buildings or even memorials. in the areas of Shenton Way and around the In 1971, the government established the former Golden Shoe Complex, where developers Preservation of Monuments Board and enacted erected a series of landmark skyscrapers that legislation for these purposes. Conservation have come to defne Singapore’s modern skyline. was also adopted as an important feature of the URD’s work, and remains a core focus for PRESERVING BUILT HERITAGE its successor agency, the URA. Under Choe’s leadership, the URD and the Despite the signifcant physical changes in the URA successfully conserved several streets city centre, several streets and entire districts and entire districts of old shophouses and were retained and conserved. Today, places historic buildings in the city centre. Choe like the Tanjong Pagar conservation district recalled that this was a difcult task: “At and Boat Quay still feature original buildings that time, these buildings were very old and and structures built over a century ago. The dilapidated, and occupied by many labourers retention of Singapore’s urban built heritage and unemployed people. We not only had is the result of eforts undertaken by Choe and to resettle them, but also help renovate the other pioneering planners. buildings … one by one.” On 3 June 1967, Choe received a letter There were also substantial economic trade- from Lee asking if he had thought about ofs, since many of these well-located districts preserving built heritage in the city centre could otherwise have been redeveloped for precincts selected for urban renewal. In fact, high-density complexes such as apartments Choe had already drafted a report with a or commercial skyscrapers. Indeed, many of detailed preservation plan for old buildings and these areas were ultimately passed over for structures. Choe submitted this report to Lee, conservation. Choe lamented the demolition of who promptly endorsed it. historic buildings in areas such as Rafes Place. To Choe, old buildings are a visual record of In his view, the loss of these structures makes the history of a place, and the unique style and it even more important for planners to exercise architecture of these structures can express the greater sensitivity in planning and implementing cultural distinctiveness of a city or country in a the country’s future urban development. Singapore, Unlimited
ESTABLISHING THE URBAN The creation of the URA as an independent REDEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY entity energised the urban renewal ofcers, who went on to plan and implement a series of bold, The URD was frst established as a department ambitious developments in the 1970s and 1980s. under the HDB. As the urban renewal project continued into the 1970s, Choe began to THE DEVELOPMENT OF RAFFLES CITY feel strongly that the URD should exist as an independent unit, separate from the HDB. One of these was Rafes City, a large-scale The main reason for this was that the HDB’s commercial development located just north of focus was on building more public housing to the historic Civic District, in the heart of the city 21 meet the population’s needs. This task was centre. The site housed Rafes Institution, a closely related to the urban renewal of the prominent school for boys founded in 1823. Choe city centre in the early years of independence. felt the school sat on prime land and should be However, in subsequent decades, it became relocated to free up the site for other purposes. clear to Choe that the URD’s approach to At a 1968 meeting with Hon Sui Sen, who urban renewal was signifcantly diferent to the was then the head of the Development Bank one undertaken by HDB in developing public of Singapore (DBS), Choe described the urban housing. For example, urban renewal called for renewal project and discussed the possibility the re-planning and sale of land within the city of redeveloping the Rafes Institution site as a centre to cater to national, social and business landmark commercial centre. Hon expressed a needs, oftentimes in partnership with the strong interest in the project. Sometime later, he private sector. For Choe, the URD’s separation called Choe to convey DBS’ interest in developing from the HDB would enable each entity to the site. Over the telephone, Choe shared his better focus on its respective responsibilities. plans for the commercial centre to be developed After discussing his views with superiors in partnership with the private sector, and his at the HDB, Choe met the then Minister for vision for this development to be designed by an National Development E. W. Barker to explain internationally renowned frm. Hon expressed his proposal for establishing the URD as a enthusiasm for Choe’s plans, readily confrming standalone agency. Barker considered Choe’s DBS’ participation in the project. views and quickly approved the proposal. Plans for the development of Rafes City On 1 April 1974, the Urban Renewal were announced in 1969. It was conceptualised Department (URD) was reorganised as the as Singapore’s largest standalone commercial Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), an development, with a range of facilities independent statutory board under the MND. constructed to world class standards. The For Choe, the creation of the URA illustrated project, comprising some 400,000 m2 of ofce the open-mindedness of Singapore’s early space, would also include hotel and retail uses. leaders and their willingness to experiment The entire complex would be designed by a with organisational changes that would beneft team led by the famous Chinese-American policy implementation. architect I.M. Pei. Urban Renewal in the City Centre
A row of newly conserved shophouses along Tanjong Pagar Road, 1989. (Courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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The ground-breaking ceremony for Rafes important turning point in Singapore’s City took place on 14 August 1980. Hon, who development. It showcased the business was by then Singapore’s fnance minister, opportunities for foreign developers and delivered a speech that described the architectural frms in Singapore, and inspired commercial centre as a “unique development confdence in its real estate market. In subsequent for Singapore, perhaps for this part of the decades, foreign investments in this sector world, and will no doubt serve as an example helped drive Singapore’s further development. for high quality developments on prime sites here and elsewhere”. Connecting the Orchard LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE Road prime shopping belt and the Shenton Way Central Business District, it would be served by In the 1980s, Singapore’s urban skyline started a major interchange station on the future Mass to take shape. The commercial areas at the Rapid Transit (MRT) system. mouth and along the banks of the Singapore The design and construction of Rafes River featured an attractive mix of modern City involved the use of innovative planning skyscrapers and restored shophouses that and architectural techniques, construction extended north towards Rafes City. The methods and materials. The complex ofcially seamless commercial corridor stretched opened in 1986 and quickly became a new towards Orchard Road, which by that time had commercial landmark in Singapore. Today, it established itself as the country’s key shopping remains one of the country’s busiest and most district. In the southern part of the city centre, famous developments. For a while, one of its the renewal of the Golden Shoe district and towers was the tallest hotel in the world. Shenton Way facilitated the development of an For Choe, Rafes City also marked an important fnancial centre. A view of the city centre today, with the Chinatown and Tanjong Pagar conservation areas in the foreground, and Rafes Place and Marina Bay in the background. (Chuttersnap) Urban Renewal in the City Centre
Refecting on the urban renewal project, even as it provided protection and certainty to Choe described several factors for its success. private landowners that they would be fairly The frst was the strong political will of compensated. The Urban Redevelopment government leaders such as Lee, who paid Authority Act gave legal certainty and powers personal attention to the detailed plans of to the newly formed URA, which greatly aided the renewal eforts. The government was in the discharge of its mandate. In addition, also prepared to bear the political costs the Sale of Sites programme (now called the of implementing land acquisition and Government Land Sales programme), with its resettlement, both of which were sensitive numerous tender conditions and rules, provided 24 issues at the time. for the well-regulated and timely development Another defning feature of the project was of new buildings in the city centre. the establishment of clear goals and timelines. Finally, Choe gave credit to the spirit of Choe himself articulated many of the project’s cooperation and team work that existed among core objectives from the very start, setting clear ofcers in infrastructure agencies such as the directions for the work of the URD. Perhaps the URD, the Public Utilities Board (PUB) and the best illustration of the URD’s care in setting Public Works Department (PWD). At the time, implementation timelines was its efort to many of the agencies involved in the project coordinate clearance plans for the city centre reported directly to the law ministry and the with the construction of new public housing MND; coincidentally, both these ministries by the HDB. This made it possible to quickly were headed by E. W. Barker. This greatly resettle many of the city centre’s residents in facilitated the success of URD’s eforts to new housing units. rebuild the city centre. Choe also stressed that the government took a long-term view in planning the urban A VAST OUTLOOK renewal project. For example, despite the urgency with which redevelopment eforts took For Choe, “Singapore is a small country with place, the government believed in the need a bold vision and vast outlook. Its successful to selectively conserve and retain parts of the development has been a source of pride to city centre as Singapore’s built heritage. Laws its people.” and regulations were also introduced in the The pioneering urban planner added that early 1970s to protect these structures. Today, the country’s drive to keep improving is not conservation districts such as Chinatown, less strong today than it was in the years Little India and Kampong Glam are important following independence. “Singapore has even repositories of local culture and character. loftier goals, and these will continue to shape The project would have failed if not for the Singapore’s skyline over time.” clear and transparent laws and regulations in place to support its implementation. The Land Acquisition Act enabled the government to acquire large tracts of land for development, A young boy at a Housing and Development Board (HDB) estate, 1980s. (Singapore Tourist Promotion Board Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) 3 Public Housing In the years following independence, the Housing and Development Board constructed thousands of afordable fats to house the people, resolving the problems of homelessness and poor living conditions that had afected many in Singapore.
Dr Liu Thai Ker joined the Housing and Development Board (HDB) in 1969 as an architect and planner, eventually assuming the role of Chief Executive Ofcer (CEO). During his time at the HDB, Liu oversaw the development of 23 new towns, comprising more than 500,000 fats.
In 1989, Liu moved to the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), where he served as CEO and Chief Planner until 1992. During his time at the URA, Liu led the efort to draw up the 1991 Concept Plan, a strategic land-use blueprint that would guide Singapore’s spatial development over the long term.
Liu has served as chairman of several institutions in the arts and academic sectors, including the National Arts Council, and the School of Design and Environment at the National University of Singapore. Liu was also Advisory Board Chairman of the Centre for Liveable Cities between 2008 and 2020. Singapore, Unlimited
Refecting on his career at the HDB, Dr Liu established the Singapore Improvement Trust Thai Ker described public housing as one of (SIT) to resolve widespread housing shortages the building blocks of modern Singapore. “The by building fats in and around the city centre. success of public housing not only enabled Over the next 30 years, the SIT built about people to live and work in peace, but built a stable 32,000 new fats, but this did little to resolve the society and allowed for economic growth.” housing problem. When Singapore gained self-government In 1959, Singapore’s population had grown from the British in 1959, it was an economically to 1.6 million, but there were only about 40,000 depressed country facing massive income housing units in the whole country—one inequality and social cleavages arising from house for every 40 people. Thousands lived in 27 the multi-ethnic composition of its population. overcrowded shophouses and tenements, on The government grappled not only with the the street, and in temporary shelters and slums. challenge of developing Singapore’s economy, but also existential threats to its sovereignty. ESTABLISHING THE HOUSING There was an urgent need to unite the people AND DEVELOPMENT BOARD and foster a sense of nationhood. Then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew believed When the People’s Action Party (PAP) assumed that promoting home-ownership was one of power in 1959, it dissolved the SIT and the best ways to nurture a common identity replaced it with a new organisation to oversee among the people of Singapore. Liu recalled the construction and management of public that this was a bold and unconventional idea housing. The HDB, formed on 2 January 1960, at the time, and went against the prevailing reported directly to the Ministry of National trend in many developed countries where Development (MND). governments developed social housing for rent Lim Kim San, a former banker who had been to lower income citizens. Lee’s decision to build invited by Lee and other PAP leaders to join the and sell houses to the people was founded on government in the late 1950, was named the his belief that home-ownership gave people a HDB’s frst chairman. Lim appointed senior civil larger stake in the country and a stronger will to servant Howe Yoon Chong as Chief Executive protect its independence. Ofcer and architect Teh Cheang Wan as Chief Planner. The three men steered the HDB HOUSING PROBLEMS IN EARLY SINGAPORE through its formative years. One of the HDB’s frst tasks was to Up to the mid-1920s, the colonial authorities determine the extent of the housing shortage made little attempt to manage the housing in Singapore and calculate the number of situation in Singapore. As the population grew new houses that had to be built. The studies rapidly at the turn of the century, housing showed that Singapore required 150,000 new conditions deteriorated, especially in the over- houses over the next 10 years. Of this, housing populated city centre. developers in the private sector could probably In 1927, the British colonial authorities construct 40,000 houses, mainly for upper and Public Housing
middle income families. The HDB would have Lee decided to allow Singaporeans to use their to provide the remaining 110,000 houses. Central Provident Fund (CPF) savings to pay The HDB introduced two consecutive for their fats. The CPF system is a compulsory 5-year flat building programmes. It planned savings scheme introduced in 1955 to provide to build 50,000 new flats in the first 5-year a source of income to working Singaporeans in phase and 60,000 in the second. These were their retirement years. In 1968, the government ambitious targets, but the HDB managed passed an amendment to the CPF Act to raise to achieve them. By end 1970, it had built the rate of contribution. Thereafter, the HDB almost 121,000 new flats and shophouses. launched a revised home ownership scheme 28 that enabled prospective fat-buyers to tap HOME-OWNERSHIP FOR THE PEOPLE on their CPF savings to pay the 20% down- payment and fnance the housing loan through In 1964, Lim, who had by then been appointed monthly instalments over 20 years. These the Minister for National Development, changes triggered a dramatic increase in the announced a “Home Ownership for the demand for new fats and consequently, the People” programme, articulating a set of goals national home-ownership rate. that have continued to shape HDB’s policies in the decades since. THE HDB’S FIRST THREE DECADES In the early years of independence, the HDB ofered fats as rental accommodations In the 1960s, the HDB focused on resolving to lower income Singaporeans who did not the critical housing shortage, which included have enough money to purchase them. With resettling many former residents of the city the government’s new focus on promoting centre. The 1970s ushered in a period of home-ownership, it allowed rental tenants political stability and rapid economic growth, to purchase their existing accommodations with the government devoting substantial without having to foot a deposit or satisfy funds to the development of more public monthly income requirements. For these housing estates across the island. buyers, the HDB introduced monthly instalment As household incomes grew rapidly in the plans stretching over 20 years at an annual late 1960s and early 1970s, the HDB raised the interest rate of 6%. income ceiling on prospective fat buyers to For prospective buyers who were not enable more Singaporeans to purchase fats, existing rental tenants, the HDB extended resulting in the number of fat applications housing loans at similar interest rates with reaching a peak in February 1974. To cater to 15-year repayment periods. However, this did the changing tastes and preferences of a more not result in a large number of fat purchases afuent population, the HDB also implemented because many Singaporeans were still unable plans to build higher quality fats and improve to raise the down-payment—set at 20% of the the provision of amenities in new towns. purchase price of the fat—required for a loan. During the 1980s, the HDB focused on To address this problem, then Prime Minister adopting new methods of planning and Singapore, Unlimited
Home-buyers viewing newly completed fats at Toa Payoh, 1967. Toa Payoh was the frst housing estate built by the HDB. A banner in the background reads, “Homeownership for the People”. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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construction, as well as innovative technologies this made it easier for residents to travel to and to improve building standards. This period saw from their work places. a vast improvement in the quality of fats built In 1971, the government published by the HDB. In the latter part of the decade, Singapore’s frst Concept Plan, which outlined some 30 years after the construction of the frst a model of spatial development where new HDB fats, the government introduced the Main housing estates would be located to the Upgrading Programme (MUP) to refurbish older north, east and northwest of the city centre. public housing estates such as Toa Payoh. Accordingly, during the 1970s and 1980s, the By 1989, the HDB had built more than HDB built new towns in areas like Bedok, Marine 530,000 fats, averaging 18,000 a year since Parade, Ang Mo Kio, Bukit Batok and Hillview. 1960. Almost 90% of Singapore’s citizen Liu recalled that when he frst joined the population lived in HDB fats. HDB in 1969, the focus of his work was on design and research. At the time, the HDB had PLANNING HDB TOWNS no concrete plans for the design of new towns. Liu and his team assumed the task of preparing The planning and design of HDB towns evolved design blueprints for these towns. They substantially over time. planned for each town to house up to 300,000 In the 1960s, the HDB built public housing people and contain a range of recreational, estates within a 10 km radius of the city centre, commercial and other amenities. in places like Queenstown and Toa Payoh. As Initially, the team planned each town as a the city centre was still the commercial heart connected series of neighbourhoods. Each and main employment centre of the country, neighbourhood would comprise up to 6,000 Public Housing
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Newly constructed fats and accommodate about 15,000 residents. and interact, thus encouraging a sense of blocks of fats But Liu had some reservations about the size of familiarity and neighbourliness. at Eunos, 1981. each neighbourhood, which he felt was too large Landscaping and greenery to foster a sense of community and belonging. FLAT DESIGNS THROUGH THE DECADES are ubiquitous After consulting the Singaporean in all HDB sociologist Dr Chua Beng Huat, Liu devised The earliest HDB fats were designed as estates. (Housing and a plan for each new town to be made up of basic one-room dwelling units with shared Development smaller communities, to be termed “precincts”. bathrooms and kitchens. This enabled new Board Each precinct would comprise up to 1,000 fats, blocks of fats to be constructed quickly, and Collection, courtesy with a single point of entry and exit. It would refected the urgent need at the time to provide of National incorporate playgrounds and other common basic shelter to those who had to be resettled Archives of activity areas for residents. The precincts from the city centre’s decaying tenements and Singapore) would be linked by a network of walkways and slums. Each fat measured about 200 ft2, but other connecting passages. The intention was there were also more spacious units measuring to create opportunities for residents to meet about twice that size to house larger families. Singapore, Unlimited
From the mid-1960s, the HDB started to to improve construction productivity. For one, build larger fats, including four- and fve-room less concrete was required in the construction fat types with multiple bedrooms, a kitchen process. He also encouraged contractors to and bathroom. Some were as large as 1,000 ft2. carry out the pre-casting of building components In 1979, the HDB even introduced “executive themselves to reduce their reliance on sub- fats” measuring more than 1,500 ft2 for those contractors and better manage costs. with higher incomes. Many HDB fats served as The HDB also deliberately kept the design multi-generational homes, housing families of and fnishing of HDB fats simple. Liu recalled up to 10 members. that this elicited some criticism from the public, In the subsequent decades, the HDB who observed that HDB fats were overly basic, 31 built a greater variety of fat types to meet with untreated walls, rough foors, and simple the changing needs and preferences of windows and doors. Liu recalled that HDB’s Singaporean households. frst chief planner Teh Cheang Wan had the best response to such criticism: ENSURING AFFORDABILITY We use the least amount of money A key imperative of the HDB’s building to create the maximum amount of programme has been to ensure that fats living space for the people. The living remain afordable for the vast majority of space in each house doesn’t increase Singaporeans. To do so, the HDB has had to regardless of how much work you carefully control construction costs while put into decorating it. ensuring reasonable building standards. During his leadership of the HDB, Liu For Teh, the HDB’s priority was to provide undertook measures to improve the efciency and adequate living space in each flat; it would productivity of fat construction. These measures be imprudent to spend unnecessarily on helped to minimise costs and safeguard the aesthetic features. afordability of fats for Singaporeans. One of his frst initiatives was to commission ESTATE MANAGEMENT the Japanese construction frm Shimizu to conduct a detailed study of the HDB’s The HDB also introduced policies to ensure that contractors, and recommend productivity new housing estates were properly managed improvements. The study identifed areas and maintained. These eforts were intended to for improvement and provided guidelines to prevent them from degenerating into slum-like contractors on how they could enhance their colonies, a situation that was common in many work processes and boost efciency, as well as subsidised housing projects in the developed minimise the wastage of building materials and world. The HDB took measures to maintain other resources. high levels of public hygiene and cleanliness, Liu also introduced modular construction and provided landscaping to create a green and in the HDB’s building programme as a means attractive environment in each estate. In the Public Housing
1980s, the HDB adopted computer technology three simple words: accessibility, afordability to enhance its responsiveness to mechanical and security. The HDB was established to deliver problems such as faulty lifts and other forms of low-cost housing to all Singaporeans, and to give malfunctioning equipment. them an asset to enjoy over their lifetimes. It also introduced communication channels These goals have fundamentally shaped to allow residents to provide feedback to HDB the HDB’s policies through the years. There on local issues. Liu said that the HDB’s estate have been priority schemes and subsidies for managers carried out regular inspections around selected groups of buyers, home improvement housing estates, enabling them to identify programmes to upgrade older fats and a lease 32 problems and quickly resolve them. Another buyback scheme that has allowed retired innovation was the government’s establishment Singaporeans to monetise their fats for additional of neighbourhood committees. These income while continuing to live in them. committees, comprising residents, served as an The public housing programme also set out important source of information on the physical to foster a sense of community and nationhood condition of each estate and also provided among Singaporeans. The HDB ensured that constructive suggestions for improvement. each estate included a spectrum of fat sizes, from cheaper two-room fats to more expensive PUBLIC HOUSING AND NATION-BUILDING executive apartments. This arrangement created more opportunities for people of The goals of Singapore’s public housing diferent income levels and social backgrounds programme are perhaps best summed up in to meet and interact.
A playground in a HDB estate at Bedok Reservoir, 1984. Public spaces and recreational amenities provide opportunities for social mixing and interaction, encouraging a sense of community and familiarity among residents. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Singapore, Unlimited
In addition, there were policies to encourage and squatter settlements in the city centre. interaction between Singaporeans from Much of the physical infrastructure in the 1971 diferent ethnic backgrounds. In the 1970s plan had also been implemented: the HDB had and 1980s, as the resale market for HDB fats built over half a million new homes, the Mass expanded, Singaporeans had greater choice in Rapid Transit (MRT) system would soon open where they wanted to live. The HDB observed in 1987, and the government had developed a that some ethnic groups tended to prefer network of new expressways connecting the certain locations, which led to the growth city centre with other parts of the island. of enclaves. To arrest this trend, the HDB The challenge, then, was to design a new introduced the Ethnic Integration Policy (EIP) in Concept Plan that would enable Singapore to 33 1989 to impose ethnicity-based quotas on fat reach First World status, and provide a higher ownership in HDB estates. The EIP has ensured quality living environment to its people. that the ethnic mix in HDB estates refects the In the run-up to the review of the Concept overall ethnic composition of Singapore. Plan, the government restructured the MND by moving two of its departments—the Planning PUBLIC HOUSING AND NATIONAL Department, and the Research and Statistics LAND-USE PLANNING Department—to the URA. This move, in 1989, greatly enhanced the professional capacity and Following his tenure at the HDB, Liu joined the resources of the URA and enabled it to conduct URA as its CEO, where he formulated national urban planning in a more integrated way. land-use plans. During his time at the URA (1989 Additionally, the move created administrative to 1992), Liu led a review of Singapore’s Concept efciencies, enabling the URA to be a more Plan, a national land-use blueprint that was frst focused and efective organisation. developed in 1971 with the assistance of experts The government assembled a committee from the United Nations (UN). The review to oversee the Concept Plan review, with resulted in the creation of the 1991 Concept seven sub-committees convened to look into Plan, which envisioned Singapore transforming diferent areas of planning. As CEO of the URA, into a distinctive “Tropical City of Excellence”. Liu played an important leadership role in the review committee. Among his responsibilities THE 1991 CONCEPT PLAN was to lead several working groups to review the designs of HDB fats and estates, and other When the government decided to embark on key public developments. a review of the Concept Plan in the mid-1980s, At the start of the review process, the the social, economic and physical conditions government conducted a series of studies to of the country were vastly diferent from those determine key parameters such as the long-term faced by the team of planners and UN experts population of Singapore and the residential, that designed the 1971 Concept Plan. social, recreational and other preferences of The urban renewal project was mostly its people. It also had to project the country’s complete, with the removal of the last slums future economic conditions and structure, Public Housing
and calculate the amount of land needed to Liu stressed that those involved in the support its further growth and development. review process approached their work in a Additionally, there was a need to consider the scientifc, rational and statistical way. Important future size of Singapore’s land mass, which questions had to be answered about how the had been increasing since the 1960s through city would be developed and structured. These reclamation. This was a key planning parameter could not be approached in a callous or fippant that would have an impact on the distribution of fashion, such as by blindly applying theoretical development intensities across the country. concepts or ideological beliefs. The review process also included an 34 extensive series of consultations with THE DECENTRALISATION STRATEGY representatives from the private sector and academia. Such public consultations, which One of the key features of the 1991 Concept Plan were unprecedented at the time, allowed people was the decentralisation of commercial functions from diferent areas of expertise to discuss and activities from the city centre to other parts of and give their views on the future planning and Singapore. Among the reasons for this planning development of Singapore. strategy was the need to reduce population
Interior of a HDB fat in Toa Payoh, 1980. Many early HDB fats were designed to accommodate large multi- generational families. (Ronni Pinsler Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Prospective fat-owners tour a newly completed block of fats at Bras Basah, 1980. Many HDB fats in the city centre were occupied by those relocated from old shophouses and tenement buildings. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Public Housing
density and trafc fows at the city centre, and To determine the optimal size and layout of optimise the use of the island-wide transportation each satellite town, Liu and his team conducted network. The decentralisation strategy led to the a series of planning studies, and consulted creation of several regional centres and satellite sociologists and anthropologists. towns such as Woodlands, Jurong and Tampines. Liu explained that studies had shown Visually, the 1991 Concept Plan revised that a critical mass of about 5,000 to 10,000 the ring pattern of the 1971 plan with a households would be necessary to support “Constellation Plan”. This took shape as a hub- a reasonable provision of commercial, and-spoke model of development, in which the recreational and other amenities in a given 36 Central Area would serve as the commercial community. Other studies suggested that the heart of the country, with development taking longest distance an average person would be place in a series of outward radiating rings. willing to walk to access various daily essentials Singapore was split into fve regions outside was 600 m. Adjusting this fgure to account for the city centre. In turn, each region was divided Singapore’s tropical climate, the team decided into an average of fve satellite towns each, to work with a distance of 500 m. Liu also relied creating 25 such towns across the island. on a series of studies suggesting that it tended Dr John Keung, Singapore’s Deputy Chief to be difcult for people to develop a sense of Planner from 1997 to 2001, described this as belonging in communities that exceeded a the heart of the 1991 Concept Plan, and one geographical area of about 30,000 m2. that has continued to infuence Singapore’s Taking these fndings into consideration, Liu spatial development even today. and his team worked out the general physical Liu explained that his experience in parameters of satellite towns in Singapore. planning HDB towns signifcantly infuenced Each town would comprise a series of up to the decentralisation model of the Concept fve neighbourhoods, cover an area of up to 25 Plan. Many of the ideas and insights he gained km2, and house a population of up to 300,000 at the HDB were adapted in designing the residents. Each town would be planned as a national land-use blueprint. self-sufcient community with a town centre The concept of satellite towns, which that incorporated commercial, recreational and was based on what has been termed the other social functions. There would also be light “polycentric” model of urban planning, was industrial estates to provide some employment not novel at the time. Many European cities, for residents, and other social uses such as including in England, had developed satellite schools. The towns would be connected to other towns in order to reduce over-population and parts of the island by expressways and the MRT. trafc congestion. On average, European satellite For Liu, satellite towns make up the basic towns had populations of about 30,000 to 50,000 building blocks of Singapore. Elaborating people. In Singapore, where land was scarce and on the decentralisation strategy he helped HDB estates were built to accommodate large introduce, Liu said: “From the start, the numbers of residents, satellite towns would have southern part of the city centre formed the to be planned diferently. heart of Singapore’s busiest commercial area. A view of HDB fats at Bishan, overlooking Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park. (Jason Goh) Public Housing
It was crowded with commercial activities and residential developments, making it a densely populated place sufering from various trafc, environmental and other problems. In my view, we could capitalise on the MRT and bus network to extend Singapore’s spatial development to the rest of the island, thus reducing the pressures on the city centre. We built the largest satellite towns at the 38 fnal stops of each MRT line, developing commercial and retail centres there. The intention was to attract large numbers of people to travel in the opposite direction, away from the city centre. This would spare the city centre from excessive development.”
EXPERIENCE AND EXPERTISE, NOT THEORIES AND IDEALS
Refecting on his experiences in public service, Liu said much of the work he had done in developing Singapore was based on the application of practical experience, rather than “planning ideals”. Singapore, he said, had given him “the opportunity to personally participate in the country’s planning and development, to study and consider solutions and best practices.” “For my team and I, this was the highest honour.” Worker erecting scafolding at Clarke Quay, 1982. (Ronni Pinsler Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) 4 Economic Transformation Singapore’s leaders transformed the economy through establishing a robust industrial base and pursuing a strategy of economic diversifcation.
Dr Philip Yeo has played a leading role in the development of Singapore’s economy, including in the life sciences, petroleum and chemical processing sectors. He has also contributed to Singapore’s economic diversifcation and internationalisation, as well as developed and strengthened Singapore’s economic relations with other countries.
Yeo joined the public service as an ofcer in the Ministry of Defence in 1970, rising to the position of Permanent Secretary for logistics, technology research and development, and defence industries.
In 1986, Yeo was appointed Chairman of the Economic Development Board (EDB), where he remained until 2001. Thereafter, he led the Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) as Chairman from 2001 to 2007. From 2007 to 2011, Yeo served as Special Advisor for Economic Development in the Prime Minister’s Ofce (PMO). Singapore, Unlimited
For Dr Philip Yeo, pragmatism is what as the main driver for economic growth. underlies Singapore’s economic policies. In 1961, it established the EDB to plan and Rational planning and an ability to change develop Singapore’s industrial infrastructure. with the times are the reasons why the One of the EDB’s frst and most important government could steer Singapore’s economy projects was the development of the Jurong through global crises and other challenges, Industrial Estate, which commenced operations and safeguard its vitality and relevance. in 1962 with the opening of a factory by the frm National Iron & Steel Mills. SINGAPORE’S ECONOMY: 1959–1984 Jurong Industrial Estate’s growth was slow in the initial years, with very few companies 41 The British founded a trading post on setting up factories there. This was primarily Singapore island in 1819 and developed it into due to the lack of houses nearby and the area’s a port city over the subsequent 150 years. In inaccessibility from other parts of the island. 1959, Singapore gained self-governance from But the fedgling estate received a boost from the British. Full independence followed in 1965 the Housing and Development Board’s (HDB) after the country split from Malaysia. The newly construction of Jurong New Town, which elected government, led by the People’s Action commenced in the mid-1960s; as well as the Party (PAP), faced several challenges in its creation of new public road and urban rail efort to develop the national economy. networks in and leading to the area. These One of these was the low literacy and skill developments greatly promoted the success levels among the working population, due in of the estate and its growth into the country’s part to the disruptions caused by the Second main industrial hub. World War. During the war, Singapore was The late 1960s and early 1970s was a period occupied by the Japanese from 1942 to 1945. of fast-paced industrialisation that created Japanese colonisers shut down many of the many jobs for Singaporeans and fostered territory’s schools, disrupting formal education the growth of sectors that generated rapid for thousands of Singaporean children. economic development for the country. There Families that fed to rural Malaya and other are several notable features of this period in parts of the region were also unable to provide Singapore’s economic history. proper education to their children. As these First, the government focused on children came of age in the 1950s and 1960s, developing export-oriented industries. This their employment prospects were limited to stemmed from the realisation that the country’s manual labour and other low-skilled jobs. The small and limited domestic market would not more enterprising ones started businesses, but be sufcient to sustain meaningful economic most of these were modest operations. growth over the long term. In the early years of self-government, one of Second, the government undertook many the government’s priorities was to create jobs for efforts to raise the workforce’s skill levels, the people. During this period, the government such as by encouraging the development decided to develop labour-intensive industries of higher value-added sectors in the Economic Transformation
economy and introducing technical training an important role in the development and programmes for workers. internationalisation of the country’s electronics Third, the government introduced incentives and energy sectors. to attract foreign companies to set up operations The benefts from foreign investment in Singapore. It believed the infow of foreign were not limited to these two sectors. During capital would not only aid in the development of the 1970s and 1980s, MNCs also invested export-oriented industries but create more and heavily in other parts of Singapore’s economy, higher quality jobs for Singaporeans. including aviation and pharmaceuticals. During this period, the government undertook The entry of these frms helped create high 42 eforts to shift the focus of the manufacturing quality jobs just as Singapore’s literacy and sector away from low-skilled industries such educational levels were on the rise. As a result, as apparel, textile and toy production, towards many Singaporeans took on administrative, industries such as electronics, component managerial and other professional roles in and precision engineering, semi-conductors these frms. Foreign investors introduced higher and petrochemicals. During the 1970s and standards of management and organisation to early 1980s, these industries contributed Singapore, creating positive knock-on efects signifcantly to Singapore’s economic growth. for local enterprise development. To equip workers with the necessary skills MNCs and other major foreign companies and expertise to gain employment in these also developed industrial and other forms higher value sectors, the EDB set up technical of infrastructure in Singapore, relieving the institutes to provide professional training to need for government to allocate funding for Singaporean workers. Many of these institutes such developments. This enabled the state to were established in collaboration with countries allocate its funds to public infrastructure and that had invested in Singapore at the time, social programmes, including public housing including Germany, France and Japan. and transport. The government’s eforts to attract foreign Yeo described the 1970s as a period when investors in developing export-oriented the government set the framework and laid industries met with success as early as the late the groundwork for Singapore’s long-term 1960s. In 1969, the American semi-conductor economic development. It established the company Texas Instruments became one of the broad direction for the economy and the frst multi-national corporations (MNC) to open a main avenues for the growth of key industrial factory in Singapore. The subsequent years saw sectors. The focus was on developing the entry of several major foreign companies, Singapore’s export-oriented manufacturing including the American computer frm Hewlett- capacity. The idea was to do so in an upward Packard and the Japanese electronics giant direction along the value chain, creating higher NEC. In the energy sector, companies like Shell value products. and Esso built petrochemical refneries and As a result, the contribution of the other processing and production facilities in manufacturing sector to the overall economy Singapore. These early foreign investors played exceeded that of the trade sector by the 1980s. Singapore, Unlimited
Workers at Jurong Industrial Estate, 1967. The estate’s frst factory started operating in 1962. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
This was a stunning accomplishment for a THE 1985 RECESSION country that had been a colonial trading post for much of its recent history. In 1985, Singapore experienced its frst post- Singapore’s economy continued to independence recession. Economic growth register positive growth through the late slowed considerably and productivity rates 1970s and early 1980s despite turbulence in plummeted across many industrial sectors. the macroeconomic environment stemming Many companies laid of employees while from a series of global oil crises. The country less resilient ones were forced to shut down, also experienced many positive social leading to an increase in unemployment. and physical changes: the HDB had built During this period, the Ministry of Trade thousands of new houses for Singaporeans, and Industry (MTI) appointed Yeo to chair the solving the housing crises of earlier decades; EDB, tasking him with tackling the economic urban redevelopment and renewal policies malaise. When he assumed this role in led to the rejuvenation of the city centre, and 1986, Yeo focused on implementing growth rising levels of education and literacy created promotion policies, including eforts to diversify a more sophisticated populace. These Singapore’s economic base and strengthen rapid changes created new possibilities for economic fundamentals so that it could better economic development, many of which were ride out future storms. Through the eforts realised in subsequent decades. of Yeo and other ofcers in the economic Economic Transformation
agencies, the government established new of the island. But land in Singapore was limited plans for the economy, including identifying and it would be difcult to fnd appropriate and nurturing the growth of sectors with strong space for these industries. Yeo, refecting on development potential in Singapore. Goh’s remarks, knew that a lack of workforce One of the strategies formulated by the and land could severely hinder the continued government at this time was to capitalise on growth of labour-intensive industries that were Singapore’s manufacturing and production still a signifcant contributor to Singapore’s capacity, and its technical expertise in these economic development. areas. This would position the country as In 1989, Yeo held a meeting with the 44 a global business hub that would attract Indonesian Ambassador to Singapore, where foreign companies in the emerging sectors the issue of Singapore’s industrial development of education, lifestyle, medical technology, was discussed. The ambassador had observed telecommunications and software. This strategy that Singapore and Batam were located close has greatly shaped the development of new to each other, divided only by the Singapore industrial infrastructure in the 1990s and beyond. Strait. Given this physical proximity, there was an opportunity for Singapore to locate its BATAM INDUSTRIAL PARK labour-intensive industries at Batam. At the ambassador’s invitation, Yeo visited During Yeo’s chairmanship of the EDB, Batam for the frst time in March 1989. He he helped establish plans to develop an observed that the island was relatively backward, industrial park on Batam island, in Indonesia’s but that it had a number of favourable features. Riau archipelago. First, there were large tracts of undeveloped As Singapore emerged from the recession land available for the construction of factories of the mid-1980s and resumed positive and other industrial facilities. Also, the island economic grow, employment numbers started had a large potential labour force. Finally, Batam to rise again. By the late 1980s, Singapore was had a reservoir that could generate hydro- enjoying near full employment, with workforce electric energy and serve as a source of water shortages experienced in several industries, for industries. especially labour-intensive ones. In May 1989, Yeo called on Goh to share At a meeting with Dr Goh Keng Swee, who his observations and recommend the was then Vice-Chairman of the Monetary development of an industrial park for labour- Authority of Singapore (MAS) and a former intensive enterprises at Batam. He also Minister for Finance, Goh remarked that more arranged for Goh to visit the island. During land in Singapore would have to be allocated this visit, Goh agreed with Yeo on the island’s for the development of capital-intensive and potential and instructed that he send a note to knowledge-based industries as economic then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew to propose priorities continued to evolve. In turn, labour- collaborating with the Indonesian government intensive industries would have to be relocated to develop an industrial park at Batam. Lee to other areas such as the more remote parts reviewed and approved the proposal. A garment factory, 1970. The labour-intensive manufacturing sector was a key driver of economic growth in newly independent Singapore. (Ministry of Culture Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Economic Transformation
In August 1989, Lee met Indonesian qualitative way. The government would President Suharto in Brunei, where they continue to nurture the growth of the high-value agreed to jointly develop Batam Industrial chemical, electronics and engineering sectors Park. In working out the details of the project, which had taken of in the 1970s and 1980s, Yeo, representing the EDB, insisted on two but there would now be a stronger focus on conditions. First, each industrialist would have nurturing innovation and promoting research full ownership of the land on which it built its and development (R&D). facilities; second, the park would be a tax-free In 1991, the government established the zone. Singapore and Indonesia also conducted National Science and Technology Board (NSTB) 46 negotiations to decide on the respective to promote R&D, facilitate the establishment of ownership and management arrangements for laboratories, coordinate research activities and the joint venture. The two countries reached programmes across the country, determine an ofcial agreement on the development the allocation of research funds, evaluate in January 1990, less than a year after Yeo’s the workforce needs of technology-intensive maiden visit to Batam. sectors, and organise partnerships with During the signing of the agreement, foreign research institutions. The government members of the Singapore delegation were established a 5-year plan to invest some S$2 dressed in Indonesian batik shirts, while those billion in the NSTB’s work. in the Indonesian delegation were dressed The government took eforts to enhance the in business suits. To Yeo, this illustrated the R&D capabilities of MNCs and local companies, respect that each side accorded to this bilateral as well as to attract more technology-based endeavour, and marked a promising and businesses to establish a presence in Singapore. positive start to the partnership. In 1992, it developed the International Business The ground-breaking ceremony for Batam Park in Jurong East to incubate knowledge- Industrial Park took place on 28 February 1990. based enterprises and provide supporting Over the years, the government has adopted facilities and services to them. In 1997, it the park as a model for the development of established Changi Business Park in the eastern other collaborative industrial and business part of Singapore to accommodate technology parks overseas, providing useful lessons companies, R&D facilities, and data and and best practices for the implementation of software frms. projects such as the Suzhou Industrial Park in These and other business parks formed much eastern China. of the infrastructure in Singapore for promoting industry-based research and catalysing the THE TECHNOLOGY-DRIVEN 1990s growth of high technology industrial sectors in Singapore. The growth of these sectors, A central feature of Singapore’s economic in turn, created positive outcomes such as policies in the 1990s was the government’s providing more skilled jobs for Singaporeans, focus on furthering the development of and improving the professional capabilities and technology-intensive industries in a more expertise of the labour force. Singapore, Unlimited
MOVING TOWARDS AN INNOVATIVE, THE IMPORTANCE OF INFRASTRUCTURE KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY Yeo said that it is of vital importance for any Yeo describes the frst decade of the 21st country to have extensive physical infrastructure century as a crucial transition period for to support its economic development. Over the Singapore as it sought to position itself as an decades, the government has invested heavily innovative, knowledge-based economy. in physical infrastructure, as a means to foster In 2001, Yeo was appointed Chairman of the the growth of new industries and expand the NSTB, which was subsequently restructured into country’s economic base. A*STAR. The agency’s primary role was to develop From a planning perspective, the 47 Singapore’s research capabilities across multiple development of physical infrastructure has sectors, and nurture scientifc talent in those enabled the clustering of related industry areas. The objective was to elevate R&D levels sectors, allowing for a more efcient and and reap economic dividends from the presence optimal use of land. Yeo described how the of highly skilled human capital in Singapore. development of two industrial parks, Jurong Singapore’s eforts to remain competitive in Island and One-North, played a major role an increasingly sophisticated, technology-driven in the evolution and growth of Singapore’s global economy paid of. By 2013, Singapore’s economy since the 2000s. manufacturing industry, which was dominated by the research-focused chemical, electronics, JURONG ISLAND precision engineering, transport engineering and biomedical sectors, accounted for almost Jurong Island was formed through the 20% of the country’s gross domestic product merging of seven small outlying islands in (GDP). The biomedical manufacturing sector, the waters of the south-western coast of which included the medicine and medical Singapore through land reclamation. In the technology sub-clusters, itself contributed more 1960s, petroleum companies Esso and Mobil than 8% of GDP, with an annual growth rate of had separately built oil refneries on a number over 20%. of these islands. In recent years, the biomedical manufacturing In the 1970s, Yeo had visited Indonesia’s sector has been a particularly bright spot for Karimun island, located to the south of Singapore. To facilitate the sector’s continued Singapore in the Riau archipelago. While expansion, the government initiated the returning to Singapore by helicopter, Yeo construction of the Tuas Biomedical Park on observed the seven islands that today form reclaimed land at the western tip of Singapore in Jurong Island and considered the possibility 2013. The park has provided substantial space of combining them into a single island to to major pharmaceutical companies for their house Singapore’s petrochemical industry. manufacturing facilities, including production Yeo felt that with proper planning and of medicines, medical equipment and other implementation, it could even become a major related products. petrochemical centre. Economic Transformation
Workers in a Texas Instruments factory, 1969. The American semiconductor company was one of Singapore’s frst major foreign investors. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
The idea to create Jurong Island took shape global petroleum companies of the viability in 1991, when the government allocated S$7 and success of this project, and attracting billion to the Jurong Town Corporation (JTC) them to invest in it. Yeo recalled that there to implement this project. The project was were doubts and concerns at the start of the started—as Yeo had envisioned more than planning process. 10 years before—with the creation of a large Fortunately, these concerns proved artifcial island to house a 30 km2 industrial unfounded. Many companies bought into park. The planning approach was for Jurong the vision for Jurong Island, and signed on Island to be a base where companies could to build their facilities there. It was almost as consolidate all levels of their industrial if the ambition and boldness of Singapore’s activities. There would be adequate space plans imbued the plans with credibility, to accommodate production, manufacturing assuring foreign investors that the government and processing facilities. It would even would defnitely see the project through to accommodate back-end logistics needs such completion. For Yeo, the success of Jurong as warehousing and utilities. Island is, in part, an illustration of the trust that While master-planning for the project many foreign investors placed in Singapore’s proceeded, Singapore’s economic agencies ability to deliver on its plans. were faced with the challenge of convincing By the time Jurong Island opened in 2000, Singapore, Unlimited
there were 60 companies that had committed Beyond providing infrastructure to support to establishing a facility there, representing industrial and business uses, it would also a combined investment value of more than provide facilities for research and education, S$20 billion. This was almost three times the as well as recreational and retail spaces to government’s initial investment in the project. meet the needs of those working there. In 2016, just 25 years after the plans for the Plans for the development of One-North island were frst fnalised, the investments on were fnalised in 2001. According to Yeo, One- Jurong Island totalled almost S$50 billion. North will only be fully developed in 2040, In the years since, the government has although much of it is already operational implemented plans to expand and develop today. Once completed, the business park will 49 Jurong Island even further. In 2010, it provide over 2 million m2 of foor space to meet announced the Jurong Island Version 2.0 the needs of a diverse group of tenants. initiative as the next phase of development. A focus of this initiative is to develop R&D A COUNTRY NEEDS ITS SCIENTISTS facilities that will promote the development of the petrochemical industry in a more Yeo himself has led many eforts to promote sustainable way. the nurturing of human talent and capital in the various organisations he has led. He ONE-NORTH recognises that in a country with limited natural resources, it is crucial to continuously One-North is a 2 km2 business park located build on and improve the skills of its labour about 7 km west of Singapore’s Central force, turning it into a competitive advantage Business District (CBD). The government for economic development. developed One-North to house Singapore’s As Chairman of A*STAR, Yeo established knowledge and innovation-driven industries, the National Science Scholarships in 2001 providing space for technology companies to provide funding for young research in sectors such as biomedical sciences, scientists. The scholarships are awarded to information and communications technology those conducting research at all levels, from (ICT), and new media. undergraduate students to PhD candidates. The development comprises three After leaving school, scholarship recipients interconnected hubs: Biopolis, Fusionopolis would be required to work in A*STAR for up and Mediapolis, to house companies in to six years, contributing to the development the biomedical, ICT and media sectors, of science and technology-related industry respectively. One-North was planned to be clusters in Singapore. located in close proximity to renowned The scholarship programme has funded educational institutions such as the National the education of thousands of scientists University of Singapore, to create opportunities at the PhD level, many of whom now hold for companies to partner with stakeholders in key positions in industry, academia and research and academia. other felds. Economic Transformation
Reclamation works at Jurong Island, 1999. (Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
Beyond nurturing local scientists, the BUILDING ON A STABLE BASE government has also undertaken eforts to attract talented scientists from overseas to conduct Yeo explained how Singapore’s economy had research in Singapore. There are several benefts managed to develop so successfully over a to this. For one, many of these scientists are relatively brief period of time. able to build and manage research institutions The government frst focused on building and laboratories in Singapore, passing on their a stable and sustainable economic base. It knowledge, expertise and methods of inquiry to then built on that base by developing high- other scientists and researchers in the country. potential industries and providing world- For Yeo, the development of scientifc class infrastructure to support their growth. knowledge and research capabilities in The government also provided a clear and Singapore also creates a fertile environment transparent regulatory environment, and for the fostering of entrepreneurship. This is invested in developing the skills and capabilities what will enable the economy to adapt quickly of the labour force. to economic and technological changes, and He added that Singapore’s growth did develop in a nimble and sustainable way. not come about through the application of A cluster of buildings in the Fusionopolis section of One-North business park. (Chuttersnap) Economic Transformation
any template or model. Every policy decision and initiative was arrived at through careful observation and consideration, and the application of learning and experience. For Yeo, the key to Singapore’s successful economic development has been an attitude of “pragmatism”. This was by way of considering the circumstances and needs of the time, finding the best approach to 52 assume at each juncture, maintaining a practical mindset and being bold enough to adopt innovative solutions. The Marine Parade Community Centre organised its frst computer camp for children in 1983. (Marine Parade Community Centre Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) 5 A Wired Nation Since the late 1970s, the government has embarked on a series of initiatives to drive the adoption of computers and information technology (IT) in the public service and across economic sectors to boost IT literacy amoung Singaporeans.
Dr Tan Chin Nam joined the Singapore Armed Forces as a systems engineer in 1974. In 1982, Tan was appointed the frst General Manager of the newly established National Computer Board (NCB). From 1986 to 1994, he also served as the Managing Director of the Economic Development Board (EDB). While concurrently leading the NCB and EDB, Tan introduced several policies that fostered the growth of Singapore’s IT sector.
From 1995 to 2002, Tan served as the frst Chairman of the National Library Board (NLB), where he helped improve Singapore’s public library system. From 2002 to 2008, Tan was the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts (MICA). He also served as the Chief Executive Ofcer of the Infocomm Development Authority (IDA) from 2003 to 2010. Singapore, Unlimited
Singapore Airlines staf operating the KRISCOM system at the company’s ofces in Robinson Road, 1973. KRISCOM was a computer-based system introduced in 1972 to manage fight reservations and check- ins. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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RESTRUCTURING SINGAPORE’S ECONOMY increased, and Singaporeans enjoyed a high quality of life. When Dr Tan Chin Nam began his civil At the start of the 1980s, the government service career in the early 1970s as a systems implemented plans to turn the labour- engineer, the use of computers was still a intensive economy into one that was more novelty in Singapore and much of the world. capital-intensive, with a focus on developing But even in those days, the government had the services sector and higher value-added started considering the use of computers industries such as electronics, petrochemicals and computer-based technology to promote and precision engineering. economic growth. As part of this structural shift, the After Singapore’s independence in 1965, government also prioritised the development the government focused on developing labour- of computing and computer-based industries. intensive industries such as manufacturing and processing, including through extending COMPUTERISING SINGAPORE incentives to foreign investors. These export- oriented industries created jobs and enabled In March 1980, the government formed a the country to experience high economic Committee on National Computerisation growth rates for several years. (CNC) to study how Singapore could develop By the late 1970s, Singapore had become into a regional centre for the development an industrialised, stable economy. The of computer software and computing-based unemployment rate had declined since services. The government appointed Dr Tony the immediate post-independence years, Tan, then the Senior Minister of State for educational levels and literacy rates had Education, to chair the committee. A Wired Nation
Following discussions with senior ofcials technology (IT)—which was not a widely known in the public sector, as well as representatives concept at the time. from the computer industry, the CNC proposed By 1989, the CSCP had installed almost the establishment of two sub-committees to (i) 200 computer systems across government ofer recommendations and provide support agencies. The computerisation of many for all technical issues concerning the use government processes improved administrative of computers and handling of data, and (ii) efciency and productivity. It also improved the promote the use of computers in the Civil ways in which public-facing agencies such Service as a means to improve productivity and as the Central Provident Fund Board (CPFB), 56 administrative efciency. Registry of Vehicles (ROV) and Housing and Tan, who was then Director of Systems Development Board (HDB) delivered public and Computer Organisation at the Ministry of services to citizens. Defence (MINDEF), was appointed to lead the Beyond these benefts, the CSCP raised second sub-committee, named the Civil Service public awareness and understanding of Computerisation Sub-Committee. Tan recalled computer use, and created new opportunities for the sub-committee conducted an eight-month IT frms to participate in government contracts survey of various government departments for the provision of computer-based products to determine the extent of their computer and services. The NCB also established a use and identify opportunities for further professional accreditation scheme for computer- computerisation of administrative processes. based training and education. The NCB was at the forefront of the government’s eforts to ESTABLISHING THE NATIONAL develop the IT sector and nudge Singapore’s COMPUTER BOARD economy towards a more knowledge-based, capital-intensive course. The sub-committee’s study and recommendations resulted in the 1981 A DECADE OF CHANGE establishment of the NCB, and the Civil Service Computerisation Programme (CSCP). The NCB The 1980s were formative years for the IT was tasked with implementing the CSCP. industry and the spread of computing in The CSCP’s main objective was to promote Singapore. During this decade, the government the use of computers across the civil service. focused on eforts to further computerise civil In the frst fve years of the programme, the service processes, develop computing and government allocated S$100 million to the IT capabilities among students and workers, NCB to implement projects such as formulating promote the widespread use of computers standards for software use, establishing among the public, and enhance private computer security protocols, developing companies’ computing capabilities. network-based technology to integrate the fow In 1983, the government formed a committee of information across agencies, and training to promote the teaching of computer-aided public servants in the use of information design and manufacturing in tertiary educational Singapore, Unlimited
institutions. Tan said this greatly improved the Industry (MTI) introduced a National Information ways in which budding engineers, architects and Technology Plan to boost Singapore’s economic IT personnel were trained. When they entered the competitiveness through the use of IT. Under workforce, the economy beneftted from greater this plan, the NCB would lead public sector automation and productivity in felds such as eforts in three key areas: develop the software construction, planning and technology. As a result export sector, promote greater public use of IT, of the government’s eforts, the number of IT and build nation-wide IT infrastructure. professionals in Singapore grew rapidly during the Tan was General Manager of the EDB in early 1980s. At the start of the decade, there were 1987 when the government also appointed only about 800 IT professionals in the country. By him to chair the NCB. In announcing the 57 1984, the number had increased to over 3,000. appointment, the government explained In 1987, the NCB established a Knowledge that Tan—with one foot in the technology Engineering Resource Centre to provide space and another in the area of economic technical training and support to software development—would be well-placed to steer engineers in the use of IT systems. Tan said the growth of Singapore’s IT industry. In many there were only three such centres worldwide at ways, Tan’s concurrent leadership of the NCB the time, including one in Spain and another in and EDB—which was a statutory board formed Scotland. Singapore’s centre was the only such under the MTI—facilitated the successful institution that had been established by the state. implementation of the MTI’s National IT In December 1986, the Ministry of Trade and Plan. Tan attributed this success to the close
Trade Development Board ofcers using a computer, 1986. The government mounted an ambitious efort to promote the use of computers across government agencies. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) A Wired Nation
coordination and collaboration between the 1990s: AN INTELLIGENT ISLAND government and IT frms, including in areas such as research and development (R&D), During the 1990s, the government sought skills training and public education. to develop Singapore into a global city, and The government also made eforts to boost embraced IT as an important conduit through the use of IT in the private sector, especially which to achieve this. among small enterprises. In 1986, the EDB In 1991, the government announced plans to introduced the Small Enterprise Computerisation transform Singapore into an “intelligent island” Programme (SECP) to help small businesses through the development of comprehensive IT 58 adopt computer-based systems. Among other infrastructure. This announcement marked an forms of assistance, the SECP provided advisory important change in the government’s approach services to companies in the designing of to harnessing the benefts of IT. Most notably, computer systems to meet their business needs, IT would not only be leveraged to develop and also extended loans for the installation of the economy, but also to contribute to other these systems. important national goals. More and more companies signed up for the The government’s objectives included the SECP, realising that IT gave them an edge over building of connections between communities their competitors, not least by enabling them to at the local and international levels, and cut business costs through improvements in improving Singaporeans’ quality of life. The productivity and efciency. For Tan, the SECP NCB set up 11 teams to develop an IT Master helped promote the widespread adoption of IT Plan that included some 60 initiatives to in the private sector, especially during the late promote the use of IT at all levels of society over 1980s. By the early 1990s, there was a 70% the following 10 years. IT adoption rate in companies that employed Tan did not anticipate the speed and more than 10 people. readiness with which Singaporeans embraced Singapore’s banking and fnancial services IT during the 1990s. Indeed, innovations in this industry also experienced many benefts through sector profoundly changed the ways in which the use of computer-based technologies. For Singaporeans lived and interacted, moulding one, IT enabled these companies to better the country into a veritable “intelligent tap into a global network of clients, such that island” and setting the stage for the country’s transactions could be conducted from anywhere subsequent evolution into a “Smart City”. in the world. Management teams could also more efectively oversee and administer global THE 2000s AND BEYOND: business operations. FOCUSING ON THE COMMUNITY By 1989, Singapore’s computer services industry recorded revenues of more than S$1 In the 2000s, following the rapid adoption of billion for the frst time. This represented a 14- computer technology in earlier decades, the fold increase from the S$69 million generated government’s IT policies focused on leveraging by the sector in 1980. IT to improve Singaporeans’ quality of life. Singapore, Unlimited
The government merged the NCB and the sector. This helped create many tangible Telecommunication Authority of Singapore improvements to Singaporeans’ lives. For (TAS) to form a new statutory board, the example, the IDA launched a 2010 initiative Infocomm Development Authority (IDA). Among to ofer high-speed broadband internet at the new agency’s key functions was to work afordable rates to individuals, businesses, closely with other agencies and community schools and other organisations, enhancing groups to promote and enhance the adoption of Singaporeans’ access to and use of the internet. IT at all levels of society. Singapore’s Smart Nation project continues In 2004, the government updated the to be defned by a people-centric focus. In 1991 IT Master Plan with a new thematic April 2014, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong 59 emphasis—“Intelligent Nation 2015: iN2015”— described various priorities for the government’s that envisioned Singapore’s development into Smart Nation initiatives. Among them was to a “Smart Nation” over the next decade. In many enable older Singaporeans to live meaningful ways, the iN2015 plan marked an important and fulflling lives, and develop a more efcient shift in the government’s view on how IT could transportation system through the use of data be applied. Beyond just economic outcomes, analytics and other smart technologies. the plans focused on social imperatives. Tan described Singapore’s IT journey over The Minister for Information, Communications the years with three ‘C’s: compute, conduit and and the Arts (MICA) at the time, Dr Lee Boon content. In the early 1980s, the government Yang, said: focused on promoting the use of computers. Thereafter, the focus shifted to the use of We must emphasise that the iN2015 technology as a conduit for communication Master Plan is not only about economic and sharing information. Finally, recent years competitiveness. We will also be have seen an emphasis on the development exploring ways to ensure that the elderly, and dissemination of content to enrich and less privileged and disabled can also beneft the lives of citizens. enjoy connected and enriched lives for self-improvement and life-long learning. TECHNOLOGY AND KNOWLEDGE: This is to bridge the digital divide and ENHANCING OUR PUBLIC LIBRARIES create opportunities for all. In a three-decade long public service Tan, who was then the Permanent Secretary career, Tan has worked in several agencies, of MICA, also felt strongly about the need accumulating a range of diverse professional to develop IT infrastructure and smart experiences. Although many of these technological systems in a way that would experiences were not directly related to improve people’s lives. the area of computing, it is clear that Tan’s As part of the iN2015 plan, the government expertise in formulating and implementing IT- committed S$4 billion in funds to boost the related policies contributed substantially to his growth of Singapore’s IT and communications work in these sectors. A Wired Nation
Students using computers at a secondary school, 1986. Computers started to become widely used in public schools during the 1980s. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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A good example of this is Tan’s role in recommended the development of digital records improving Singapore’s public library system. of libraries’ holdings that could be shared with In 1992, the then Minister for Information and the general public and viewed on computers. the Arts George Yeo established a committee to The government approved the committee’s review the provision of public library services report and established the NLB in 1995. In in Singapore and recommend areas for the years that followed, the NLB made several improvement. The committee embarked on a improvements to the public library system. 20-month long study that concluded with the For example, book borrowing and returning publication of a detailed report. procedures were automated, including The committee recommended the through the introduction of self-service kiosks. establishment of the National Library Board Additionally, the NLB made many of its resources (NLB) to oversee the development and available online, enabling the public to access management of Singapore’s public libraries. It them without having to physically visit a library. also recommended the building of more than 20 new public libraries over the following two KNOWLEDGE AND NATIONHOOD decades, including specialised libraries for business, art and other disciplines. Another Tan strongly believed that the power of reading important recommendation was to make all to expand one’s knowledge and imagination, book loans free of charge to the public. and enhance one’s sense of imagination Tan’s infuence on the recommendations is and creativity creates more opportunities for evident in the report’s focus on the adoption of IT individuals to improve both self and society. In to improve the operations and visitor experience this way, libraries are signposts of a society’s in public libraries. For example, the committee culture and progress. Singapore, Unlimited
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Tan may have been describing the qualities of libraries and reading, but he could just as well have been describing the merits of computers and IT.
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Library@Orchard, a public library located in the Orchard Road shopping district. In 1994, the government’s Library 2000 Review Committee recommended several improvements to the public library system, including eforts to make library services more attractive to young Singaporeans. (Fahrul Azmi) Dock workers at Tanjong Pagar Container Terminal, undated. (Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) 6 The Port of Singapore Singapore’s post-independence government inherited an established maritime port and transformed it into an important global shipping hub.
Mr Wong Hung Khim entered the public service in 1964, serving in organisations such as the education and labour ministries.
In 1979, Wong was appointed the General Manager of the Port of Singapore Authority (PSA), where he introduced several innovations that expanded the port’s facilities, improved the quality of its services and enhanced the productivity of its workers. Wong left the PSA in 1987.
Wong has also assumed leadership roles in the Public Service Commission and other public sector organisations. He was the General Manager of Singapore Bus Services from 1974 to 1979, and the Chief Executive Ofcer of SingTel from 1987 to 1995. Singapore, Unlimited
A COLONIAL TRADING POST existing infrastructure at the harbour, such as by reconstituting the dock board as the In 1819, the British established a trading Singapore Harbour Board (SHB) in 1912. In the post in Singapore. The island, situated at subsequent decades, the SHB implemented the southern tip of the Malay peninsula, was many plans to develop and expand the port of strategically located along the trade route Singapore, including rebuilding eforts after the between China and British India. The southern Second World War. end of the island, at the mouth of the Singapore In 1957, a report commissioned by the River, was surrounded by deep, calm waters, Governor of Singapore found that the SHB forming a natural harbour. Inland, there had, over the years, taken on too many 65 were abundant reserves of fresh water and diverse functions and was no longer able timber that provided natural resources for the to focus on its primary responsibility of port construction of port facilities. The new colony administration. After Singapore gained full had natural advantages that boded well for the self-governance in 1959, the leaders of the development of a fourishing port. country recognised there was a need to The port proved to be a spectacular improve the management and administration success. In 1823, the British colonialists of Singapore’s port, in order to fully realise declared Singapore a free port, an early its potential as a major trading and trans- economic measure that spurred its rapid shipment hub. In 1963, Singapore’s Legislative growth. By the mid-19th century, companies Assembly approved a proposal to establish had built wharves, docks, warehouses, transit the PSA to administer the port of Singapore. sheds, shipyards, anchorages and other In 1979, the newly appointed Chairman of facilities at the harbour. As the century drew to the PSA, Lim Kim San, picked Wong Hung Khim a close, the Tanjong Pagar Dock Company rose to lead the organisation as General Manager. to a position of prominence at the port, owning Wong had reported to Lim, who previously almost three-quarters of all wharf space at the served as the Minister for Transport, when harbour. Following a merger with its biggest he led Singapore Bus Services as General competitor in 1899, the company efectively Manager earlier in his career. owned the entire stretch of wharves at the harbour, assuming a monopolistic role in the AN ESTABLISHED PORT port and shipping business. In 1905, the colonial government acquired When Wong joined the PSA in 1979, the agency the Tanjong Pagar Dock Company, which had was already an established organisation. racked up huge debts to undertake ambitious Although worldwide shipping and port expansion plans, to form the Tanjong Pagar industries were afected by the global recession Dock Board. As the global shipping industry of the 1970s, shipping tonnage at the port of continued to grow in the early years of the 20th Singapore continued to increase year-on-year as century, the British government undertook the scale and quality of its operations improved. eforts to modernise the port industry and the By the end of the decade, the PSA was The Port of Singapore
operating six diferent port facilities: Keppel A BUSINESSMAN’S MINDSET Harbour, Pasir Panjang Wharves, Jurong Port, East Lagoon Container Complex, Telok Ayer One of Wong’s key priorities was to position Wharves and Sembawang Wharves. These Singapore’s port system as safe, efcient facilities were all well-equipped, modern and accessible. He believed the PSA must be and efcient. operated as a service-oriented business, with Wong recalled that in the 1960s, Singapore the needs of customers coming frst. There was already ranked the world’s ffth busiest must be a streamlined documentation process, port. In 1975, it surpassed London, moving into reasonable handling and administrative fees, 66 fourth position; in 1978, it overtook New York and a reliable corps of trafc controllers and to become the world’s third busiest port; and dock workers who could provide round-the- in 1979, the year that Wong joined the PSA, it clock service. This would give ships passing overtook Yokohama to become the second, through the port a quick and seamless transit. just behind the port of Rotterdam. In 1978, the PSA introduced the Appropriated Singapore’s prospects were bright, but Berth (AB) Scheme at Keppel Harbour. Under Wong knew that it would be difcult to outrank the AB scheme, a shipping line is given priority Rotterdam, Europe’s largest sea port. The Dutch in berthing its vessels at a designated berth and port served the world’s greatest trade zone has exclusive use of the warehouses behind it. across the whole of Europe, and was at least In return, the shipping line has to guarantee a a decade ahead of Singapore in terms of the minimum cargo throughput. sophistication and quality of its port facilities, This arrangement was a departure from technical expertise and service systems. the pre-existing arrangement under which According to Wong, the government placed Singapore’s port was a multiple-user facility great emphasis on the management and with no preferential berthing rights extended expansion of the PSA, and wanted to ensure its to individual shipping lines. The AB scheme position as one of the world’s largest and busiest was very well-received by large shipping lines shipping ports. The year Wong joined the PSA, willing and able to guarantee a minimum the government had begun ambitious eforts to berthing period for its vessels in exchange for move Singapore’s economy up the value chain, the frst right of use of a specifc berth. It gave and was encouraging productivity improvements these companies full control over the amount across industry sectors. Wong was tasked with of time their vessels could remain at port, and implementing many changes at the PSA. where they could be berthed. Immediately after joining the PSA, Wong The scheme was a good way for the PSA to spent some time learning about the organisation. retain major shipping lines and clients. It also Thereafter, he formulated a 10-year plan for enabled the PSA to make better and earlier Singapore to become the world’s busiest projections about the amount of fees and seaport. Many people were not convinced of charges it could collect from shipping lines. Wong’s ambition for the port of Singapore, but Under Wong’s leadership of the PSA, the AB he was confdent that the plan would succeed. scheme was expanded and enhanced. In 1981, Singapore, Unlimited
Tanjong Pagar Container Terminal in 1978, with a view of the CBD in the background. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
the scheme was extended to Pasir Panjang Wong also recognised that shipping vessels Wharves, to the west of Keppel Harbour. In 1986, plying international routes could choose to the PSA made the scheme more competitive dock at any of the many ports in the region by reducing each client’s required annual for replenishing supplies. In order to attract throughput, and introducing discounts on port these vessels to the port of Singapore, the service charges based on shipping volumes. PSA had to provide high quality port services, Another innovation undertaken by the PSA and at competitive rates. One of the initiatives was to consolidate its port service operations undertaken by the PSA to make Singapore a at Tanjong Pagar Terminal in 1980. Previously, compelling choice for these companies was units of the PSA were located in diferent areas to introduce a fexible tarif structure, where across the entire port, leading to administrative companies would enjoy lower tarifs at certain inefciencies and causing inconvenience to port times. The PSA also streamlined the list of clients seeking to complete clearance and other supplies which were subject to taxes. processes. With the consolidation, the shipping Additionally, the PSA adopted computerisation administrative unit, maritime and port security to provide better and more efcient services unit, trafc control unit and port operations to its shipping clients. Many service-oriented centre were housed in the same location. This operations, including the reservation of loading made it more convenient for shipping clients and unloading facilities, cargo delivery systems and customers to seek and obtain the PSA’s and payment of port service fees, were automated administrative and support services. and computerised during the 1970s and 1980s. The Port of Singapore
Shipping containers being unloaded at Tanjong Pagar Container Terminal, 1988. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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LEVERAGING TECHNOLOGY forwarding companies to obtain real-time information on their containers. This functioned As the Singapore government made a big push as a kind of delivery-tracking mechanism, to promote computerisation and the adoption enabling companies to more accurately plan of information technology (IT) innovations their arrivals at port, and better coordinate across government agencies in the early subsequent operational needs with hauling, 1980s, the PSA also explored ways to capitalise transportation and delivery businesses. on technology to enhance port operations. BOXNET also included a feature that “Information technology was pivotal in the automatically generated ship stowage and development of the maritime industry,” observed yard layout plans. This allowed the PSA to Wong. When Wong assumed the role of General easily decide on the optimal allocation of berth Manager, he appointed an ofcer named Lee spaces for individual vessels. Berth spaces Chee Yeng to lead the full computerisation of could also be reserved ahead of time. This the PSA in the shortest time possible. greatly sped up the loading and unloading of Lee led a team to develop a system called shipping containers. BOXNET in 1984. This computer-based system, Immediately following the development which was introduced after nearly two years of the system, the PSA approached one of its of research, enabled port operations to be major clients, Maersk Line, to be its inaugural conducted in a much more efcient manner— user. Maersk found the system to be very including by speeding up the berthing of efective in enabling logistics arrangements vessels, as well as the loading and unloading of to be conducted in a much better coordinated shipping containers. and more efcient manner. The PSA thereafter The system employed an internet-based ofered the use of the system to a larger number network that enabled shipping lines and freight of shipping clients, who readily adopted it. Singapore, Unlimited
The BOXNET system was upgraded in 1989, In 1985, the PSA built its new headquarters at and renamed PORTNET. The system remains in Alexandra Road at a cost of S$180 million. The use. Currently, it facilitates more than 20 billion new development was an integrated complex transactions across the PSA’s facilities each day. comprising an ofce block for the consolidation of PSA’s administrative departments, and a THE WORLD’S LARGEST BUNKERING PORT large warehouse. It also contained retail, postal and medical services to meet the needs of port Apart from strengthening the PSA’s container users and the general public. facilities and services, Wong also looked to In the 1980s, the PSA invested heavily in build up the port’s bunkering infrastructure. infrastructure to house and process shipping 69 Bunkering is the supply of fuel for use by containers. It invested S$800 million to ships, including the distribution of fuel among build the Brani Container Terminal, upgrade available bunker tanks. the Tanjong Pagar Container Terminal, and The PSA sought to attract more vessels construct a causeway linking Pulau Brani to to call at the Port of Singapore for bunkering, mainland Singapore to facilitate the movement including by ofering them competitive prices, of shipping containers and other cargo. quality fuel and reliable services. In 1986, 52% The PSA also spent more than S$1.5 billion of the vessels calling at the Port of Singapore to upgrade its container delivery facilities. required bunkering services, with half this This included adding more extensive basic fgure specifcally needing refuelling services. infrastructure and purchasing additional In 1980, the PSA, Temasek Holdings and equipment such as cranes and forklifts. These other investors established a joint venture investments increased the mechanisation of company to build an oil refnery at Pulau Sebarok, the PSA’s container terminals. As a result, the an island of Singapore’s southern coast. One of PSA’s container throughput quadrupled in the the project’s aims was to substantially improve early 1980s. By 1990, Singapore had become Singapore’s bunkering capacity and services. the world’s largest container port, with annual It constructed 18 oil storage tanks and a 16 m transaction volumes at the port reaching deep jetty that would allow oil tankers of up to 4 million twenty-foot equivalent (shipping 80,000 deadweight tonnes to dock. The facility container) units, or TEUs. started operating in 1982. By 1988, Singapore Apart from this, the PSA invested heavily in had overtaken the port of Rotterdam to become building and enhancing warehouses. In 1980, the world’s top bunkering port, measured by for example, it spent S$120 million to overhaul bunker sales volume. many existing warehouses, including by installing computers to check inventory and INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENTS manage the allocation of storage space. With the addition and construction of new Throughout the 1980s, the PSA also spent buildings and facilities, Singapore became extensively on infrastructure to enhance its an important regional warehousing and services and facilities for shipping clients. distribution hub. The Port of Singapore
The Port of Singapore in 1994, a few years after it was announced to be the world’s busiest port. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
WORKFORCE IMPROVEMENTS One of the frst measures that Wong took was to reduce the PSA’s workforce numbers. In Wong shared an interesting anecdote about 1982, the PSA cut its staf from 15,000 to 9,500. a faulty light bulb in his ofce, and how it had This was not done through direct retrenchment, convinced him of the need for workforce a difcult process that would have caused improvements at the PSA. sufering to those who had been let of. Instead, When Wong frst joined the PSA, he Wong achieved this in two ways. requested his secretary to send for a worker First, the PSA retrained hundreds of low- to replace a blown light bulb in his ofce. After skilled port workers to enable them to become waiting several hours, three men fnally arrived. machinery operators. These and subsequent One of them steadied the ladder which the batches of workers underwent continuous second man scaled to replace the blown light skills upgrading programmes to enable them bulb. The third man was the duo’s supervisor. to keep up with improvements in automation, The episode prompted Wong to refect on mechanisation and computerisation of port how grossly overstafed the PSA was, and facilities throughout the 1980s. the need to trim the organisation’s workforce Second, the PSA rolled out an early numbers and enhance overall productivity. retirement scheme to encourage workers who These problems, he felt, had to be addressed in were still unable to adequately meet their work order for the PSA to perform at its best. targets to retire from the organisation. Those Singapore, Unlimited
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who accepted the PSA’s ofer enjoyed various problem, the PSA introduced elevator cabins to A view of payments and subsidies. convey operators up and down cranes, making Tanjong Pagar Container These eforts helped reduce the PSA’s their work much less physically difcult. These Terminal today. workforce needs and improve the overall quality cabins were subsequently upgraded with air- (Chuttersnap) of its remaining staf. Wong also focused on the conditioning, a luxury unheard of in shipping need to improve the welfare of port workers, ports at the time. many of whom were engaged in manually According to Wong, the PSA managed arduous roles. to train many excellent trafc controllers. As Soon after joining the PSA, Wong learnt vessels arrived at the harbour, controllers were that crane operators had to leave their roles at already on site to direct trafc. Their eforts a relatively young age because of the need to greatly shortened the waiting time for vessels climb up and down the very high cranes. Wong entering their allocated berths. saw this as a waste of resources because it Also, in 1983, workers at the Tanjong Pagar took several years of training and experience Container Terminal set a world record for to produce a good crane operator. To solve this their speed in loading and unloading shipping The Port of Singapore
containers. The terminal continues to be widely had aimed for Singapore to overtake Rotterdam recognised in the global shipping industry for as the world’s busiest port. This target was met its operational efciency. with scepticism from many in the organisation As Singapore’s economy grew rapidly in and within the government, but he managed to the 1980s, the PSA also gave attractive salary lead the PSA to this target in just three years. increases to its workers. In 1980, it gave almost Wong shared another important observation 10,000 workers an annual pay increment from his time in the PSA. Government agencies totalling S$3.5 million, representing an average have always played the role of monitoring pay increase of almost 8%. In 1982, the agency and regulating the private sector, but too 72 signed a collective agreement with its lower much regulatory supervision hinders the ranking employees, including many who were growth of enterprise. They should therefore paid by the day. Under this agreement, some also carefully consider the needs and interests 9,000 port workers enjoyed a 10% to 12% of businesses. increase in their wages. At the PSA, Wong understood that investing in world-class port infrastructure would be THE WORLD’S BUSIEST PORT futile if there were no customers to use it. In order to build up the PSA’s client roster, Wong During the 1970s and 1980s, the number of and PSA Chairman Lim travelled extensively shipping containers handled at the port of to the United States, Europe, Taiwan and Singapore increased substantially. In fact, elsewhere to meet the world’s major shipping between 1979 and 1984, the PSA’s throughput lines and successfully convinced many of them grew by 35% despite a recession in many to dock their vessels at Singapore. developed economies and a 12% decline in shipping transactions worldwide. In 1984, the GRIT, ACUMEN AND RESOURCEFULNESS amount of shipping containers handled by the port of Singapore reached 112 million tonnes, Although Singapore’s status as the world’s up from 50 million tonnes in 1971. busiest port has since been overtaken by the Wong revealed that the Port of Singapore had port of Shanghai, it still remains an internationally overtaken Rotterdam as the world’s busiest port important and admired shipping and transit hub. in 1982. But this fact was not made public then, Much of its success can be attributed to the because the PSA wanted to shelter the port from eforts of Wong and his team at the PSA. increased competition and attention from rivals. Wong’s management of the PSA was It was only announced in the 1990s, some years resourceful, outcome-driven and informed by after Wong had left the PSA. By then, the port of business acumen—all of which are, in many Singapore had already established itself as one of ways, qualities shared by many of Singapore’s the world’s most important container terminals. pioneering leaders in developing the country. Refecting on his tenure at the PSA, Wong said that organisations should not be afraid to set bold and ambitious targets for themselves. Wong Trafc on North Bridge Road, in the heart of Singapore’s city centre, 1968. (George W. Porter Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) 7 The Land Transport Network Adopting an integrated and comprehensive approach to land transport planning, Singapore resolved the problems of trafc congestion and pollution that plagued many motorists and commuters.
Mr Joseph Yee has four decades of experience in the transport, planning and engineering sectors.
Yee was the Director of Roads and Transportation at the Public Works Department (PWD) from 1992 to 1995. He moved to the newly formed Land Transport Authority (LTA) in 1995, where he frst served as the Director for Engineering and Trafc Management (1995–1999) and then as the Director for Planning and Transportation (1999–2003). During his public service career, Yee participated in the planning of Singapore’s Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) and the Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system.
After leaving the LTA, Yee joined CPG Corporation as a Principal Consultant, where he has worked on transportation and engineering projects in China, India, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and the United Arab Emirates. Singapore, Unlimited
When Singapore gained self-governance from and service standards were poor, and the the British in 1959, the country’s city centre vehicles were poorly maintained and prone to was in a chaotic state. The 7 km2 district was frequent breakdowns. over-populated, polluted and congested, and To fully unlock Singapore’s potential for many of its residents sufered from poverty and economic growth and provide a better quality of unemployment. The Singapore River fowed life for its people, more extensive development through the city centre and transported many plans would be required. light vessels and boats that carried goods to After Singapore gained full political and fro the shipping port at the southern end of independence in 1965, the government sought the country. However, it was flled with efuent the technical and fnancial assistance of the 75 discharged from warehouses, shops and United Nations Development Programme residences that lined its banks. (UNDP) to establish a land-use plan to guide Singapore’s leaders made it a priority the physical development of Singapore over the to develop the economy and raise living next two decades. It initiated the State and City standards as quickly as possible. It established Planning Project in 1967, assembling a group the Housing and Development Board (HDB) of foreign experts and local ofcials to prepare in 1960 to quickly construct new residential a plan for Singapore’s physical development. buildings in and around the city centre. Many Unsurprisingly, a central focus of the group’s squatters and other residents in the city centre eforts was to study the transportation- and trafc- were resettled in the newly built apartment related problems in Singapore, and propose a units. The HDB’s Urban Renewal Department comprehensive plan to improve connectivity planned and implemented much-needed urban across the island. The group ascertained that infrastructure such as sanitation, street lighting for Singapore to achieve sustainable economic and green spaces, to improve the quality of the and social development, it must establish a physical environment. comprehensive transport network. However, the government understood that The resulting land-use plan, the Concept Plan development eforts could not simply focus of 1971, proposed the building of high-density on rehabilitation and expansion of the city satellite towns around the Central Catchment centre. For one, many of the privately-owned Reserve (which would be safeguarded as a land parcels in and around the city centre had water catchment area), with the country’s main already been developed, with limited remaining commercial and industrial facilities planned land for new buildings. Moreover, the roads along a development corridor in the southern and transport arteries in the city centre, already part of the country stretching from Jurong in the heavily congested, would not be able to cope west to Changi in the east. A comprehensive with the expected increase in commuting transport network comprising an urban rail workers, motor vehicles and buses. The bus- system and various expressways would connect only public transportation system comprised a the diferent parts of the island to the city centre. handful of privately owned bus companies. Bus This plan refected an understanding of the need services were erratic and unreliable, operation to integrate transport planning with land-use. The Land Transport Network
MANAGING TRAFFIC FLOWS Many of Singapore’s expressways include sections that run underground. In many cases, A longstanding feature of the government’s this was because of the unavailability of transport policies has been the management surface space. For example, the Kallang-Paya of motor vehicle trafc, in particular to relieve Lebar Expressway (KPE), which was opened trafc congestion in densely populated areas in September 2008, includes a 9 km long such as the city centre. Starting from the mid- tunnel that is the longest subterranean road in 1960s, the government built a network of Southeast Asia. expressways to connect the city centre with 76 regional centres in other parts of the island. PLANNING SINGAPORE’S ROADS The expressways were further connected to a series of increasingly smaller roads to enable The development of expressways and drivers to access their neighbourhoods and other roads required careful planning and other localities. consideration. This was especially true in The government established a formal the case of expressways running through the hierarchy of roads based on size and capacity, city centre. with all roads grouped into one of fve For example, the CTE passes through the key categories. These included expressways and commercial districts of Chinatown, Singapore semi-expressways (category 1), major arterial River and Orchard Road. At the time of the roads (category 2), arterial and primary access CTE’s construction, these districts were already roads (categories 3 & 4), and local access densely developed. The PWD had realised that roads (category 5). The creation of these construction of a major expressway would categories, each with its own planning, design, exert a negative visual impact on these districts landscaping and other requirements, provided and create additional noise pollution in the for efcient road planning and management. city. There was also the consideration that the The longest and oldest expressway in expressway would artifcially divide the city Singapore is the Pan-Island Expressway (PIE). into two separate districts, disrupting ground- According to Joseph Yee, the PIE was a major level urban connectivity. The PWD therefore and complex feat of engineering. Construction designed and built the CTE as a series of on the expressway commenced in 1964, and underground tunnels that cost approximately ended 16 years later. Today, the PIE stretches four times more than if it had been built as a nearly the entire length of Singapore, from Tuas surface expressway. in the west to Changi in the east. The Central The government also considered how Expressway (CTE), which started operating road construction afected communities and in 1989, stretches from the city centre in the individuals. For example, given Singapore’s south to new towns such as Ang Mo Kio and limited land resources, there has been a need Bishan in the north. The PIE and CTE, together to acquire privately-owned land in order to with nine other expressways, are Singapore’s construct new roads or widen existing ones. This main major land transport arteries. process requires substantial engagement and Singapore, Unlimited
A newly opened section of the CTE, 1985. The CTE is one of Singapore’s 11 expressways. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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mediation. The government also compensates land. In comparison, Japan had only 2,930 m afected land owners at market rate and ofers and Hong Kong 1,090 m of road per 1 km2 of other forms of assistance to parties who may be land. Given the country’s small land area, the afected by the acquisition. government could not simply continue building Yee explained that all major road more viaducts, roads and expressways or construction projects in Singapore are widen existing ones. It would not be tenable to planned and implemented considering two key keep allocating more land for roads, because objectives. These are to improve the quality there were other development needs such of life for residents by enhancing connectivity as housing and industry. A more qualitative and convenience; and promote the country’s approach had to be taken to disperse trafc economic growth by facilitating the smooth and alleviate congestion, such as through the movement of goods, services and workers. For introduction of systems and infrastructure to example, the PIE was planned to run through control and manage trafc. Singapore’s main development corridor stretching from Changi Airport to Jurong DEVELOPING A ROBUST Industrial Estate. Additional expressways such PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM as the CTE and the Bukit Timah Expressway (BKE) were built to connect the city centre to In the 1970s, the government observed key regional centres. that as Singapore’s population continued By the 1990s, Singapore had one of the to grow, the demand for motor vehicles and highest road densities in the world, with other forms of land transport would increase. more than 4,000 m of road for every 1 km2 of The government saw the need to develop a The Land Transport Network
comprehensive public transportation system the people, it would also boost Singapore’s to meet the needs of commuters. economic competitiveness by promoting The basic contours of the Mass Rapid Transit greater connectivity between the city centre (MRT) system had been established in the and other parts of the country. Additionally, 1971 Concept Plan. In the years immediately the MRT would provide better accessibility following the publication of this plan, to areas beyond the Central Area, facilitating infrastructure sector ofcials, with the help of the development and more optimal use of private sector consultants and experts, carefully Singapore’s land resources. planned MRT lines and stations, safeguarding The government committed to paying the 78 tracts of land for their development. construction cost of S$5 billion, which was The MRT took 16 years of careful equivalent to one-sixth of Singapore’s gross deliberation and planning, continuing even domestic product (GDP) in 1982. Ticketing without certainty on whether the project would sales and other sources of revenue would be proceed. A key objection to the MRT expressed used to foot the MRT’s operating costs. MRT by many in the Cabinet, Parliament and the fares were kept afordable to the general public, general public centred on cost. In the late mainly because the government did not intend 1970s—a period of global economic turmoil— to recover the capital cost through commuter the cost of building the MRT was estimated charges. Instead, the government believed the at S$5 billion, a substantial sum. Many construction of the MRT would signifcantly government leaders felt that Singaporeans increase the value of state-owned land parcels would be adequately served by the public bus located close to the network. As the government system, which would have been much less sold these land parcels to private developers, the expensive to expand and improve. higher revenues obtained from land premiums But proponents of the MRT, including the would allow the country to indirectly reap the then Minister for Communications Ong Teng returns on its investment in the project. Cheong, disagreed. They observed that a bus- By the early 1980s, Singapore had a well- only public transport system would worsen operating public bus system. This was the trafc congestion in the city centre, creating result of successful eforts by the government trafc delays and other inconveniences to to overhaul the sector since the early 1970s. commuters. Massive trafc jams could also Prior to this, bus services were provided by slow down the movement of goods, services almost a dozen private bus companies. The and workers. These problems would afect the sector was plagued by economic inefciencies, quality of life for many Singaporeans, and have and services were delivered at varying levels of a negative impact on economic development. reliability, quality and comfort. The government ultimately decided to In 1973, the government consolidated build the MRT, announcing its commitment to the privately-owned bus companies into the do so in 1982. It saw the MRT as a strategic Singapore Bus Services (SBS) company and investment with enduring benefts. Beyond assembled a team of government ofcials to providing a convenient form of transport to improve the operations of the bus network. In the An MRT train, public bus and other vehicles at Clementi, 1988. The development of a public transportation network integrating the MRT and bus system helped to reduce Singaporeans’ reliance on private motor vehicles. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) The Land Transport Network
years that followed, SBS implemented several morning rush hour. This was largely due to the improvements, including training programmes growth in Singaporeans’ household incomes for bus service workers, standardisation of bus and the increased demand for cars. In fact, car- models and streamlining of service routes. The ownership grew at a rate of almost 9% each government also paid for the development of year between 1962 and 1973. Without quick bus interchanges and terminals. and direct intervention, trafc conditions in the By the time the MRT started operations in city would have worsened considerably. 1987, the basic infrastructure was in place to support the government’s plans for an AREA LICENSING SCHEME 80 integrated public transportation system. In many regional centres and new towns, for The government introduced the ALS in June instance, MRT stations were located next to 1975 to relieve peak-hour trafc congestion in bus interchanges, enabling commuters to the CBD by up to 30%. switch easily and conveniently from one mode Under the ALS, motorists were required of transport to another. Another innovation, the to purchase a special licence to enter a introduction of a common fare system between “restricted zone” within the CBD during the the MRT and buses, also enhanced commuter morning peak hours of 7:30–9.30 a.m. from convenience, as a single ticket could be used Mondays to Saturdays. The paper licence across both systems. was to be clearly displayed on the vehicle’s The establishment of a comprehensive windscreen. Gantries were erected at some and convenient public transportation network 27 entry points to the 6.7 km2 restricted zone, signifcantly reduced Singaporeans’ reliance with trafc ofcers standing guard to ensure on private motor vehicles. It alleviated trafc that each entering vehicle had a licence. congestion in many parts of the country, Buses, taxis, motorcycles, ambulances and especially the city centre, and relieved fre engines were exempted from the licence. pressure on the government to build more To encourage car-pooling, cars ferrying at roads and expressways. least four passengers were also exempted. The ALS was successful in reducing the REDUCING PRIVATE VEHICLE USE number of cars entering the CBD. In the frst six months of the scheme’s operation, the number The government also took many steps to of cars entering the restricted zone decreased minimise trafc congestion on Singapore’s by more than 73%. The ALS also led to roads. Apart from developing a comprehensive improvements in air and noise pollution within road network and public transportation system, the CBD, and reduced the cost of maintaining there have been direct measures to reduce the and improving public roads. public’s use of private motor vehicles. According to Yee, the idea for the ALS was In the early 1970s, trafc congestion had drawn from the work of British statistician and become a serious problem in the Central transport researcher Reuben Jacob Smeed. In Business District (CBD), especially during the 1964, Smeed published a paper arguing that Singapore, Unlimited
roads were a valuable commodity and that Despite the objections of some motorists, the individuals should pay in order to use them. ALS brought about a signifcant improvement to It took some years of planning and design trafc conditions in the CBD. It also represented before Singapore implemented the ALS. During an innovative approach to trafc fow that time, the government carefully deliberated management by directly controlling the use of on the optimal price of the licence. Ultimately, roads by private vehicles, rather than seeking to transport planners decided to peg the price of reduce the population of these vehicles. The ALS the licence to the average monthly parking fee in was the world’s frst area-based licensing scheme the CBD, which was about S$60. Assuming that to tackle trafc congestion. Subsequently, major there were four weeks in a month and fve work European cities like Oslo, London and Milan 81 days per week, the daily parking fee would be implemented similar schemes. S$3. This was established as the ALS’s daily fee. The government has made many The government implemented several enhancements to the ALS over the years, such measures to prepare motorists for the as extending the licensing hours to include the introduction of the ALS. For example, evening rush hour, and then the entire work anticipating that many motorists commuting day. The restricted zone was also enlarged to work each morning would choose to park by about 0.5 km2 between 1975 and 1978. their vehicles just beyond the restricted zone, To complement the ALS, the government the government built more parking spaces and imposed higher parking fees in the city centre expanded the road network at the fringe of the to discourage motorists from entering the area. CBD. It also provided exit paths for motorists In 1998, the ALS was replaced by the ERP who wanted to avoid entering the restricted system, which is still operational today. The zone. Apart from these infrastructural measures, ALS was a manually operated system that the government promoted car-sharing schemes required motorists to purchase paper licences and rolled out a public education programme to and trafc ofcers to monitor compliance. The explain the need for the ALS. ERP, a fully automated system, corrected these The ALS was not always well-received by inefciencies. Today, vehicles in Singapore motorists. In response to an appeal from the are ftted with a device containing a card with government for feedback on the scheme, stored monetary value; when passing under many members of the public ofered critical an ERP gantry, the licence fee is electronically comments. The owner of a hotel in the CBD deducted by the vehicle’s device. Motorists can protested against the inclusion of his property also pay the licence fee through an automatic within the restricted zone and responded in deduction on a registered debit or credit card, dramatic fashion by riding a trishaw to work each time they pass under an ERP gantry. on the frst day of the ALS’ operations. One respondent, a doctor, argued that he should CERTIFICATE OF ENTITLEMENT SYSTEM not have to purchase a licence to drive to his workplace, since he was performing the noble The government also sought to manage trafc work of saving lives. by controlling the demand for cars, most The Land Transport Network
People in front of a kiosk selling “daily area licences” to motorists entering the CBD, 1975. The Area Licensing Scheme was introduced that year to relieve peak-hour trafc congestion in the CBD. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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notably through the Certifcate of Entitlement formally adopted in April 2002 and remains (COE) system, introduced in May 1990. in place today, allows prospective bidders to Under the system, anyone who intends to monitor COE prices across the various vehicle own and use a motor vehicle must frst bid for categories and price their bids accordingly, and obtain a COE under one of various vehicle preventing large fuctuations in COE prices. categories. Each certifcate allows the holder Although the COE system was only to own a vehicle for an initial period of 10 introduced in 1990, there had been various years. The number of COEs released in each forms of car ownership controls since the bidding exercise is determined by a quota 1950s. Despite these controls, which mostly for each category of vehicles that is revised took the form of taxes and fees, the vehicle by the government at regular intervals. Each population in Singapore continued to grow at a round of revision takes into account fgures rapid rate. In the 1960s and 1970s, the number such as the number of recently de-registered of vehicles increased by almost 9% each year, vehicles, as well as expired or cancelled COEs. contributing to greater trafc congestion, As a quota-based system, the COE has been especially in the CBD. efective in managing the number of vehicles In January 1990, a parliamentary committee on Singapore’s roads. on transportation submitted a report proposing For the frst decade the COE was in efect, the establishment of the COE system to regulate the bidding system was a closed one. After motor vehicle numbers. The proposal was a parliamentary review of the COE in 1999, approved after a period of debate in Parliament. the government piloted an open bidding To prepare the country for the introduction system in June 2001. This system, which was of the system, the government launched an Singapore, Unlimited
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exercise to seek public feedback on the COE in monitoring and accident-response eforts. A view of the March 1990. The exercise was an opportunity With the completion of Singapore’s eighth Pan-Island Expressway, for members of the public to share their views expressway in 1990, the government embarked with an on the system, and raise questions about on plans to implement an electronic system Expressway implementation details. to monitor trafc fows on all of Singapore’s Monitoring Advisory The COE was ofcially launched in May 1990, expressways. The Expressway Monitoring System (EMAS) and has had a signifcant and enduring impact Advisory System (EMAS) was frst planned signboard on the growth of vehicles. Between 2018 and for in the mid-1990s, and construction of the showing estimated 2019, for example, the number of private cars in system began in late 1996. The system was travel times Singapore increased by only 1.1%. ofcially launched at the CTE in March 1998. to various The system employs a network of electronic destinations. (Marcel Gnauk) EXPRESSWAY MONITORING cameras and light-emitting diode (LED) ADVISORY SYSTEM signboards installed at various locations along each expressway. The cameras record To promote smooth trafc on Singapore’s and transmit data on trafc conditions to a roads and expressways, the government monitoring centre. When an accident occurs, also leveraged technology to enhance trafc ofcers at the monitoring centre instantly relay The Land Transport Network
information on the accident to frst-responders COE and ERP. The LTA was formed in 1995 with such as the Singapore Civil Defence Force the merging of the Road and Transportation (SCDF) and the trafc police. Messages on the Division of the PWD, the Registry of Vehicles, LED signboards inform motorists approaching the Mass Rapid Transit Corporation and the the accident site to reduce their driving Land Transportation Division of the Ministry speeds, or make alternative travel plans. The of Communications. system also conveys this information to media Yee recalled that the move to merge these organisations such as television and radio diferent organisations under a single authority stations, to more widely broadcast news about was viewed with some scepticism within 84 trafc disruption and advise drivers to avoid the the public sector. Many were concerned the afected expressway stretch. organisation would prove to be inefcient and Yee said the system has been very efective inefective, given its many diferent operational at giving motorists a smooth travel experience purviews and focus areas. In fact, Fock Siew on expressways. It has done this by giving Wah, the LTA’s frst chairman, had to be invited motorists detailed information on trafc fows several times to assume this position before he and disruptions, and by cutting down the agreed to do so. time needed to respond to accidents, thus The move eventually paid of. Putting minimising the period of trafc disruption. diverse land transport-related functions under a centralised body allowed transport planners EFFECTIVE ORGANISATIONS and ofcers to leverage the connections and synergies between their various work areas. It According to Yee, one of the key factors also allowed operations to be carried out in a in driving the successful planning and more coordinated, efcient and efective way. implementation of Singapore’s transportation Coupled with good corporate governance, policies has been the establishment of this approach has enabled Singapore to dedicated agencies and organisations. plan and implement its transport strategies Examples of these include the Singapore successfully. Mass Rapid Transit (SMRT) and SBS Transit companies. The SMRT was formed to operate the MRT, while SBS Transit was the former SBS. Today, both companies are multi-modal transport organisations that operate diferent sections of the MRT and public bus networks. Currently, the LTA, a statutory board under the Ministry of Transport (MOT), is the public agency that oversees all land transport in Singapore, including the planning, design and implementation of land transport infrastructure and systems such as the EMAS, Rows of Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) railway tracks in Singapore. (Esaias Tan) 8 The Mass Rapid Transit System The Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system took almost two decades of planning and faced many detractors when initial plans for it were frst proposed. But the foresight and determination of its proponents convinced decision-makers and the general public of the country’s need for a comprehensive, reliable and accessible urban rail system.
Mr Bruno Wildermuth is a Swiss-born transport expert and consultant. He arrived in Singapore in 1972 to conduct planning and feasibility studies for the MRT, and was involved in the development of the system for several years thereafter.
In 1982, Wildermuth served as the lead planner of the MRT, taking charge of eforts such as the design of control systems and other basic infrastructure. He was also involved in planning the MRT fare structure, and the integration of public transport fares with the bus system.
Apart from his work on the MRT, Wildermuth has also participated in the planning of public transport networks in cities like Kuala Lumpur, Hanoi, Dubai, Hong Kong, Melbourne, Sydney, Bangkok, Buenos Aires and Almaty.
Mr Pok Sheung Foo joined the public service in 1962 as an engineer in the Housing and Development Board (HDB). Pok also served other roles in the public service, including at the Ministry of Communications from 1974 to 1976 and the Public Works Department (PWD) from 1976 to 1983.
In his four-decade long public service career, Pok spent almost 20 years on the planning and implementation of the MRT. During this time, he worked on a variety of key areas, including land-use, fnancing and research. As a member of the government’s Mass Transit Study Unit, Pok also oversaw the 1982 publication of a Comprehensive Trafc Study Report recommending the development of the MRT.
Pok has also participated in the planning of public rail systems in Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok. Singapore, Unlimited
Passengers on an MRT train, 1987. The MRT system was ofcially opened in November 1987. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
In a poll conducted by the Chinese language PLANNING FOR AN URBAN RAIL SYSTEM newspaper Lianhe Zaobao to mark the 50th year of Singapore’s independence in 2015, In the years after independence, Singapore’s the public voted the launch of the MRT as leaders sought to establish a comprehensive one of the top 10 most signifcant events in urban master plan to guide the long-term Singapore’s history. development of the country. The government The idea to develop an urban rail system turned to the United Nations Development was frst explored by the government in 1967, Programme (UNDP) for technical and fnancial just two years after Singapore achieved its assistance in this efort, launching the State independence. But it was only in 1982 that and City Planning Project. This project was the government formally announced its plan implemented by public service ofcers and to proceed with building the MRT. Five years foreign experts, leading to the creation of a long- later, the MRT ofcially opened. term developmental blueprint for the country. The development of the MRT took 16 One of the project team’s key areas of focus years of research, deliberation and planning, was transportation. Observing the massive and cost the government S$5 billion in initial trafc congestion in and around the city capital. With more than 120 stations along a centre, the team devised a plan to decentralise 200 km route and daily ridership of over three many economic, commercial, residential and million, the MRT is an important part of the employment functions to other parts of the daily lives of many Singaporeans today. island. The city centre would be redeveloped, The Mass Rapid Transit System
with the construction of skyscrapers and Northwestern University in the United States. other high-density developments, to support Upon his graduation a year later, Pok returned industries such as trading and fnance. to Singapore and was assigned to the State The team observed that for this plan to work, and City Planning Project, where he helped Singapore would require a comprehensive conduct transportation studies and surveys. He transport system to connect the new regional was subsequently appointed Project Manager centres to its city centre. of the Mass Transit Study Committee. The plan that was fnally conceived—the Pok recalled that the team’s studies and 1971 Concept Plan—featured several key reports resulted in clear recommendations 88 innovations. Among them was the construction on future MRT stations. Even during the of a rail transit system comprising a railway early stages of the committee’s work, the line spanning north to south, and another line government had started to safeguard land extending from east to west. In this way, the parcels for the future development of the MRT. Concept Plan established the contours of the In the early 1970s, the Standard Chartered MRT’s North-South and East-West lines. The Bank submitted a proposal to the government intention was for the MRT to complement to build an ofce complex at Rafes Place. As the public bus system. Together, the public the proposed site was located above a future transportation system was planned in underground MRT station, the government anticipation of the social and economic needs rejected the proposal immediately. of the country up to the early 1990s. In 1972, the government set up the Singapore AN EXPENSIVE UNDERTAKING Mass Transit Study Committee to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the feasibility In 1980, the government conducted a study of developing the MRT. The committee aimed which estimated that it would cost about S$5 to establish the fnancial requirements for billion to construct the MRT, and a further S$76 building the MRT, and to formulate a long- million to operate it annually. term plan for its implementation. During this During this period, many major economies period, the government also issued a Land Use worldwide were experiencing a deep economic and Transport Planning Review (1975–1978) crisis, and Singapore’s economic prospects which reported that a bus-only public transport looked uncertain. Then Deputy Prime Minister system would meet the commuting needs of Dr Goh Keng Swee publicly questioned if it a maximum of 260,000 workers in the Central was prudent for the government to spend S$5 Business District (CBD). Beyond this, a mass rail billion on building the MRT. Several ministers system would be necessary to avoid exerting and Members of Parliament (MPs) also raised excessive pressure on the road network. objections to the MRT, which they felt would Pok Sheung Foo was an engineer at the cost too much money. HDB between 1962 and 1972. In 1966, Pok won Goh appointed a group of transportation a government scholarship to pursue a graduate experts from Harvard University in the United degree in urban transportation planning at States to study if Singapore should commit Singapore, Unlimited
to building the MRT. The Harvard team, led by against the Harvard team’s report during a series Professor Kenneth Hansen, concluded that of parliamentary debates on the MRT. Ong an MRT system was unnecessary, and that a questioned the assumptions and fgures used comprehensive bus network could adequately by the team, and said that his ministry would meet the public transportation needs of conduct further studies to verify and confrm the Singapore. The government also sought the report’s conclusion. In particular, the Ministry of views of experts from the World Bank, who Communications would determine if Singapore supported the Harvard team’s assessment. will eventually require an MRT system to meet Bruno Wildermuth, a Swiss-born transport the needs of its people in the long run. expert who had been engaged by the Singapore A year later, the government published 89 government to study the feasibility of the MRT, the Comprehensive Trafc Study, Phase A, recalled that the cabinet sought a detailed indicating that the total volume of trafc in the explanation of the impact and signifcance of CBD in 1990 would be 37% higher than what it the MRT, and all other options for creating a currently was. During the Parliamentary budget quality public transportation system. debates in March 1982, Ong made a strong case In particular, the government was keen for building the MRT, saying that the question to facilitate a robust debate to provide an was not whether an MRT system was necessary, opportunity for those supporting the MRT to but when such a system would be needed: present their opinions. Among those in this camp were experts from the American transport The MRT is much more than a transport consultancy Wilbur Smith and Associates investment, and must be viewed in (where Wildermuth worked), which the its wider economic perspective. government had engaged in 1972 to conduct The boost it’ll provide to long-term preliminary planning for the MRT. In October investors’ confdence, the multiplier 1980, the government organised a televised efect and how the MRT will lead to debate pitting the Harvard team against the the enhancement of the intrinsic value experts from Wilbur Smith. of Singapore’s real estate are spin-ofs The team from Wilbur Smith delivered a that cannot be ignored. point-by-point rebuttal of the Harvard report, arguing in particular against an all-bus public The MRT debate fnally came to an end. transportation system, and questioning if such On 28 May 1982, Ong delivered a speech a system would indeed ease trafc congestion at the annual dinner of the Singapore Institute in the CBD during peak hours. The team’s of Architects, ofcially announcing that the arguments were compelling and persuasive, government had decided to proceed with plans but it would still take two years for the to build the MRT. government to publicly announce its intentions Work on the MRT began on 22 October to build the MRT. 1983, 16 years after the State and City Planning In March 1981, then Minister for Project frst envisioned an island-wide urban Communications Ong Teng Cheong argued rail network to ease congestion in the city The Mass Rapid Transit System
Toa Payoh MRT station on the ofcial opening day of the MRT system, 7 November 1987. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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centre. On 7 November 1987, that vision and visited several areas in Singapore to develop became reality, with the opening of the frst 6 a frst-hand understanding of the country’s km stretch of the North-South MRT Line from transportation needs. He even took the local Yio Chu Kang to Toa Payoh. buses and surveyed pedestrian fows, once standing at Orchard Road for several hours to SINGAPORE SENDS FOR WILDERMUTH determine the ideal location for an MRT station. Wildermuth was not in Singapore on the eve In 1972, Wildermuth was working at Wilbur of the October 1980 debate. When Ong called Smith when he was sent to Singapore to Wildermuth’s superiors at Wilbur Smith inviting conduct a feasibility study on building the them to participate in the debate, he was MRT. What was supposed to be a nine-month immediately sent back to Singapore. In his hotel study turned into a four-year sojourn. Even room near Changi Airport, Wildermuth read after the study concluded, Wildermuth made the local newspapers and was struck by the several trips to Singapore for follow-up studies vocal opposition expressed by many members and discussions. (Eventually, he moved to of the public to building the MRT. This made Singapore permanently.) him reluctant to participate in the debate, a In the 1980 televised debate on the MRT, it sentiment he expressed to then Permanent was Wildermuth who represented Wilbur Smith Secretary of the Ministry of Communications in arguing the case for the system. He recalled Sim Kee Boon. that it was not particularly challenging for him to Sim told him that if he did not join the debate, participate in the debate, since he had already there would be an empty chair laid out onstage spent many years studying the issue. During with his name on it. Sim’s response persuaded that time, he had personally walked many streets Wildermuth to take on the challenge. Singapore, Unlimited
A ROBUST DEBATE comprehensive MRT system, there would be no point in even discussing the issue. The televised debate was chaired by Dr Liu Thai Moreover, if the government was to proceed Ker, who was then the Chief Executive Ofcer of with the MRT, the system would signifcantly the HDB. The debate was between the teams reduce Singaporeans’ reliance on cars. By from Wilbur Smith and Harvard, but other 1992, 52% of Singapore’s population would participants were invited to pose questions reside within 1 km of an MRT station. As much to the experts and share their views. These as 53% of workers’ places of employment included representatives from the Automobile would be located within 1 km of an MRT Association of Singapore, Singapore Bus station. Wildermuth added that the MRT trains 91 Services Company, National University of would travel at a speed of about 54 km/h. This Singapore and PWD. In addition, the Group was not especially quick, but much speedier General Manager of the Oversea-Chinese than buses. Train services would also be more Banking Corporation and Deputy News Editor stable and reliable. of The Straits Times were also invited. Several of the invited representatives at During the debate, Wildermuth said that in the debate expressed views that supported the frst four years of planning the MRT from Wildermuth and the rest of the team from 1972 to 1976, he had focused on comparing Wilbur Smith. the various options for a public transportation Joseph Yee, a senior trafc engineer at the system. Eventually, he reached the conclusion PWD, said that it would be difcult for buses that a system comprising both the MRT and to travel at speeds of 50 km/h on expressways public bus network would beneft Singapore without afecting the speeds of other road more than a bus-only system. users. A large number of buses on highways Wildermuth argued that Singapore would would also reduce the amount of space on sufer from heavy trafc congestion if it chose to the road for cars, forcing them to be diverted rely on a bus-only public transportation system. to other roads and potentially causing worse For one, it would be necessary to widen bus congestion there. Cheng Feng Mao, President lanes and pedestrian walkways where the bus of the Automobile Association of Singapore, stops would be located. This would lead to a said that Singapore workers did not wish to reduction in road widths and, consequently, the take one-hour bus rides home after being at trafc-carrying capacity of each road. Trafc work for eight hours. speeds would also fall. These and other similar arguments He questioned the Harvard team’s convinced many watching the debate on the assessment that only 2,700 buses would be need for the MRT. required to cope with transport demands by 1992, noting that Singapore already had COMPELLING ARGUMENTS FORMULATED 2,400 buses in operation in 1980. If a marginal THROUGH CAREFUL STUDY increase of only 300 buses could provide the same amount of commuter convenience as a Wildermuth recalled many of the arguments The Mass Rapid Transit System
he helped formulate in defence of the MRT. adequately meet Singapore’s transportation These arguments indicated that in the course needs in 20 years. of his work, he had considered the issue Wong recalled that the reliability of the buses in a holistic way, tackling matters such as was questionable, given their high maintenance land-use, pollution, population growth and costs and the fact that they were generally less economic development. safe than the MRT. Moreover, a bus system One of his most compelling arguments was was much more labour intensive. Back then, related to cost. Wildermuth projected that the there were two workers on each bus. Each operating cost of the MRT would grow at a worker had to be adequately trained, incurring 92 relatively steady rate of about 8.5% each year. In substantial costs for the bus company. comparison, the operating cost of a public bus There was also the issue of road capacity. system would increase by 8% in 1979 and 24% Wong explained that buses occupied too in 1980. The growth in the annual operating much road space, and there was a strict cost of an all-bus system was not only expected limit to how much existing roads could be to be higher but more difcult to predict. widened. At the time, there was a bus stop Wildermuth was also convinced that the along Victoria Street that always had a whole MRT would not substantially afect the profts line of buses in front of it, backed up like a of the Singapore Bus Services (SBS) company, row of train cabins. The trafc congestion which operated the public bus feet at the and pollution were unbearable, along with time. In fact, the MRT would enable SBS to the increased waiting times sufered by streamline many of its service routes, allowing passengers eager to board the buses. it to reap efciencies of scale and cost savings In a statement to the media at the time, Ong that could be channelled towards improving expressed a similar view that was substantiated its buses and service levels. by detailed statistics. Quoting transport experts, Ultimately, Wildermuth saw the MRT as Ong said that by the 1990s, about 2.6 million a worthwhile investment that would give people would use Singapore’s public transport Singapore an excellent and afordable public each day. If Singapore were to rely on a bus- transport system. Otherwise, Singaporeans only system, it would require a feet of 120 would have to grapple with increased trafc smaller buses, 1,800 normal-sized buses and congestion, longer traveling times and 2,000 larger buses. In the CBD, the number of increased fuel use. bus lanes would have to double, and each lane Wong Hung Khim, who was then General would have to carry 250 buses per hour. The Manager of SBS, recalled that then Prime CBD would be overrun with these vehicles. Minister Lee Kuan Yew had requested his participation in the televised debate. For Wong, A COMPREHENSIVE TRAFFIC STUDY there was no need to debate this issue at all. Although Singapore had an adequate and In the early 1980s, the Mass Transit Study Unit well-managed public bus system, Wong was released a two-part Comprehensive Trafc not confdent that this system alone would Study Report that confrmed many of the Many of Singapore’s public housing estates are located within walking distance of MRT stations. (Pang Yuhao) The Mass Rapid Transit System
observations by Wildermuth, Ong and other requesting a meeting immediately. During the proponents of the MRT. meeting, he questioned Wildermuth in detail Pok, the unit’s project manager, helped about the building and design of the MRT: prepare this report, which was the most detailed how land would be allocated and used to trafc-focused study on the MRT. The frst part build the stations and network; how the MRT of the report, released in early 1982, concluded would complement the bus system, and even that there were too many buses entering the city how the cabins and seats would be designed. centre each day, causing trafc congestion and Lee’s attention to detail left a deep impression passenger delays. The report also projected that on Wildermuth. 94 over the next decade, the volume of bus trafc Lee had also made the right move in picking and private motor vehicle trafc in the city centre Ong to oversee the MRT project. Wildermuth during the morning rush hour would increase by described Ong as a dedicated leader who greatly 24% and 14% respectively. These were, in fact, appreciated Singapore’s need for the MRT, conservative fgures, because the study used perhaps because of his professional training as statistics and assumptions developed on the an architect. Ong had visited several countries basis of household information collected in 1968. with successful urban rail systems, developing However, these conservative fgures were a deep understanding of the issue. He delivered compelling enough to substantiate the report’s many speeches and gave many interviews to the conclusion that the city centre would not be media that clearly and persuasively explained able to cope with the projected increase in the need for the MRT. trafc volume. This was especially the case During a dinner at Kim Keat Community since there were limits to how many bus lanes Centre to mark National Day in August 1980, could be built, and the extent to which existing Ong said, “Certainly, the MRT can contribute roads could be widened. to the growth and vitality of a city and allow for more intensive development”. He added, EFFECTIVE POLITICAL LEADERSHIP “New York, London or Tokyo would not be able to support the amount of urban and economic Wildermuth recalled attending several activity that they do today without their meetings with then Prime Minister Lee during subway systems”. his working visits to Singapore. He revealed For Ong, the MRT was primarily intended to that Lee had been supportive of plans to meet the public transport needs of Singapore build the MRT long before the cabinet nod. by improving connections between the city However, he did not impose his views on his centre and residential areas, as well as easing cabinet colleagues, preferring to maintain an trafc congestion. But the benefts that the open stance while allowing the government to MRT could bring to urban planning and design undertake a careful study of the issue. were equally evident. The televised debate had taken place on For one, with the MRT in place, bus service a Friday. The following Monday, Wildermuth routes could be redrawn in a way that would received a telephone call from Lee’s secretary complement the rail network. This would create Singapore, Unlimited
an integrated, efcient and comprehensive greater convenience to their daily lives. public transportation system around Singapore. The MRT was planned to be built and The improvements to accessibility and opened in phases. The initial capital investment connectivity would also create opportunities of S$5 billion was spent on building a network for more land parcels across the island to be of 42 MRT stations on the North-South Line developed and used. and East-West Line. The network aimed to Ong also felt the MRT would promote cater to a daily ridership of one million. the development of innovative architectural On the morning of 7 November 1987, and design concepts. For example, ofces, Ong ofcially opened the MRT at Toa Payoh shopping centres and other developments station. “This is like a 20-year afair from 95 could be built in clusters around MRT stations, conception to delivery,” he said. “Now the and designed in a way that would facilitate baby is born. Well, to say that I am happy and human movement and activities within each pleased is an understatement.” cluster. This inward spatial design would Pok recalled that the MRT featured several create a fresh ambience in Singapore’s urban ground-breaking features that had not even centres, providing public spaces free from been adopted in more established urban rail trafc noise, congestion and pollution. systems overseas. For example, glass screen Perhaps the most compelling and doors were installed at station platforms in straightforward argument for the MRT was order to conserve energy. As the underground how it would improve the quality of life for MRT stations were air-conditioned, these doors Singaporeans. The system would give them an minimised the seepage of cool air into train excellent public transportation system and bring tunnels. They also played an important safety
Orchard MRT station, pictured here in the late 1980s, was built to link directly to a number of shopping malls. (Singapore Tourism Board Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) The Mass Rapid Transit System
function and reduced the level of noise from British transportation consultants. trains pulling into the station. The task force spent three years conducting The MRT also featured a sophisticated detailed analyses and studies on both control system. According to Pok, the system transportation systems. Their work resulted was the most advanced and automated kind of in several important recommendations. For its time. Through it, MRT controllers could easily example, because MRT stations were planned monitor a range of parameters such as the to serve a relatively large geographical radius, a distances between trains, ensuring that trains network of buses would provide the “last mile” ran safely, smoothly and on schedule. connection to a commuter’s fnal destination, 96 In August 1987, just before the MRT be it their place of employment or residence. started operating, the government established This transportation model was applied in many Singapore Mass Rapid Transit (SMRT) Limited HDB new towns, where bus routes that started to take over the operation of the system. SMRT and ended at MRT stations were designed to was tasked with ensuring the quality and transport people over short distances. This not afordability of train services, and to ensure only avoided service overlaps with the MRT, that there was enough revenue to pay for but allowed the buses to run more efciently, maintenance and repairs. quickly and frequently. The government did not expect or require The task force also studied matters such SMRT to recoup the construction costs of as shared services, complementary fare the system, which had been paid for through structures, public education and ticketing. On government funds safeguarded for the the issue of ticketing, for example, the experts development of national infrastructure. The recommended the use of a single ticket for government would also bear the cost of building both bus and MRT trips, and even considered future MRT lines. SMRT was therefore able to details such as the material to be used for these use the revenue generated from commuter tickets, how they should be printed, and the fares to fund its operations and expenses. Pok types of machines to be used to dispense them. recalled that the government set a proft ceiling on the company, however, to prevent it from KEEPING FARES AFFORDABLE profteering at the expense of commuters. In March 1987, about half a year before the AN INTEGRATED PUBLIC opening of the MRT, the government formed TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM the Public Transport Council (PTC). The main task of the PTC, one that it continues In August 1986, a year before the MRT started to perform today, was to study and make operating, the government formed a task force recommendations to the government on MRT comprising more than 30 transport experts to and bus fares. Pok was appointed the PTC’s conduct detailed planning on the integration founding secretary. Among other fndings, the of the MRT and bus systems. They included council assessed that the integration of the representatives from local bus companies and MRT and bus systems would minimise the An MRT train travels over a canopy of trees. (Jason Goh) The Mass Rapid Transit System
duplication of service routes and enable each country without it. MRT stations and the public system to operate more efciently, thus helping spaces around them are common meeting keep public transport fares low. points, and when asked where they live, many An important move to integrate the MRT Singaporeans describe their addresses relative and bus systems was to establish a common to the closest MRT station. ticketing system and distance-based fare In recent years, overcrowded trains structure. Commuters would only need to buy and service breakdowns have afected a single ticket to travel interchangeably on both Singaporeans’ trust and confdence in the MRT buses and the MRT. Regular commuters could system. SMRT and government ofcials have 98 also purchase monthly concessionary passes made eforts to address public concerns and to save on transport costs. committed to continual improvements to the The government made it a priority to ensure system. The public dissatisfaction is a clear that MRT fares were afordable to the Singapore demonstration of the centrality and importance public. In December 1987, then Deputy Prime of the MRT to Singaporeans’ daily lives. Minister Goh Chok Tong delivered a speech at The coming years will see a further the opening of Orchard MRT Station, stating: expansion of the system, with some 63 new stations and two more railway lines. The total The government has paid S$5 billion length of the network will reach 360 km, up for the tunnels, the tracks and the from about 200 km today. This is almost twice stations. These are handed over to the length of Singapore’s coastline. the company that will run the MRT Wildermuth and Pok’s respective roles system. Passengers won’t have to pay in the planning and development of the for them. They have been paid for. MRT are a vivid reminder of the conviction That is why our MRT fares are reasonable and hard work that led to the success of the and should remain reasonable. system. The future success of the MRT will depend greatly on these same qualities, and In fact, Singapore had one of the lowest urban a commitment by transport sector ofcials to rail transport fares in the world. Commenting continue providing excellent public transport on MRT ticket prices, Lim Leong Geok, a former infrastructure to Singaporeans. General Manager of SMRT, said the company was even prepared to sufer operating losses in its early days. This was to ensure the system was accessible to all Singaporeans.
AN INDELIBLE PART OF SINGAPORE LIFE
The MRT has been operating for more than 30 years. An entire generation of Singaporeans have come of age not knowing life in the Changi Airport’s Control Tower, seen through the windows of a nearby building, 1996. (Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) 9 Singapore Changi Airport Building a new international airport at Changi was an ambitious undertaking initially viewed by experts as unfeasible and overly expensive. But government leaders saw the need for a major facility to meet the growing demand for commercial air travel. Completed in just six years, Changi Airport quickly established itself as one of the world’s best civil aviation hubs.
Mr Lim Hock San joined Singapore’s Department of Civil Aviation in 1975, rising to the position of Director in 1980. When the department was restructured into the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS) in 1984, Lim was appointed the authority’s frst Director-General.
During his career in the aviation sector, Singapore moved its main civilian airport from Paya Lebar to Changi, which developed into a major international air transport hub. Lim played a crucial role in the planning, development and management of Changi Airport. During his leadership of the CAAS, the airport garnered several international awards for its service and operational standards.
In 1989, Lim was selected as the Chairman of the International Civil Airports Association (ICAA), a global trade organisation for the airport sector. Following the establishment of Airports Council International (ACI) to replace the ICAA in 1991, he was appointed the council’s inaugural chairman. His leadership at these organisations is a refection of Singapore’s important role in the global civil aviation industry.
Lim left CAAS in 1992. Since then, he has been appointed Chairman and Chief Executive Ofcer of the United Industrial Corporation, and Chairman of the Ascendas Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT). Singapore, Unlimited
A CENTURY OF AIR TRAVEL PLANNING A NEW AIRPORT AT CHANGI
Singapore’s first air base was established According to Lim Hock San, Singapore’s by the British colonial government in 1921, Director of Civil Aviation from 1980 to 1992, on the eve of the global rise of commercial the colonial authorities had decided to build air travel. The air base, located at Seletar in a commercial airport at Paya Lebar mainly Singapore’s northeast region, was also used because the soil quality suited construction. as a dock for flying boats. This base was The British did not anticipate the boom in subsequently used as the British Royal Air commercial air travel from the 1950s, and the Force’s base in the Far East. future need to expand the airport into a much 101 In 1931, the then Governor of Singapore, larger facility to accommodate the demand of Sir Cecil Clementi, announced plans to passengers and airline companies. build a new civil airport in Kallang Basin. To However, Singapore’s post-independence construct the airport, the authorities had to leaders saw limitations to the extent Paya reclaim some 1.2 km2 of mangrove swamp Lebar could be expanded, and felt the country in the area. Completed in June 1937, Kallang needed a much larger airport to serve the Airport was the first purpose-built civil needs of international travellers and facilitate international airport in Singapore. During economic growth. the Second World War, the airport played an Planning for such an airport began in 1968. important role as the only operational airfield The government chose a site at Changi, in the in Singapore capable of supporting the Allied eastern reaches of Singapore. Half of the site forces’ war efforts against the invading planned for the new airport’s construction had Japanese Army. to be reclaimed from the sea, and much of the Four years after the end of the war, the existing land had to be acquired from private British colonial administration embarked on land-owners. The government also realised plans to build a new international airport at Paya that much of the basic infrastructure required Lebar, with construction to be funded in part by to support a major international airport—road the Colonial Development and Welfare Fund. networks, for instance—was not in place. Paya Lebar Airport was completed in 1955 and These early plans for Changi Airport, served as one of two bases for Malayan Airways therefore, were still an abstract vision. However, (its other base was in Kuala Lumpur). the government was determined to see them Paya Lebar Airport was used as a civil through. In the early 1970s, the global economy aviation facility for almost 25 years. During was roiled by instability, due in part to the 1973 this time, the government made several oil crisis. In Singapore, which had experienced improvements to the airport, such as by almost a decade of stellar economic growth extending the runway and building a passenger since independence, the government was terminal. In 1981, with the completion of concerned that more austere economic Changi Airport, the facility was fully converted conditions were just around the corner. for military use as Paya Lebar Airbase. Why did the government choose to proceed Singapore Changi Airport
The Singapore International Airport at Paya Lebar, 1964. The airport, which opened in 1955, was Singapore’s third civilian airport. It was converted into a military airbase in 1981, after the opening of Changi Airport. (Courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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with such a huge infrastructural investment below the riverbed, but it would entail amid such economic uncertainty? For Lim, the the lowest land acquisition costs and answer was a simple one: far-sightedness. require the least resettlements.
DECIDING ON THE LESS VIABLE OPTION Another group of experts, this time consultants from the United States, also recommended In the early 1970s, the government had that Singapore expand its civil aviation capacity consulted overseas experts on increasing the by building another runway at Paya Lebar. Lee country’s civil aviation capacity. Constructing a recalled, “I was not satisfed and wanted the new airport at Changi was not deemed the best option of moving to Changi reconsidered”. He or most viable option. Then Prime Minister Lee instructed the government to establish an Airport Kuan Yew recalled in his memoirs: Construction Committee to undertake a detailed study of plans to build two runways at Changi In February 1971, the Cabinet had by 1977. But the committee reached the same accepted the recommendation of a conclusion as the British and American experts. British aviation consultant that we Lee’s reluctance to expand Paya Lebar build a second runway at Paya Lebar, Airport centred on his concern about noise to be operational by 1977–1978. The pollution. He felt strongly against building a Serangoon River would have to be second runway at the airport, since this would diverted for this to be done. There were increase the frequency of airplanes fying engineering problems because of the across Singapore’s central area. There would doubtful load-bearing qualities of the soil be an unbearable din from the country’s skies. Singapore, Unlimited
Changi Airport under construction, November 1980. The airport ofcially opened on 29 December 1981. (Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
In 1975, Lee appointed Howe Yoon Chong, THE OBVIOUS CHOICE who was then the head of Singapore’s civil service as well as Chairman of the Port of Lee gave due credit to Howe for his role in Singapore Authority (PSA), to chair a Special pushing through the development of Changi Committee on Airport Development to further Airport. For one, he asked Howe to ofciate study the possibility of building a new airport at the ceremonial opening of the airport on 29 Changi. Lim recalled that Howe, for whom he December 1981. Howe, who was then the had worked at the PSA, was known by public Minister for Defence, delivered an emotional, servants as a “bulldozer”, with a reputation refective speech that clearly explained the for being determined and strong-willed in government’s decision to build the new airport. executing policies. This time, Lee urged Howe and other Few people have stopped to members of the committee to consider not just ponder over the consequences of the technicalities and constraints of building constructing the second runway a new airport, but what would be in the best and the long-term implications of interest of Singapore. The committee ultimately expanding Paya Lebar Airport. recommended that a modern airport be built Land clearance, resettlement, at Changi, and that plans for the expansion of air and noise pollution were only Paya Lebar Airport be scrapped. some of the complicated and messy Singapore Changi Airport
problems. The work could not FUNCTIONALITY, DURABILITY be completed before 1984. AND COMFORT
Also, noted Howe, “Further expansion Lim recalled that as soon as the government would be almost impossible”. decided to build Changi Airport, it sent two Meanwhile, Changi would be “completed teams of planners on overseas visits to study faster, would have less noise and air pollution the design of major international airports in and upset few people with resettlement, was Asia, Europe and the United States. Following within easy expressway communications their study visits, the teams prepared a 104 with the city, and had vast land reserves for comprehensive masterplan for Changi Airport future expansion”. Changi, he said, was the that combined the best qualities of overseas “obvious choice”. airports with features that would meet Howe also described the economic Singapore’s specifc demands. dividends the country could expect to reap The plan included two parallel runways, from Changi Airport. Located in the heart of a 78 m high airport control tower to be built rapidly developing Southeast Asia, the airport between the two runways, a series of aircraft would promote greater connectivity between hangars and a passenger terminal building Singapore and the rest of the world, allowing measuring 222,000 m2 in foor area. it to further develop its trade and tourism The priorities that shaped the design of sectors, as well as other parts of its economy. Changi Airport and its facilities were simplicity Lim was one of the people that Howe and fexibility. The planners also considered the thanked in his speech for seeing through need to ensure that the airport’s operational the completion of Changi Airport. Lim was systems were able to function over a long Howe’s assistant when the minister had period of time, to enable the best returns on the chaired the airport committee in 1975, and government’s sizeable investment in the project. had subsequently been appointed Director When Changi Airport opened in 1981 after of Civil Aviation. Lim recalled that Howe was six years of construction, it was clear to all not just an excellent executor of plans, but a that the development fulflled the design brief. visionary leader and thinker. There were no grand architectural fourishes For example, Howe was aware of the or superfuous elements such as a majestic limitations to the expansion of the seaport façade and ornate interiors. What it did feature at Tanjong Pagar, and was concerned with was well-designed internal spaces that fnding a new location more conducive to the provided a comfortable, peaceful and pleasant port’s growth. Given the abundance of land environment for passengers, workers and at Changi, on the eastern coast of Singapore, other visitors. Majestic trees and other forms of he was keen to explore the building of a tropical landscaping lined the outdoor spaces combined sea and airport complex there. fringing the passenger terminal, while the Unfortunately, these plans fell through interior spaces were adorned with evergreen because of budgetary concerns. shrubs and climbing vines. Wide-canopied Rain Singapore, Unlimited
Trees lined the boulevard stretching toward the After three years, internal fnishing works, control tower. landscaping, and the installation of machinery Lee was proud of this achievement. and electrical equipment, were all in place. Lim said that then PWD Director Yap Neng For an airport of that size, the Chew described the airport as the most building period was usually 10 years. complex development project undertaken We completed Changi Airport in six. by his department at the time. Indeed, apart We demolished hundreds of buildings, from being Singapore’s largest building, the exhumed thousands of graves, cleared airport also boasted Asia’s largest stand-alone swamps and reclaimed land from the passenger terminal. According to Lim, Yap saw 105 sea. When it opened in July 1981, the developmental process of the airport as it was Asia’s largest airport. a valuable experience for the PWD. It was an opportunity for PWD ofcers to contribute to BUILDING ASIA’S LARGEST AIRPORT this important national project, as well as to enhance their technical skills and expertise. After the masterplan for the airport was In addition, those from the private sector who adopted in 1976, the PSA immediately worked on the project—architects, engineers, commenced reclamation works to create land surveyors, technicians and others—also had for the new airport. The work involved a new the chance to substantially improve their and innovative method of reclamation that professional skills and experience, including by was thereafter widely adopted in subsequent learning from foreign experts and advisors who reclamation projects. were part of the project team. The government also established a In fact, by the 1990s, Singapore was development team of 350 people to supervise ready to export technical expertise on and manage the project. The team consisted airport development. In June 1993, the of ofcers from across the public service. For CAAS established a private company to example, the Public Works Department (PWD) share expertise on airport planning, design deployed 120 technical experts, staf and and management. Its clients have included administrative ofcers in various roles, including authorities in countries like China, India, the development of trafc infrastructure; Indonesia and the Philippines. the Housing and Development Board (HDB) resettled residents in the area to new houses, SECOND PHASE OF DEVELOPMENT and the Parks and Recreation Department (PRD) took charge of landscaping the airport complex. The development plans for Changi Airport— The construction of the airport involved established in 1976—were implemented in more than 2,500 labourers, 300 site supervisors, two phases over several years. In the frst and almost 200 contractors and suppliers from phase, the key structures constructed included Singapore and abroad. Work on this mega- a control tower, runway and standalone project proceeded with speed and efciency. passenger terminal building (now known as Singapore Changi Airport
Terminal 1). The idea was to allow Singapore commenced in 1984. It involved the to have a new international airport as soon construction of another runway, a second as possible. This phase of development was passenger terminal building and other successfully completed in 1981. key structures. The 285,000 m2 terminal In the second phase, the goal was to building—Terminal 2—had 30% more foor substantially increase the capacity of Changi area than Terminal 1, and began operations Airport in anticipation of greater passenger in late 1990. The airport also built a light rail arrivals to Singapore in the following decades. system—the Changi Airport Skytrain—to The government had projected that with the transport passengers from one terminal to 106 rapid pace of economic growth in the Asia- another. Constructed just after the opening of Pacifc region and the increasing demand for Terminal 2, the automated, driverless system air travel, the number of passengers entering could ferry passengers between terminals in and leaving Singapore by air would rise to just under two minutes. more than 20 million a year by the mid-1990s. With the opening of Terminal 2, Changi Terminal 1 did not have sufcient capacity to Airport had become more than just a mere air accommodate these numbers. transport development. The airport complex The second phase of development was like a small town, with a comprehensive
Changi Airport’s departure hall, 1985. There were fountains and tropical landscaping in many of the airport’s common areas. (Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Singapore, Unlimited
array of passenger services as well as frequently sent his staf to check that the prices attractions and oferings for locals and tourists. of items sold at the airport were comparable There were shops, restaurants, recreation to or even lower than those in the city. He also spaces, entertainment outlets and business instructed them to seek feedback from airport centres spread across four expansive, visitors on their shopping experience. comfortable and inviting halls. The expansion of Changi Airport into a Lim recalled that then CAAS Chairman two-terminal development cemented the Sim Kee Boon was particularly concerned airport’s position as a leading air transport about ensuring that the products and services facility. The frst two phases of the airport’s ofered at the airport were kept as reasonably development had ended by 1990. However, 107 priced as possible. In many airports around the the government continued to make plans for world, products and services are usually priced the future, including the development of two higher than in local stores. But Sim wanted additional passenger terminals; as well as the Changi Airport to be diferent. He understood enhancement of existing operations. That year, that higher prices at the airport lowered the it announced an investment of S$1.6 billion competitiveness of its shops and diminished over the following decade to improve services passengers’ shopping experience. Sim and facilities.
Baggage claim at Changi Airport, 1985. The airport’s service standards at the time required the frst piece of luggage from an aircraft to reach the baggage claim within 12 minutes of arrival. (Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Singapore Changi Airport
EFFECTIVE AIRPORT MANAGEMENT as well as its operational efciency. The airport became known for the short time taken to clear The government understood that an airport’s customs procedures, among other qualities. physical infrastructure must be complemented Lim recalled that customs clearance by excellent management. procedures at Changi Airport were inspired Airport ofcials put in place training and by the Walt Disney Company’s visitor development programmes to ensure that management system at its theme parks. At passenger assistance and other frontline staf places like Disney World and Disney Land, were able to extend high quality customer attractions and rides consistently featured 108 service. Trainees even included police, six to seven entry points for visitors, all of customs and border control ofcers, and tax which were kept open. This was replicated ofcers processing duty refunds. The airport at Changi Airport, where arriving passengers also encouraged independent contractors are greeted by a long row of immigration such as airline companies and retailers to counters that are kept open to reduce provide adequate training to their employees. It queuing and process people quickly. even inserted contractual conditions on airport The airport established performance targets tenants that they provide customer service for key passenger services, often investing training to their staf. heavily in computer-based technology to The airport identifed well-performing enhance operational efciency. One of these members of staf for recognition, including services was luggage handling. According to through gifts of air tickets. The management Lim, the airport’s service standards required also ensured there were adequate rest and the frst piece of luggage from an arriving recreation areas for staf. Lim emphasised the aircraft to reach the baggage claim carousel importance of staf welfare, saying that it was within 12 minutes of landing, and the last important to take good care of staf in order for piece within 29 minutes. The speed of luggage them to provide the best care to passengers. handling meant that the airport could process There were also training schemes for staf 17,000 pieces of luggage an hour—roughly who were not in frontline roles. For example, the amount of luggage that can be stored in 24 the CAAS established a Civil Aviation Training large passenger planes. Centre for air trafc control ofcers that aimed to enable these ofcers to take on a variety of CREATING THE CIVIL AVIATION roles within the sphere of control operations. AUTHORITY OF SINGAPORE Trainees were even sent on attachments to air trafc control centres in other countries. Prior to 1984, the Civil Aviation Department By the early 1990s, Changi Airport had of the Ministry of Communications managed collected many accolades from travel Singapore’s civil aviation afairs, including the magazines and industry groups. In particular, operation of civil airports and provision of air it received praise from travellers for its high trafc control services. With the opening of standard of passenger service and amenities, Changi Airport in 1981 and the implementation Singapore, Unlimited
of the second phase of development for the the formation of the CAAS in March 1984, said complex, the government decided to convert the CAAS would be “better able to contribute the department into a standalone statutory signifcantly to the continued development board, the CAAS. of Singapore as a major air junction and The government believed the CAAS, as an communications centre”. independent entity, would enjoy full fexibility in planning and organising its operations, AN “OPEN SKIES” POLICY enabling it to carry out its work more efectively. The primary role of the CAAS was to manage Another one of the CAAS’ key tasks was to Changi Airport. Later it would also take over implement the government policy to maximise 109 all the functions of its predecessor (the the use of Changi Airport by foreign airline Civil Aviation Department of the Ministry of companies. The goal was to attract more Communications), including the provision of air foreign airlines to ofer fight routes to and trafc control services, and the enforcement of from Singapore and promote the airport as an rules and regulations on air safety. Then Acting important air transport hub. Minister for Communications Dr Yeo Ning Hong, Adopting an “open skies” policy, the who tabled the parliamentary bill proposing CAAS sent delegations to negotiate with
Changi Airport Terminal 2, early 1990s. The opening of the new terminal in November 1990 cemented Changi’s position as a leading air transport facility. (Singapore Tourism Board Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Singapore Changi Airport
airline companies overseas. These efforts transit. The publication of the survey was an succeeded in establishing Changi Airport emotional and gratifying movement for Lim, his as not only a popular stopover point for colleagues and all who helped build the airport. international flights, but also strengthened For Lim, it was the “foresight of government Singapore as a destination in itself, driving up leaders, the hard work and sacrifce of those Singapore’s tourism revenues. In subsequent who implemented the airport plans, and the years, many countries sent delegations to customer-oriented attitude of airport staf” that Singapore to conclude agreements to use made the then barely 7-year old airport a global Changi Airport as a regional base. success. 110 The government pursued a non-protectionist, This was to be the frst of countless liberal aviation policy. In the short term, the accolades heaped on Changi by the media presence of more foreign airlines at Changi and international travellers in its four decades may have afected the revenues of the national of operation. carrier Singapore Airlines by competing In 2019, the international air transport rating with the company to serve the same fight agency Skytrax named Changi the world’s routes to and from Singapore; but greater best airport for the seventh consecutive year. competition ultimately spurred the carrier to Skytrax’s annual ranking of airports is based on do better in the long term. The larger number surveys with millions of air travellers from over and range of international fights stopping 100 countries that seek feedback on almost at Changi also enabled Singapore Airlines to 30 service and performance parameters, ofer more connecting routes and streamline including the language ability of staf, its oferings. shopping experience and customs clearance In 2007, the then Minister for Transport procedures. In all, the agency surveys more Raymond Lim summed up Changi Airport’s than 500 airports. success as: “Developing hardware and In its report, Skytrax described infrastructure, enhancing Changi’s software, Changi’s multiple wins as a “truly fabulous anchoring the airlines in Changi and liberalising achievement”, and predicted that the opening the aviation regime.” of its then upcoming retail and entertainment complex Jewel would “add another unique THE WORLD’S BEST AIRPORT dimension to the experience for Changi Airport customers”. In August 1988, the British magazine Jewel, which opened on 17 April 2019, International Traveller published the results of a has indeed become a popular attraction reader survey that ranked Changi as the world’s for international visitors and Singaporeans. best international airport. The magazine had Conceived as a project to maintain Changi’s more than 200,000 readers, the majority of status as a major aviation hub, the complex whom were senior corporate executives and was built over the former open-air car park at business leaders. These individuals had high Terminal 1. It includes retail, recreational and expectations when it came to air travel and hotel uses, and passenger-specifc amenities An indoor waterfall at Jewel, a mixed-use development within the Changi Airport complex that opened in April 2019. (Touann Gatouillat Vergos) Singapore Changi Airport
such as ticketing counters, baggage transfer services and early check-in facilities. In 40 years, Changi has expanded into an airport complex with three runways, fve passenger terminals, and a mixed-use attraction. In 1984, the number of visitor arrivals at Changi was 8.4 million, and the airport handled 200,000 tonnes of air cargo. In 2018, visitor arrivals topped 14 million, and air cargo 112 tonnage exceeded two million.
AN EXCELLENT INTRODUCTION TO SINGAPORE
Former Prime Minister Lee was especially proud of Changi’s achievements. In his memoirs, he wrote: “Changi is a beautiful site at the easternmost corner of the island. The approach to the city from the east coast runs along a new 20 kilometre expressway built on land reclaimed from the sea, with no problems of congestion, beautiful glimpses of the sea on one side and vistas of HDB estates and private condominiums on the other.” “The airport and (the) pleasant 20-minute drive into the city made an excellent introduction to Singapore”, he said, adding that Changi was “the best $1.5 billion investment we ever made”. A view of MacRitchie Reservoir, 1985. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) 10 Water Security Having historically depended on the Malaysian state of Johor as a key source of water, Singapore faced new challenges to its water supply upon gaining political independence in 1965. But a series of innovative water planning initiatives and projects have helped to diversify its sources of water and enhance its water security.
Mr Tan Gee Paw is a former chairman of the Public Utilities Board (PUB). In a five-decade long public service career, Tan has contributed to the planning and implementation of many policies to manage and enhance Singapore’s water resources.
Tan graduated from the University of Malaya in 1967 with a bachelor’s degree in civil engineering, and joined the public service as an engineer in the Public Works Department (PWD). He later moved to the PUB, followed by the Ministry of the Environment (ENV) in 1974. During his time at the ministry, Tan worked on the clean-up and rejuvenation of the Singapore River and Kallang Basin. In 1987, then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew presented him a gold medal for his role in the clean-up.
In 1995, Tan was appointed Permanent Secretary of the ENV. He served in that role until 2001, when he was appointed PUB Chairman. At the PUB, he led Singapore’s water reclamation and desalination eforts, including the development of NEWater. He stepped down in 2017. Singapore, Unlimited
Located just south of the equator, Singapore receiving end of threats from the Malaysian has a tropical climate and annual rainfall of leadership. On the day Singapore obtained its about 2,400 mm. Yet, Singapore is one of the independence, Malaysia’s then prime minister most water-stressed countries in the world. The Tunku Abdul Rahman told the British High country’s small land mass and shallow, narrow Commissioner in Malaya, “If Singapore’s foreign and short rivers limit the collection and storage policy is prejudicial to Malaysia’s interests, we of rain water and surface run-of. It also lacks could always bring pressure to bear on them by underground water sources such as aquifers. threatening to turn of the water in Johor”. For many years following Singapore’s For Lee, the Tunku’s threat was a reminder independence in 1965, the country was heavily of the historical vulnerability of Singapore’s 115 reliant on Malaysia for its water supply. In fact, water supply. Just two decades prior, during the Malaysian state of Johor—to the country’s the Second World War, the Japanese Army had immediate north—had been a key source of bombed the pipes that carried water from Johor water since 1927. As Singapore’s economy to Singapore, efectively cutting of all water grew rapidly in the decades after independence, supply to the island. Just two weeks later, the the water needs of its industries, businesses British surrendered the colony to the Japanese. and population increased the country’s In 1971, the government established a Water demand for water. Its main water sources—the Planning Unit (WPU) under the Prime Minister’s MacRitchie, Peirce and Seletar Reservoirs— Ofce (PMO). For Lee, plans to safeguard were inadequate to meet these needs. Singapore’s water sources was of paramount In 1961, Singapore’s City Council signed an importance, and would take precedence over agreement with the Johor State Government other policies for the development of the country. that gave the country full and exclusive rights to draw water from the designated catchment ESTABLISHING A WATER MASTER PLAN sites at Gunong Pulai, Sungei Tebrau and Sungei Scudai in Johor. The agreement would Just days after Singapore won independence in last for a period of 50 years, until 2011. Two August 1965, Prime Minister Lee called Lee Ek years later, a second agreement—the 1963 Tieng, the chief engineer of the PUB, and asked Water Agreement—was signed by both him if Singapore would be fully water-sufcient parties. Valid for 99 years, the agreement gave if every drop of rain that fell on the country Singapore the right to draw 250 million gallons could be captured. of water a day from the Johor River. The prime minister’s preoccupation with the Then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew ensured issue of water security—just one of the many that the two water agreements were enshrined development challenges facing the young in the 1965 Separation Agreement that gave nation—was a key driver in the government’s the country its independence. This was an decision to establish the WPU. The unit was important step to safeguard the country’s intended to complement the work of the PUB, water security in the years ahead. Despite this which had been set up in 1963. Lee Ek Tieng legal safeguard, Singapore was often on the was subsequently appointed to head the WPU. Water Security
He was assisted by Tan Gee Paw, who was lying areas. In December 1969, a series of then a young engineer in the PWD. heavy downpours fooded some 29 districts The two men worked together to prepare in Singapore, killing fve people and causing Singapore’s frst Water Master Plan. According more than S$4 million in damage to property to Tan, in the initial stages of preparing this and infrastructure. plan, the WPU had sought the expertise of water consultants from Israel. After the frst RENEWING THE 1961 WATER AGREEMENT phase of preparations, then Minister for the Environment Lim Kim San—a leader who In August 2011, the 1961 Water Agreement 116 always sought to draw out the potential of his between Singapore and Malaysia expired. On 31 staf—had asked the WPU ofcers if they still August 2011, Tan (as PUB Chairman) and Johor required the help of the Israeli experts. Lee State Secretary Datuk Obet Tawil signed a series and Tan replied to the minister that they were of documents that led to Singapore’s handover willing to give it a shot on their own. of the Gunong Pulai and Scudai Waterworks, To prepare the Water Master Plan, Tan and the Pontian and Tebrau Pump Houses, to and his colleagues relied on computers the Johor state government. The facilities were to conduct studies and simulations of in good working order. The ceremony was Singapore’s precipitation patterns. These witnessed by the Crown Prince of Johor, the simulations showed that although Singapore Chief Minister of Johor, Singapore’s environment received high rainfall, a proportion of it was minister and other senior government ofcials lost to evaporation, pollution or insufcient from both countries. catchment systems. Infrastructure would have The 50-year agreement was concluded in to be developed to capture and retain as much a cordial fashion. Both sides were aware that rainwater as possible. by then, many of Singapore’s earlier water The team also calculated that for daily life challenges had been resolved. Tan recalled, and economic activity to continue even in “I didn’t really feel anything much at that time. the event that water supply from Johor was I had long known that this day was bound to cut, Singapore had to develop the means come. What we had been working for all those to provide 75% of its water supply through years was just to create more sources of water domestic sources. The actual volume of water for Singapore.” this represented would keep increasing as Singapore’s domestic and industrial needs EXPANDING THE WATER continued to grow. CATCHMENT AREAS Another challenge faced by the planning team was the need to balance the allocation Singapore’s main domestic source of water of water catchment areas and water drainage is its network of reservoirs and waterways, infrastructure. This was because Singapore’s including the protected catchment areas at land mass was barely 5 m above sea level and MacRitchie, Peirce and Seletar. thus susceptible to foods, especially in lower In accordance with the Water Master Plan, Singapore, Unlimited
A view of Bedok Reservoir, 2011. The reservoir was part of the Sungei Seletar-Bedok Water Scheme, Singapore’s frst urban catchment. (Lee Leng Kiong Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
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which was fnalised and published in 1972, However, the competition for land the government undertook eforts to expand persisted, particularly between the water and the Seletar and Peirce Reservoirs. At Seletar, public housing agencies. In the early 1980s, the government established a system to the Housing and Development Board (HDB) channel water from seven adjacent streams set out to build 140,000 new fats. It planned into the reservoir. At Peirce, which featured an new towns in areas that were designated as existing dam, an additional, higher dam was unprotected water catchments, including constructed to increase the reservoir’s water at Bedok and Sungei Seletar. A balance had storage capacity. to be struck in order to avoid compromising The increasing land demands of housing the amount and quality of water collected in and industry meant there was limited land these areas. for the development of new protected water After a series of discussions, the Ministry catchment areas such as the existing reservoir of National Development (MND) and the areas, which were extensive in size and located ENV agreed on a policy that would cap the in relatively undeveloped parts of Singapore. amount of land which could be developed This situation compelled the government to within unprotected water catchment areas create unprotected water catchments and at just above 30%. There would also be a catchments in urban areas. Tan recalled that developmental cap of 198 residential units per the frst unprotected catchment was created hectare and strict rules on pollution control. in 1975, and the frst urban catchment was the This policy was approved by Prime Minister Sungei Seletar-Bedok Water Scheme in 1986. Lee and his Cabinet in 1983. Water Security
A village in Kallang Basin, 1966. Lacking proper drainage, many villagers dumped their waste into the water. (Courtesy of National Archives of Singapore
According to Tan, the government CLEANING UP THE SINGAPORE RIVER encountered several challenges in creating the AND KALLANG BASIN Sungei Seletar-Bedok urban catchment. For example, in the early 1980s, the banks The creation of the Sungei Seletar-Bedok Water of the Seletar River were dotted with pig Scheme illustrated the importance of cleaning farms, which dumped animal manure and up polluted water ways in order to develop other forms of waste into the water. To clean successful urban catchments and reservoirs. up the river, the government had to relocate In 1977, the government established a plan all the pig farms in the area, including by for the cleaning up of the Singapore River and ofering monetary compensation to the the Kallang Basin. The river fowed through farmers. At Bedok, the government had to the city centre and was populated along many convert a sand quarry previously used by the sections of its banks by residents, shops HDB for its public housing projects into the and industries. Lacking proper drainage and Bedok Reservoir. sanitation facilities, many riverside residents With the imposition of pollution control and and workers discharged waste into its waters, strict rules limiting new developments in the turning the river into an open sewer. area, the urban catchment project became a Earlier, in 1971, the government had success. The water from the Sungei Seletar- published the Concept Plan, the country’s frst Bedok Water Scheme was even assessed to comprehensive island-wide urban planning be of better quality than that obtained from blueprint. Under the plan, the city centre was to protected catchments. be renewed and redeveloped, with new ofce A section of the Singapore River at Boat Quay, 1983. The clean-up of the Singapore River, which started in 1977, took about ten years to complete. (Courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Water Security
towers, hotels, housing and other developments. it saw as an important domestic food supply As urban redevelopment proceeded, the source. But the government decided to phase government also saw the need to clean up out pig farming altogether in order to conserve the Singapore River. Then Prime Minister Lee limited land and water resources, and eradicate instructed the environment ministry to make the all polluting economic activities that threatened river clean enough for fshing, and promised to public hygiene. The closure of the farms give each ofcer involved in the clean-up a gold signifcantly reduced the amount of organic medal if the efort succeeded. waste that drained into the Kallang Basin. The clean-up was a multi-agency efort. The move to close the pig farms was a 120 The government established a taskforce tough and costly one. The government paid comprising the PUB, MND, Ministry of monetary compensation to the farmers, Trade and Industry (MTI), Ministry of Law, many of whom were residing on these farms HDB, Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), and had to be resettled in HDB fats. But PWD, Primary Production Department (PPD), many farmers were unhappy at having to Parks and Recreation Department (PRD) and abandon their farms and old ways of life. other agencies. Former Prime Minister Lee recalled that many The 1977 plan not only considered the farmers refused to support the government in technical aspects of the clean-up but also elections for several years thereafter. focused on changing the way that residents, The Singapore River clean-up was a workers and others along the river conducted mammoth task. The taskforce had to resettle their daily activities. In this way, water pollution almost 50,000 squatters, 26,000 households, could be controlled in a more sustainable 610 pig farms and 2,800 businesses. All manner. Indeed, the clean-up efort improved Singaporean households and business the hygiene and lifestyle habits of residents, establishments afected by the project were and had a positive impact on public health by ofered replacement houses or premises, as tackling waterborne and other related diseases. well as monetary compensation. Almost 5,000 Another important feature of the clean- street hawkers were relocated to markets up was its role in the evolution of Singapore’s and hawker centres, and wholesalers of economy. During the clean-up, polluting produce were relocated to the Pasir Panjang economic activities such as pig farming, textile Wholesale Market. production and bumboat delivery services The clean-up of the Singapore River and were slowly phased out. The areas formerly Kallang Basin was completed in 1987. The allocated for these activities were taken over by efort took 10 years and cost the government less polluting economic uses. S$300 million, excluding the compensation Tan recalled that there were more than 600 paid to resettled residents, farmers and others. pig farms in the Kallang Basin. Collectively, these In September 1987, keeping his promise, Prime farms reared more than 60,000 pigs and were a Minister Lee awarded commemorative medals major source of water pollution. The PPD was to 10 ofcers involved in the river clean-up. keen to protect the pig farming industry, which Each medal contained one troy ounce of gold. Singapore, Unlimited
The clean-up of the Singapore River in progress at North Boat Quay, 1980. (Ronni Pinsler Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
Among the recipients were Lee Ek Tieng and restaurants, shops and hotels, and Tan Gee Paw. people wine and dine al fresco by As former Prime Minister Lee recalled the river or on traditional Chinese in his memoirs, the clean-up efort brought barges parked alongside. signifcant changes to Singapore: The Singapore River clean-up also made Clean rivers made possible a diferent possible the creation of a new urban reservoir quality of life. The value and use of at Marina Bay at the southern tip of Singapore, land rose signifcantly, especially in into which the river drained. It was former Prime the city and at sites abutting rivers Minister Lee’s idea to construct a barrage at and canals. We bought sand from Marina Bay to create a large body of water that Indonesia to lay a beach along the would not only serve as a freshwater reservoir banks of the Kallang Basin where but also control water levels to prevent fooding. people sunbathe and water-ski today. Eforts to construct Marina Barrage Waterside high-rise condominiums commenced in 2005. On its completion in have taken over from unsightly small 2010, the barrage created Marina Reservoir, shipyards. For those who remember Singapore's ffteenth freshwater reservoir. It was the Singapore River when it was situated in Singapore’s largest urban catchment a sewer, it is a dream to walk along area, at a size of 100 km2 or about one-seventh its banks. Shophouses and warehouses of Singapore’s total land area, and would supply have been restored and turned into cafes, about 10% of the country’s water needs. Water Security
DEVELOPING A COMPREHENSIVE payment from the government, and Tan shook SEWERAGE NETWORK their hands in appreciation of their hard work. “Even today, when I recall that scene,” In 1971, only 57% of the population was served said Tan, “I still feel their tight grasps and see by the main public sewerage network. The the reluctance in their eyes. I couldn’t say a rest relied on other forms of household waste single word”. disposal, including “night soil collection”, an The PWD frst established a master plan for unsanitary process in which workers collected sewage treatment in the late 1960s. This plan household waste door-to-door. helped guide the implementation of sewage 122 Tan vividly recalled the state of waste control and treatment measures as Singapore’s collection at the time. The system left behind population and economy grew rapidly in the by the British colonial authorities was grossly years that followed. The plan called for an inadequate. The network of sewers, pumping expansion of the sewerage network, including stations and treatment plants that were infrastructure to collect and treat sewage. installed mainly served the relatively wealthier Among other features of the plan was its parts of the country. approach to divide the country into six used In other areas, night soil collectors would water catchment zones, each of which would place their buckets at central locations. Each be served by a water reclamation plant. day, residents would fll these baskets with In 1972, the ENV established a Drainage their excrement and other forms of household Department to manage storm water and waste. The collectors would replace the flled prevent foods. The department worked buckets with empty ones, loading the waste closely with agencies like the URA and onto a truck that would carry it to a central HDB to develop plans for the expansion of processing plant. the water drainage network, and establish It was only in the 1980s, after the drainage requirements for diferent types government had built an island-wide public of developments across the island. Specifc sewerage system, that night soil collection was drainage plans were developed for many areas phased out. For Tan, the night soil collectors in Singapore, including low-lying regions such did humble work that was shunned, but that as Opera Estate near Bedok. contributed greatly to keeping the environment In the 1970s and 1980s, the government clean before there was a proper sanitation spent a total of S$1.8 billion to develop the system in place. They, too, were the builders of sewerage network and waste water treatment modern Singapore. infrastructure. By 1991, Singapore had a On the final day of operations at a comprehensive drainage and water treatment collection site, Tan witnessed the last bucket network that covered almost 98% of the island. of waste being loaded onto a truck. It was These eforts made it possible for Singapore to dirty and difficult labour, but many workers consider using water reclamation technology had been unwilling to leave their jobs. The to create an additional source of potable water workers were given their retrenchment for the country. Singapore, Unlimited
DEVELOPING WATER reverse osmosis to treat waste water during RECLAMATION CAPABILITIES space missions. By the 1990s, advances in technology made The PUB frst experimented with water it possible for manufacturers to produce the reclamation in 1974. That year, the PUB and membranes used in reverse osmosis at much ENV jointly established the country’s frst lower cost. The price of these membranes water reclamation plant at the Jurong Industrial fell by about half, enabling the technology to Waterworks. Unfortunately, the plan stalled be more cheaply used in large-scale water after a trial period due to lack of funding reclamation projects. Although the PUB and and uncertainty about the reliability of the ENV had closed the water reclamation plant 123 technology used to treat the water. at Jurong some years earlier, the PUB was At the time, the technology used for water abreast of these technological advancements reclamation was still very new and expensive to and changes. adopt in large scale projects. The reclamation By the end of the 1990s, the PUB was ready process, known as reverse osmosis, involved to revive its earlier abandoned plans. the use of a membrane to separate water from In 1998, the PUB sent two engineers on impurities under a high-pressure system. In the a two-week trip to the United States to study 1960s, the main user of this technology was water recycling technologies and infrastructure. the United States’ National Aeronautics and The engineers visited various cities in Southern Space Administration (NASA), which employed California and Florida, developing a greater
A night soil collector at Clarke Quay, 1981. Night soil collectors provided an essential service in areas which lacked proper sanitation and drainage. (Ronni Pinsler Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) Water Security
understanding about the use of membrane ministers were satisfed with the PUB’s work technology and reverse osmosis. and endorsed the creation of more water On their return, the engineers reported that reclamation plants. the technology could be adopted in Singapore and recommended the establishment of water PROMOTING THE CONSUMPTION reclamation facilities. Lee Ek Tieng and Tan OF RECLAIMED WATER approved the construction of a demonstration water reclamation plant at Bedok to determine The government was concerned that the the feasibility of using reclaimed water as public would be hesitant about consuming 124 an additional supply source for Singapore. reclaimed water. It was, after all, waste water The facility started operating in May 2000. that had been treated and purifed. Such public The government formed a steering committee reluctance was common even in the United to oversee this project, and appointed Tan as States, where water reclamation had already its chairman. been in use for several years. According to Tan, the PUB conducted more To tackle the psychological barrier of than 20,000 tests over two years to assess consuming reclaimed water, the steering and determine the quality of the reclaimed committee decided to name it “NEWater.” This water. The committee also sought to ensure name would minimise the impression of it as that the quality of reclaimed water would “used” water, and encourage people to view conform to the World Health Organization’s it as a fresh and clean product. The steering (WHO) guidelines on drinking water, and committee also organised visits to the Bedok pose no health risks to those who consume NEWater plant for Members of Parliament (MPs), it. In addition, the committee convened an grassroots leaders and other members of the independent panel of experts comprising local public. The NEWater discharge chamber was and foreign individuals to test and verify the intentionally painted a pristine white to refect reclaimed water’s purity. the purity of the water. The sight of pristine blue- Tan described the quality of the reclaimed hued water swirling against the white backdrop water: “I went to the pilot water reclamation of the chamber made for a strong visual selling plant at Bedok where they stored the reclaimed point, and efectively conveyed the message water in a concrete-lined well that was about that NEWater was clean enough to drink. two storeys deep. I looked down into that well To promote greater public acceptance, and I had never seen water so crystal clear. I the PUB bottled NEWater for public sampling could see right down to the bottom of the well. and consumption at large-scale events such It is an experience I will never forget.” as the National Day Parade. At the 2002 For Tan, water reclamation was another parade, 60,000 spectators joined then Prime important innovation in enhancing Singapore’s Minister Goh Chok Tong in a NEWater toast water security: “a solution to our water woes”. to Singapore. This moment was captured on Tan invited a number of cabinet ministers television and marked a turning point in the to visit the plant and view the facility. The public’s acceptance of NEWater. Singapore, Unlimited
The Singapore River today. Conserved buildings at Boat Quay, now housing restaurants, cafés and bars, can be seen on the right. (Jason Goh)
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One of the factors in the success of NEWater through desalination. This was a feasible was the extensive promotional campaign option for Singapore, since it is surrounded by launched by the government. Today, NEWater the sea and also because salty water fowed in is used and consumed widely by Singaporean the country’s rivers and estuaries. households and industries. In 1995, a team of ofcers from the PUB, URA, MTI and the National Science and WATER FROM THE SEA Technology Board (NSTB) visited Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Malta to study By the end of the century, Singapore had the use of desalination technology there. managed to diversify its water sources and These countries, all located in arid regions, enhance its water security. It did this through were forerunners in the use of desalination to eforts such as expanding and developing meet their water needs. The study trip provided water catchment areas, and adopting water useful information and knowledge to the reclamation. The PUB vividly termed these ofcers in their plans to establish desalination sources of water Singapore’s “national taps”. facilities in Singapore. In the mid-1990s, the government embarked The PUB developed and adopted on another efort to augment its water security. membrane-based desalination technologies This efort entailed the treatment of seawater to treat and process saline water. This efort Water Security
was greatly informed and aided by the PUB’s such as tarifs and the installation of water earlier research and development that led conservation devices in residential, industrial to the creation of NEWater. In 2003, the PUB and other developments. established a partnership with the company The government has also introduced SingSpring to develop Singapore’s frst several campaigns to raise awareness about desalination plant, creating another source of water conservation. These public education water for the country. programmes encourage people to appreciate the scarcity of water in Singapore and practise SINGAPORE’S “WATER LOOP” water-saving habits in their daily lives. Over 126 the years, generations of Singaporeans have Tan and his team had worked hard to boost internalised these messages. Singapore’s water supply. The creation of In recent years, the PUB has sought to foster “national taps”—water catchments, NEWater, in Singaporeans a deeper sense of aesthetic desalinated water—that drew water from appreciation for the country’s waterbodies. domestic sources established a “water loop” One of the most prominent expressions of this that formed the basis of a more secure water is the Active, Beautiful and Clean (ABC) Waters supply system for the country. programme. Through this programme, the PUB has converted utilitarian-looking drains, canals EFFECTIVE WATER MANAGEMENT and reservoirs into beautifully landscaped streams, rivers and lakes. Many of these sites Apart from the creation of the national taps, were formerly protected areas that had been the government maintains pricing and public opened for public access as waterside parks. education strategies to reinforce the country’s Describing one of the main purposes of this water security. programme, Tan said that if Singaporeans In many countries, water is treated as a came to see that the country’s drains, canals public good and prices are highly subsidised. and water catchments could also make the This is not the case in Singapore, where water environment more pleasant, they would be is priced not only to cover the full cost of its more likely to keep them clean. supply and production, but also the higher cost of producing it through innovative methods REFLECTIONS ON SINGAPORE’S such as desalination and reclamation. The WATER JOURNEY PUB prices water using the marginal cost of production concept, meaning the increase in During his term as PUB Chairman, Tan total cost arising from producing an additional oversaw the PUB’s 2001 separation from the unit of water. This has enabled Singapore to MTI and its merger with ENV’s Sewerage supply water on the basis of full cost-recovery. and Drainage Department. The change saw Apart from this pricing strategy, the PUB relinquishing its regulatory authority government also discourages wastage and over the electricity and piped gas sectors, to overconsumption of water through tools focus on the management and governance Visitors at Marina Bay sitting on steps extending into the waters of Marina Reservoir. (Eugenia Clara) Water Security
of water. In this role, the PUB would regulate the provision, operation and maintenance of Singapore’s water supplies; and the treatment and discharge of industrial wastewater. Tan said that many PUB ofcers viewed their work with a sense of mission, because they perceived water to be the most critical resource that any country could have. Fortunately, Singapore’s leaders also shared 128 this view. Even as they pursued high-growth economic development, they prioritised protecting Singapore’s water resources. Tan believed that the signifcant improvements to water security, particularly the milestone developments of NEWater and desalination technology, would not have been possible without the economic advancements experienced by Singapore in the 1970s and 1980s. Tan recalled that plans for water reclamation and desalination had been included in the 1972 Water Master Plan, but were put on hold due to factors such as the high cost of development then. With improved economic conditions in the 1990s, the government immediately worked on realising these plans. Without question, these innovations have enabled Singapore to overcome many of its earlier water vulnerabilities. A view of Jurong Lake Gardens, a 90-hectare park that opened in April 2019. It is located in the suburban “heartland” of Singapore’s western region. (Clement Chai) 11 The Garden City Eforts to enhance green cover and landscaping across the country mitigated the negative impact of development and urbanisation as Singapore’s economy grew rapidly in the years following independence. These eforts have yielded a lush, green environment, giving Singaporeans parks, reserves and other nature areas.
Mr Wong Yew Kwan was Singapore’s frst Commissioner of Parks and Recreation.
In 1970, Wong joined the Primary Production Department (PPD) as a researcher, and was subsequently transferred to the Public Works Department (PWD) to head the Parks and Recreation Division. He was appointed Commissioner of Parks and Recreation following the establishment of the division as a department under the Ministry of National Development (MND). He held this position from 1974 to 1983.
Dr Chua Sian Eng succeeded Wong as Commissioner of Parks and Recreation in 1983, serving in that role until 1995.
Chua began his career as a researcher at the Rubber Research Institute of Malaya in 1963. In 1970, he moved to Singapore to lead the agriculture division of the PPD, where he was appointed Deputy Director in 1978. Chua thereafter joined the Parks and Recreation Department, helping oversee many of the country’s greening and landscaping policies. Singapore, Unlimited
THE VISION OF A GARDEN CITY areas. That would have been politically disastrous for an elected government. Founding Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew’s vision of Singapore as a Garden City was conceived If we did not create a society which is in the early years of Singapore’s independence. clean throughout the island, we have At the time, Lee was concerned about two classes of people: the upper class, Singapore’s international image, in part because upper middle and even middle class he wanted to attract foreign investments to with gracious surroundings; and the help drive economic growth. He decided that lower middle and working class, in Singapore would be a modern, orderly and poor conditions. 131 attractive city; and lush greenery would be a key element of the country’s appeal. Wong Yew Kwan, Singapore’s frst However, Lee’s concerns extended beyond Commissioner of Parks and Recreation, recalled attracting foreign investors. He wanted to that in the early years, Lee approached greening develop a people-centric, harmonious society, policies not in visionary terms but in practical and saw greenery as something that all citizens ones. He was anxious to grow more trees and to could equally enjoy. counteract the efects of rapid industrialisation In his 1998 memoirs, Lee wrote: and urban blight. His concern was that Singapore would otherwise become a concrete After independence, I searched for jungle, sufering irreparable damage to its some dramatic way to distinguish natural environment. ourselves from the other Third World Singapore’s earliest greening measures, countries. I settled for a clean and therefore, were counter-measures, with Lee green Singapore. One arm of my instructing that all new roads, housing estates, strategy was to make Singapore into schools, car parks and open spaces be lined an oasis in Southeast Asia, for if we with tall, wide-canopied trees. had First World standards, then businessmen and tourists would LEE PLANTS A TREE make us a base for their business and tours of the region. In a demonstration of his political will to green Singapore, Lee planted a Mempat tree at Greening raised the morale of Farrer Circus on 16 June 1963. In the years people and gave them pride in their that followed, the PWD carried out large scale surroundings. We did not diferentiate greening and landscaping across Singapore. between middle-class and working- These eforts culminated in a 1967 speech by class areas. The British had superior Lee that described his vision for Singapore to white enclaves in Tanglin and around become a Garden City. Government House that were neater, In 1971, he led a group of political leaders cleaner, greener than the ‘native’ to launch a tree planting campaign across The Garden City
Tree Planting Day event at Havelock Road, 1983. The national tree planting campaign, launched in 1971, was intended to encourage Singaporeans to play a part in greening the country. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
Singapore. Dr Goh Keng Swee, then the neighbourhoods. The country’s politicians led Minister for Defence, planted a Rain Tree at the by example by planting trees to commemorate summit of Mount Faber and declared that the special events across the country. frst Sunday of November each year would be Each year, citizens planted an estimated Tree Planting Day. 30,000 trees on Tree Planting Day. By 1983— The launch of a national tree planting two decades after Lee planted the Mempat campaign was a signal of the government’s tree at Farrer Circus—there was one tree for view that greening the country must be an efort every four people in Singapore. in which each citizen plays a part. Following independence, the government’s greening ESTABLISHING THE GARDEN CITY eforts had yielded lush landscaped parks and ACTION COMMITTEE nature areas. Singaporeans must continue to play their part in ensuring the country remains The government established the Garden City a green oasis. Action Committee (GCAC) in 1970 to oversee the Beyond Tree Planting Day, the tree planting country’s greening policies. Wong recalled that campaign introduced a variety of community the GCAC coordinated greening eforts across events and programmes. For example, the multiple government agencies to ensure they government encouraged Singaporeans to plant were efectively and efciently implemented. trees and cultivate plants in their homes and The committee was chaired by the Singapore, Unlimited
Permanent Secretary of the MND, with project greater momentum. committee members comprising ofcers from Lee extended his personal support to the the MND, PWD, PPD and the Singapore Botanic GCAC. Wong recalled a 1978 meeting at which Gardens. The committee met monthly to review Lee himself was present. In a discussion on progress reports, resolve delays and address plans to landscape Singapore’s Changi Airport other implementation problems, and discuss and the areas around it, committee members new proposals. It also wielded executive powers had encountered some resistance from the as a decision-making body, approving the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Finance implementation of many greening proposals. (MOF), who had questioned the large sums of The years that followed saw the money requested to implement these plans. 133 restructuring of many agencies. For one, in Lee had turned to the permanent secretary 1973, the Parks and Recreation Division of the and insisted that MOF allocate the requested PWD was reconstituted as a stand-alone Parks funds to the committee. To him, the expenses and Recreation Department (PRD) reporting were necessary; if it took a single dollar to directly to the MND, with Wong assuming plant one tree, an additional S$0.20 was to be the newly created role of Commissioner of spent on its maintenance. Lee’s interjection Parks and Recreation. None of these changes made it clear to all present that sufcient afected the work of the GCAC or the Garden fnancial resources must be set aside for the City project. On the contrary, they gave the greening efort.
Overhead bridge in Telok Blangah, 1990. Mr Wong Yew Kwan, Singapore’s frst Commissioner of Parks, proposed the installation of troughs along overhead bridges to house fowering shrubs like Bougainvillea. (Ministry of Information and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) The Garden City
To Wong, this marked a turning point for that allowed for grass to grow through. the work of the GCAC and PRD. Prior to this, Lee was also concerned about spaces the PRD had faced challenges securing funds beneath the many fyovers planned for for its work, because the MOF was more construction during the 1960s and 1970s to concerned with channelling government funds accommodate Singapore’s growing population towards building the economy and, in particular, of motor vehicles. These fyovers were utilitarian, developing public housing. Wong recalled an monolithic structures, stretching over extensive MOF ofcer once telling him that there was void areas that would be poorly lit and visually no need for him to submit detailed budget unattractive. He had asked the PRD to landscape 134 proposals to the ministry for greening projects, these areas. since they would all be rejected anyway. However, with limited exposure to natural Lee’s intervention was a key factor that light and moisture, plants would not grow well enabled the PRD to complete ambitious projects there. Wong suggested installing artifcial light such as East Coast Park and West Coast Park, sources, but Lee rejected this as a waste of and the landscaping of Changi Airport. energy. Wong ultimately devised a solution where the fyovers were to be designed as two SOFTENING THE URBAN LANDSCAPE carriageways separated by a gap that would allow light and rain to reach the void areas. Lee paid careful attention to details of the PRD’s This would provide a conducive environment greening plans. He instructed that as far as for plant life, and enable the void areas to be possible, greenery should cover the concrete landscaped. His suggestion was endorsed by surfaces of all forms of urban infrastructure: Lee, and implemented with the cooperation of walls, fences, road barriers, highways and even the land transport authorities. street lamps. Wong also successfully proposed the idea of One of the PRD’s earliest greening installing landscaped troughs along overhead initiatives was to plant trees and shrubs along pedestrian bridges to house fowering shrubs public roads, trafc islands, car parks and open such as Bougainvillea. With adequate moisture spaces. In many cases, the PRD chose fragrant and unhindered access to sunlight, these plants such as the Angsana tree that provided shrubs fourished year-round. shelter from the sun and rain, and emitted a light, pleasing scent at night. SCOURING THE NATURAL WORLD The PRD’s plans demonstrated a high level of innovation and sensitivity. For example, wide- Bougainvillea, like many of the plant species canopied trees were planted between vehicle in Singapore today, was not indigenous but lots in open car parks to prevent vehicles from imported and cultivated here by the PRD. over-heating under the sun. Buttress roots The government had dispatched teams of were anchored by specially designed concrete PRD ofcers on missions to countries across aeration slabs that allowed air and water to tropical and subtropical zones to study and reach the soil, and the slabs had holes in them collect new plant types. Singapore, Unlimited
In 1983 alone, PRD ofcers imported some spaces around densely populated, high-rise 150 species of tree saplings and fowering residential areas. The Housing and Development shrubs from South America. Lee urged “great Board (HDB) established a department to variety and more colour” in the greening oversee and implement these greening eforts, eforts, and encouraged the PRD to “import which the PRD supported with technical more trees, palms, creepers from all over expertise and guidance. the equatorial and tropical regions to try out The HDB introduced policies to ensure which will take under Singapore’s soil and that at least a third of the land in new housing climatic conditions”. estates was allocated for parks and greenery, This was no easy task. Dr Chua Sian Eng, with guidelines on how and where they were 135 who succeeded Wong as parks commissioner to be located. The HDB’s policies aimed at in 1983, recalled that imported plants had to be softening the harsh quality of building facades sent to the Botanic Gardens or the PRD’s Pasir and beautifying each neighbourhood. Panjang nurseries for periods of experimental In the private housing sector, the government gestation, with only the most successful introduced urban design guidelines requiring varieties selected for widespread planting. developers to provide landscaping along the It could take up to fve years to establish the perimeter of new high-rise buildings, and green suitability and adaptability of each plant to areas within their projects. It also imposed strict Singapore’s soil and climate. For tall trees, the landscaping requirements on the developers of assessment period could stretch to a decade. industrial parks, intended to soften the polluting The government’s eforts to inject diversity efect of activities such as manufacturing into Singapore’s natural landscape through and processing. importing non-native plant species were very successful. The vast majority of trees, shrubs GREENERY AS AN INTEGRAL PART and other plants grown in Singapore today are OF LAND-USE imported, including familiar and much-loved species such as Flame of the Forest, Rose of Singapore’s leaders understood the India and Oleander. importance of urban planning in facilitating the development of the economy and providing INTEGRATING GREENERY IN a liveable, high quality environment to its THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT people. The Concept Plan of 1971, developed by a project team comprising ofcers from the The government’s greening eforts were MND and other agencies with the assistance not limited to the development of parks and of experts from the United Nations (UN), is nature areas, or the landscaping of transport perhaps the best expression of this. infrastructure. There were also many measures As the Garden City project progressed in the to incorporate greenery in the built environment. frst two decades of Singapore’s independence, A good example of this is the landscaping of the government saw the need to more closely public housing estates, an efort to provide green integrate greening measures with broader The Garden City
urban planning initiatives. An example of direct and easy access to greenery. This plan eforts in this regard is the 1985 Central Area provided the blueprint for the development of Structure Plan, a blueprint released by the the Park Connector Network (PCN). Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) to Singapore’s third Concept Plan was guide the development of the city centre and published in 2001, and translated in fner detail the districts immediately surrounding it. This as the Master Plan of 2003. The Master Plan plan included proposals to develop open green introduced a supplementary plan, the Parks spaces within the Central Business District and Waterbodies Plan, which would guide the (CBD) and elsewhere. development of Singapore’s nature areas up 136 The government also set aside land parcels to 2018. This plan provided for the creation for nature reserves in their plans for the of more than 12 km2 of natural scenic spots, development of new towns and other forms marina areas, park connectors and other of urban infrastructure. In 1990, it issued the nature areas, including a PCN spanning more Master Plan for the Conservation of Nature than 160 km in length. in Singapore to protect many of these sites, including in and around satellite towns, as FOSTERING THE GROWTH OF nature reserves. THE BOTANIC GARDENS The second iteration of the Concept Plan, issued in 1991, introduced a Green and Blue The Singapore Botanic Gardens was frst Plan that incorporated many Garden City established in 1859 by an agri-horticultural initiatives. In fact, one of the key features society and had, by the 1960s, established itself of the 1991 Concept Plan was to realise a as an important regional centre of research country “nestled in a lush mantle of tropical in the felds of botany and horticulture. In the greenery, evoking the imagery of a city post-independence years, the government growing out of a garden”. capitalised on the Botanic Gardens’ rich In 1992, the government issued the institutional expertise to further the aims of the Singapore Green Plan (SGP), indicating that 5% Garden City project, such as by establishing of the country’s land mass would be safeguarded an academy there to conduct research and as nature reserve sites, up from 3% previously. training on tropical horticulture. Today, Singapore has nature reserves at Bukit In 1973, the government merged the Timah, Sungei Buloh, Labrador Park and the Gardens with the Parks and Trees Branch of Central Catchment Area, collectively measuring the PWD, giving the institution a direct role in more than 30 km2 in size. the implementation of Garden City initiatives. The SGP also introduced a planned network For Wong and Chua, the Botanic Gardens flled of landscaped corridors to connect various a critical gap in horticultural and botanical parks, nature reserves and other open spaces, knowledge and expertise, especially in the early creating a ring of greenery around the island. The years of the Garden City project. The resources plan featured secondary connections between provided by the Botanic Gardens’ researchers the network and residential areas, giving people and experts expedited the implementation of A view of Pasir Ris Park in the rain, 2009. The tranquil 70-hectare park, one of Singapore’s largest, opened in 1989. (Lee Leng Kiong Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore) The Garden City
Lush landscaping lining the roads leading to Changi Airport, 1990. (Singapore Tourist Promotion Board Collection, courtesy of National Archives of Singapore)
138
Singapore’s ambitious greening initiatives, By the 1980s, there were several hundred most notably because there was an acute lack horticulturists and landscape designers working of qualifed local professionals at the time. in the department, supported in their duties by a sizeable group of gardeners and maintenance ADDRESSING THE GAP IN workers. The PRD and, in later years, its successor PROFESSIONAL CAPABILITIES organisation the National Parks Board (NParks), was to beneft from many of Wong’s pioneering As Commissioner of Parks and Recreation, Wong policies to raise professional standards in the prioritised the development of professional private sector. Levels of professional expertise in capabilities not only within the PRD but across the sector rose so quickly that the government Singapore’s horticultural and landscaping was able to outsource some of its gardening, sector. He correctly saw that Singapore required landscaping and park management work to a corps of professionals in both the public and private frms by the 1980s. private sectors to implement the Garden City project in an efcient and productive way. A BEAUTIFUL SINGAPORE WELCOME The government shared Wong’s view. Starting in the early 1970s, it awarded scholarships to Wong described two greening projects as talented individuals to pursue disciplines such important milestones in the Garden City as landscape design in countries like Germany. endeavour: Changi Airport and the East Coast On their return to Singapore, these graduates Parkway (ECP), the expressway linking the took up key roles in the PRD. airport to the city. Singapore, Unlimited
These were particularly important projects airport’s control tower. On Lee’s instruction, to Lee, who intended to give all visitors to even the concrete crash barriers along the Singapore a beautiful frst impression of the expressway were cloaked in greenery. Garden City. During a visit to the Changi Airport Two thousand trees lined an 8 km stretch of construction site, he told a PWD ofcer, “Work the ECP leading to and from the airport. Inside, hard to make this place green!” the PRD’s landscape designers installed Wong recounted that it was especially green features and indoor gardens, mirroring challenging to cultivate trees and plants around the lush environment beyond its walls. It was the airport and along the ECP because both precisely as Lee had intended: every visitor’s developments had been built on land reclaimed trip to Singapore would be book-ended by vivid 139 from the sea. The land had a complex soil images of verdant greenery. profle, composed of diferent sand and stone textures. Wong, who had studied coastal sand FROM GARDEN CITY TO CITY IN A GARDEN early in his career as a researcher in Malaysia, relied on much of this technical knowledge to By the early 1990s, it was evident that Lee’s select appropriate trees and plants for the area. vision of a Garden City, an “oasis in Southeast The PRD had to fulfl Lee’s brief to create Asia”, had come to fruition. Singapore had a lush, forest-like atmosphere. It also had to become a country of parks, nature reserves and consider arboreal varieties that could reduce open spaces; its city centre, housing estates the amount of airborne dust particles generated and other urban infrastructure featured well- by aeroplanes and motor trafc. The PRD designed landscaping, and its people enjoyed decided to plant tall, wide-canopied Rain Trees a high quality, clean environment. At this time, along the ECP carriageways. In other areas Singapore’s greening policies underwent a around the airport, the PRD picked varieties number of important shifts. such as Casuarina and Indian Almond that For one, the government increasingly could grow well in saline soil. Wong recalled promoted the natural environment as a source that getting the trees to fourish was no easy of leisure and enjoyment, seeking to reposition task: they had to be rooted in layers of sticky and activate Singapore’s parks and green and sandy earth, overlaid with a porous stratum spaces as vibrant lifestyle destinations. of topsoil. Moreover, it took time for the trees to There was the opening of even more public reach full height; to expedite the process, the parks featuring playgrounds, community PRD adopted innovative cultivation methods gardens, barbeque pits and other recreational such as the injection of growth hormones. facilities. Also, NParks introduced programmes By the time Changi Airport ofcially opened and events to draw more visitors to its parks. For in late 1981, the PRD had planted more than example, Fort Canning Park hosted an annual 6,000 trees in the area. It had also planted series of outdoor performances called “Ballet shrubs and other fowering trees along the Under the Stars”; and the Botanic Gardens ECP to add visual depth and colour, as well opened the National Orchid Garden in 1995 to as in other spaces and structures such as the showcase more than 60,000 orchid plants. The Garden City
Another defning feature of Singapore’s to connect these paths into a comprehensive greening policies during this period was a green perimeter around the island. focus on encouraging the public to participate Over the years, the PCN has been further in greening and nature conservation. The developed and extended, including through a intention was to give Singaporeans a deeper series of innovative planning and landscaping understanding and appreciation of nature, and measures. These included the amalgamation to instil a sense of ownership and stewardship and greening of adjacent empty plots of over the natural environment. A good example state land, and the integration of existing of this is NParks’ Adopt-a-Park programme, landscaped areas fanking many parts of the 140 launched in 1996 to allow institutions such network. Several sections of the PCN were as schools, residents’ committees and other also re-designed as rustic paths and waterside groups to partake in the maintenance of avenues through careful landscape design Singapore’s public parks. interventions, giving visual and sensorial These changes set the stage for the variety to the overall user experience. government’s 2004 announcement of a new Gardens by the Bay, a 101-hectare urban vision to guide Singapore’s greening policies park and visitor attraction located in Marina Bay, in the years to come. The Garden City would grew out of an idea that Singapore should have thenceforth aspire towards becoming a City in an extensive green space in the heart of the a Garden. The government’s greening policies city. The precursor to the Gardens was Marina would focus on developing even more world- South, a large green space that was created on class parks, gardens and nature areas; creating land that had been reclaimed at the mouth of a vibrant and sustainable living environment, the Singapore River, just south of the CBD. and building a sense of rootedness and Chua recalled that plans to transform cohesion in the community. Marina South into Gardens by the Bay, frst announced in 2005, attracted criticism from THE CITY IN A GARDEN TAKES SHAPE many quarters. Questions were raised about the wisdom of developing a park on prime The years that followed saw the implementation land, as well as the large sums of money of several innovative and imaginative greening required for the project. However, the early projects; and improved public accessibility and detractors were ultimately persuaded by the proximity to nature spots. Prime examples of government’s clear vision for the Gardens these are the extension of the Park Connector to be a park for the people, one that would Network and development of Gardens by be collectively owned by all Singaporeans. It the Bay. would be a place that all citizens could take The PCN has its roots in the PRD’s pride in and freely enjoy regardless of their development of scattered walking, running and economic status. cycling paths in and around many of Singapore’s Gardens by the Bay ofcially opened in 2012. parks during the 1970s. It was only in 1991 Today, it is one of the world’s top tropical gardens, that the government introduced formal plans featuring a unique site layout and features such An aerial view of Gardens by the Bay, which opened in 2012. The 101-hectare urban park grew out of an idea that Singapore should have an extensive green space in the heart of the city. (Sreehari Devadas) The Garden City
as two climate-controlled greenhouses and a grove of “Super Tree” structures. The gardens are a stunning showcase of architectural and horticultural creativity, and come into full view as one traverses the ECP en route the city centre.
SECRETS OF THE CITY’S CHIEF GARDENERS
142 More than half a century has passed since Singapore planted the seeds of the Garden City project. From the recollections of Wong and Chua, one discerns that this journey has been marked with both success and hardship. At the end of CLC’s interviews with both men, they were each asked the same question. What, in their view, were the secrets to the success of the Garden City project? Both emphasised the same qualities: will power, foresight, reason and cooperation. Singapore, Unlimited
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