DOCSLIB.ORG

Google and Advertising: Digital Capitalism in the Context of Post-Fordism, the Reification of Language, and the Rise of Fake News', Palgrave Communications, Vol

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Google and Advertising: Digital Capitalism in the Context of Post-Fordism, the Reification of Language, and the Rise of Fake News', Palgrave Communications, Vol University of Birmingham Google and advertising Graham, Rosie DOI: 10.1057/s41599-017-0021-4 License: Creative Commons: Attribution (CC BY) Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Citation for published version (Harvard): Graham, R 2017, 'Google and advertising: digital capitalism in the context of Post-Fordism, the reification of language, and the rise of fake news', Palgrave Communications, vol. 3, no. 1, 45, pp. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-017-0021-4 Link to publication on Research at Birmingham portal Publisher Rights Statement: Checked for eligibility: 08/08/2018 General rights Unless a licence is specified above, all rights (including copyright and moral rights) in this document are retained by the authors and/or the copyright holders. The express permission of the copyright holder must be obtained for any use of this material other than for purposes permitted by law. •Users may freely distribute the URL that is used to identify this publication. •Users may download and/or print one copy of the publication from the University of Birmingham research portal for the purpose of private study or non-commercial research. •User may use extracts from the document in line with the concept of ‘fair dealing’ under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (?) •Users may not further distribute the material nor use it for the purposes of commercial gain. Where a licence is displayed above, please note the terms and conditions of the licence govern your use of this document. When citing, please reference the published version. Take down policy While the University of Birmingham exercises care and attention in making items available there are rare occasions when an item has been uploaded in error or has been deemed to be commercially or otherwise sensitive. If you believe that this is the case for this document, please contact [email protected] providing details and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate. Download date: 30. Sep. 2021 ARTICLE DOI: 10.1057/s41599-017-0021-4 OPEN Google and advertising: digital capitalism in the context of Post-Fordism, the reification of language, and the rise of fake news Richard Graham1 ABSTRACT Google’s dominance over the web allows it to dictate various norms and practices that regulate the state of contemporary capitalism online. The way in which Google 1234567890 operates as a company and generates revenue is often sidelined in academic discussions regarding the cultural implications of how its search engine functions. Almost 90% of Google’s revenue is derived from advertising, despite Larry Page and Sergey Brin’s original academic paper regarding Google in which they argue that advertising produces mixed motives that make it an unfeasible way to fund search engines. This article outlines how Google’s model of advertising reflects and encourages wider changes in capitalism as it shifts from its twentieth-century Fordist incarnation to contemporary Post-Fordist arrangements of labour. In doing so, this article analyses Google’s two main advertising systems, AdWords and AdSense, and proposes that these financial models have significant effects upon online discourse. In discussing AdWords, this article details some of the tensions between the local and the global that develop when tracing flows of information and capital, specifically highlighting Google’s impact on the decline of online language diversity. In outlining AdSense, this article demonstrates how Google’s hegemonic control prescribes which parts of the web can be monetised and which remain unprofitable. In particular, in drawing from existing studies, evidence is provided that Google’s AdSense programme, along with Google’s rela- tionship with Facebook, incentivised the rise of fake news in the 2016 US presidential elec- tion. This work builds on existing scholarship to demonstrate that Google’s economic influence has varied and far-reaching effects in a number of contexts and is relevant to scholars in a range of disciplines. As such, this article is intended as a discursive introduction to the topic and does not require specific disciplinary background knowledge. In doing so, this article does not attempt to provide the final word on Google’s relationship to digital capit- alism, but rather, demonstrate the profitability of a Post-Fordist perspective, in order to enable a wider engagement with the issues identified. 1 The University of Exeter, Exeter, UK. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to R.G. (email: [email protected]) PALGRAVE COMMUNICATIONS | 3: 45 | DOI: 10.1057/s41599-017-0021-4 | www.nature.com/palcomms 1 ARTICLE PALGRAVE COMMUNICATIONS | DOI: 10.1057/s41599-017-0021-4 Introduction his article focuses on how Google generates revenue and The remaining 11.3% of Alphabet’s revenue represents the Tthe various significant ways in which this impacts upon the sales of apps and media content in the Google Play store as well as wider digital information ecology on the web. Search other smaller ventures such as certain Google branded hardware, engines have been addressed from a wide range of academic for example sales of Google Chromebooks and Pixel smart- perspectives including, but not limited to, computer science, law, phones. None of Alphabet’s other activities ‘meet the quantitative politics, information retrieval, and new media studies.1 However, thresholds to qualify as reportable segments; therefore, the the role that Google’s advertising business model plays within operating segments are combined and disclosed […] as Other contemporary capitalism is rarely addressed directly. This topic is Bets’ (Alphabet, 2017, p 21) These smaller subsidiaries, known as crucially important because it impacts a wide-range of phenom- other bets ‘Access, Calico, CapitalG, Nest, Verily, Waymo, and X,’ ena that might otherwise be considered non-economic, such as and other initiatives (Alphabet, 2017, p 21) have a combined general online language use, and the incentives underpinning a revenue of $809 million, which is only 0.9% of Alphabet’s total range of content, such as fake news. In order to situate these revenue, and have combined operating losses of over $3578 issues within broader trends in contemporary capitalism, this million (Alphabet, 2017, p 74). These divisions focus on a range article draws on Post-Fordist theory, which is outlined below, of projects from Calico and Verily’s biomedical research into placing it within a digital context. This perspective highlights the extending the human lifespan, Waymo’s self-driving cars, and X’s extensive influence that Google’s revenue model has upon digital Google Glass augmented reality headset. Whilst these kinds of culture. projects are covered more frequently in the popular press they do Alphabet, Google’s holding company created in 2015, is one of not contribute to Google’s financial success. the most valuable companies in the world.2 It has a market value In summary: Google generates almost all of Alphabet’s rev- of over $500 billion and in 2016 generated a revenue of $77 enue; almost all of Google’s revenue is made from advertising; the billion. Ask someone what Google does and they will likely reply majority of this advertising revenue comes from AdWords, i.e., that it is a search engine company. However, a more accurate sponsored links included in search engine results; finally, Google description is that Google is an advertising company. 88.7% of spends a great deal of its revenue on smaller ambitious ventures. Google’s revenue comes from advertising (Alphabet, 2017, p 22); This article draws from Post-Fordist theory to provide a historical although, as will be outlined below, Google’s modes of advertising and theoretical context for Google’s place in contemporary digital deviate significantly from any existing forms of traditional capitalism. In doing so, the article demonstrates the ways in advertising. The economic success of such a shift is producing which the Internet and the web have played a major role in the dramatically widespread effects within many areas of society. This changing flows of information, labour, and capital and outlines article addresses two in particular: the reification of online lan- how at the heart of this change is Google: both the company and guage and the rise of fake news. There are many other important its products. The first section of this article focuses on AdWords, impacts of Google’s advertising programmes, however, focusing arguing that it constitutes a global linguistic market and typifies a on these two issues demonstrates the broad scope on which such number characteristics of Post-Fordist capitalism. This section a narrow economic model operates. also addresses how Google’s financial model contributes to the Google has two main advertising ventures. The first of which decline of language diversity online by incentivising the use of is ‘Google properties’, the service for hosting advertisements more profitable languages over others. The second section of this built into its own products (its search engine and Gmail, for article focuses on the ways in which AdSense shapes online dis- example) the most significant part of which is AdWords. The course and dictates particular norms. In particular, this section second is ‘Google Network Members’ properties’, a brokerage draws out the reciprocal links between AdSense and Facebook service that runs advertisements on third-party websites, the and demonstrates how Google’s mode of advertising facilitated most significant part of which is AdSense.3 This article outlines the rise of fake news during the 2016 US presidential election. AdWords and AdSense separately, as they each have different Before addressing these two topics, the following section estab- impacts, and highlights one pertinent consequence of each, the lishes the framework of Post-Fordist theory, in order to con- reification of language and the rise of fake news, respectively. textualise Google’s activities within the broader shifts of 71.3% of Google’s revenues comes advertising on Google’sown contemporary capitalism.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Articles & Reports
    1 Reading & Resource List on Information Literacy Articles & Reports Adegoke, Yemisi. "Like. Share. Kill.: Nigerian police say false information on Facebook is killing people." BBC News. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt- sh/nigeria_fake_news. See how Facebook posts are fueling ethnic violence. ALA Public Programs Office. “News: Fake News: A Library Resource Round-Up.” American Library Association. February 23, 2017. http://www.programminglibrarian.org/articles/fake-news-library-round. ALA Public Programs Office. “Post-Truth: Fake News and a New Era of Information Literacy.” American Library Association. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://www.programminglibrarian.org/learn/post-truth- fake-news-and-new-era-information-literacy. This has a 45-minute webinar by Dr. Nicole A. Cook, University of Illinois School of Information Sciences, which is intended for librarians but is an excellent introduction to fake news. Albright, Jonathan. “The Micro-Propaganda Machine.” Medium. November 4, 2018. https://medium.com/s/the-micro-propaganda-machine/. In a three-part series, Albright critically examines the role of Facebook in spreading lies and propaganda. Allen, Mike. “Machine learning can’g flag false news, new studies show.” Axios. October 15, 2019. ios.com/machine-learning-cant-flag-false-news-55aeb82e-bcbb-4d5c-bfda-1af84c77003b.html. Allsop, Jon. "After 10,000 'false or misleading claims,' are we any better at calling out Trump's lies?" Columbia Journalism Review. April 30, 2019. https://www.cjr.org/the_media_today/trump_fact- check_washington_post.php. Allsop, Jon. “Our polluted information ecosystem.” Columbia Journalism Review. December 11, 2019. https://www.cjr.org/the_media_today/cjr_disinformation_conference.php. Amazeen, Michelle A.
    [Show full text]
  • Identifying and Countering FAKE NEWS Mark Verstraete1, Derek E
    Identifying and Countering FAKE NEWS Mark Verstraete1, Derek E. Bambauer2, & Jane R. Bambauer3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Fake news has become a controversial, highly contested issue recently. But in the public discourse, “fake news” is often used to refer to several different phenomena. The lack of clarity around what exactly fake news is makes understanding the social harms that it creates and crafting solutions to these harms difficult. This report adds clarity to these discussions by identifying several distinct types of fake news: hoax, propaganda, trolling, and satire. In classifying these different types of fake news, it identifies distinct features of each type of fake news that can be targeted by regulation to shift their production and dissemination. This report introduces a visual matrix to organize different types of fake news and show the ways in which they are related and distinct. The two defining features of different types of fake news are 1) whether the author intends to deceive readers and 2) whether the motivation for creating fake news is financial. These distinctions are a useful first step towards crafting solutions that can target the pernicious forms of fake news (hoaxes and propaganda) without chilling the production of socially valuable satire. The report emphasizes that rigid distinctions between types of fake news may be unworkable. Many authors produce fake news stories while holding different intentions and motivations simultaneously. This creates definitional grey areas. For instance, a fake news author can create a story as a response to both financial and political motives. Given 1 Fellow in Privacy and Free Speech, University of Arizona, James E.
    [Show full text]
  • Fake News and the Systemic Lie in the Marketplace of Ideas: a Judicial Problem?
    FAKE NEWS AND THE SYSTEMIC LIE IN THE MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS: A JUDICIAL PROBLEM? ARTICLE JUAN CARLOS ESCUDERO DE JESÚS* “Only where a community has embarked upon organized lying in prin- ciple, and not only with respect to par- ticulars, can truthfulness as such, un- supported by the distorting forces of power and interest, become a political factor of the first order.”1 - Hannah Arendt Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1394 I. A Brief History of Fake News .......................................................................... 1396 II. Truth, Individual Autonomy and the Marketplace of Ideas ......................... 1401 A. Falsity in the Marketplace of Ideas ........................................................... 1403 III. Theoretical Assumptions and Incongruences: Marketplace Theory and Fake News .................................................................................................. 1405 A. Error vs. Deliberate Lie: Falsity in Context .............................................. 1405 B. The Eco-Chamber Phenomenon and the Fragmentation of the Marketplace of Ideas .................................................................................. 1406 C. The Ideal Rational Citizen and Today’s News Reader ............................ 1407 IV. The Collapse of Truth in the Marketplace and its Judicial Consequences ................................................................................................... 1409 V. Governmental
    [Show full text]
  • Lies, Damn Lies, and Viral Content
    3 Tow Center for Digital Journalism LIES, A Tow/Knight Report DAMN LIES, AND VIRAL CONTENT CRAIG SILVERMAN Funded by the Tow Foundation and the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation 5 Acknowledgments Tow’s research director, Taylor Owen, provided the important, initial encour- agement for me to submit a research proposal for the topic of debunking and misinformation in the online press. Tow director Emily Bell was also a critical early supporter. I’m grateful to both of them, and to the Tow Center’s funders, for enabling me to complete this work. Fergus Pitt provided a wealth of valuable feedback and guidance to ensure this paper stayed focused (and on deadline). I’m grateful to Jocelyn Jurich who, as a Ph.D. candidate at Columbia, was in many ways overqualified for the role of research assistant on this project. She added value to the data gathering and analysis, and this work is the better for it. I was also lucky to retain the services of Adam Hooper, a talented example of the new breed of journalist- programmers. He was my first choice to help build the Emergent database. I’m thankful for his many contributions. This paper also benefited from the eagle eye and fast turnaround of Abigail Ronck. She fixed errors, trimmed flabby copy, and improved the work in many ways. I’d like to express my gratitude to the journalists, paranormal investigators, skeptics, and others who spoke with me, filled out questionnaires, or provided other forms of assistance. I’m also indebted to the psychologists, sociologists, linguists, political scientists, and others who have conducted research around rumor, cognitive biases, and how humans process (mis)information.
    [Show full text]
  • Fake News and Social Media How Greek Users Identify and Curb Misinformation Online
    Fake news and Social Media How Greek users identify and curb misinformation online George Mavridis Media and Communication Studies Master’s Thesis (2-year), 15 Credits Malmö University, June 22 2018 Examiner: Margareta Melin Supervisor: Ilkin Mehrabov K3 | School of Arts and Communication 1 Abstract The issue of fake news and its impact has become very prominent in recent years. Despite the fact that fake news is not a new phenomenon, technological advances have constructed a fertile environment for the fake news to be spread rapidly. Social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter or YouTube, offer ground for generation and distribution of fake news. Consequently, it is important to study the way social media operates, how fake news is produced and spread through social network sites and what is the role users play. In particular, this study examines the methods and tools Greek users implement in order to spot fake news on social media and counter its spread. Moreover, this research contributes to the theory of fake news by addressing the issue of users’ interaction with news and users’ collaboration in the information era. The data presented in this research was collected from the members of the Ellinika Hoaxes Facebook group, an online Greek community where users exchange knowledge and insights and they collaborate to spot fake news and counter its spread. Keywords: fake news, social media, Greek users, the act of authentication, social networking, activism, collaboration 2 Table of Contents 1. Introduction...............................................................................................................4 2. The Ellinika Hoaxes Facebook group.......................................................................6 2.1 Active users fight fake news...............................................................................6 2.2.
    [Show full text]
  • Fake News and What We Can Do About It
    THE CURRENT EVENTS CLASSROOM FAKE NEWS AND WHAT WE CAN DO ABOUT IT There has been a lot of talk lately about “fake news” because it has been particularly prevalent during the recent 2016 Presidential election campaign. According to a recent Pew Research Center study, 62% of Americans get their news from social media sites and 44% get their news specifically from Facebook. Nearly 90% of millennials regularly get news from Facebook. In addition, a recent study from Stanford University revealed that many teens have difficulty analyzing the news; 82% of middle school students surveyed couldn’t tell the difference between an ad labeled “sponsored content” and a legitimate news story. This lesson provides an opportunity for students to learn what fake news is, differentiate it from other types of news (including satirical, misleading and tabloid news), develop strategies for spotting fake news and consider what can be done about the proliferation of fake news. See these additional ADL resources: Current Events Classroom lessons “Outsmarting Propaganda: Combatting the Lure of Extremist Recruitment Strategies” and “Let's Talk about the Presidential Election,” Helping Students Make Sense of News Stories About Bias and Injustice and Let's Talk Politics: Bias, Dialogue and Critical Thinking. Grade Level: grades 9-12 Time: 45 minutes Common Core Anchor Standards: Reading, Writing, Speaking and Listening Learning Objectives: Students will reflect on their own experiences with and preferences of their news sources. Students will understand what “fake news” is and identify strategies for differentiating real and fake news. Students will explore what can be done to be better consumers of news and what else they can do for their school, community and society about fake news.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election
    Journal of Economic Perspectives—Volume 31, Number 2—Spring 2017—Pages 211–236 Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election Hunt Allcott and Matthew Gentzkow merican democracy has been repeatedly buffeted by changes in media tech- nology. In the 19th century, cheap newsprint and improved presses allowed A partisan newspapers to expand their reach dramatically. Many have argued that the effectiveness of the press as a check on power was significantly compro- mised as a result (for example, Kaplan 2002). In the 20th century, as radio and then television became dominant, observers worried that these new platforms would reduce substantive policy debates to sound bites, privilege charismatic or “telegenic” candidates over those who might have more ability to lead but are less polished, and concentrate power in the hands of a few large corporations (Lang and Lang 2002; Bagdikian 1983). In the early 2000s, the growth of online news prompted a new set of concerns, among them that excess diversity of viewpoints would make it easier for like-minded citizens to form “echo chambers” or “filter bubbles” where they would be insulated from contrary perspectives (Sunstein 2001a, b, 2007; Pariser 2011). Most recently, the focus of concern has shifted to social media. Social media platforms such as Facebook have a dramatically different structure than previous media technologies. Content can be relayed among users with no significant third party filtering, fact-checking, or editorial judgment. An individual user with no track record or reputation can in some cases reach as many readers as Fox News, CNN, or the New York Times.
    [Show full text]
  • Fake News: the Commoditization of Internet Speech
    Vojak: Fake News: The Commoditization of Internet Speech Vojak.FakeNews.camera ready (Do Not Delete) 5/16/2018 11:11 AM NOTE FAKE NEWS: THE COMMODITIZATION OF INTERNET SPEECH TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 124 I. WHAT IS FAKE NEWS? ............................................................ 128 A. Accidental – Viral Fake News .................................... 130 B. Accidental – Irresponsible Media .............................. 134 C. Intentional – Fake News as an Agent of Chaos or Influence .................................................................... 136 D. Intentional – Fake News for Profit ............................ 140 II. IMPEDIMENTS TO FAKE NEWS REGULATION ......................... 143 A. United States Supreme Court ...................................... 144 B. United States’ State Courts ......................................... 146 C. Communications Decency Act, Section 230............... 149 III. “COMMODITIZED SPEECH” SOLUTION IN THREE PARTS ....... 151 A. Defining “Commoditized Speech” .............................. 153 B. European Judicial Review Paradigm ......................... 153 C. Internet Service Provider Liability ............................ 155 CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 157 INTRODUCTION What do a recent college graduate living in North Carolina,1 a 2 computer science student in Tbilisi, Georgia, and a teenager in the 1. Scott Shane, From Headline to Photograph
    [Show full text]
  • Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the 2016 US Presidential Election
    Portland State University PDXScholar University Honors Theses University Honors College 5-25-2018 War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the 2016 US Presidential Election Louis Pino Bello Portland State University Follow this and additional works at: https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/honorstheses Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Bello, Louis Pino, "War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the 2016 US Presidential Election" (2018). University Honors Theses. Paper 579. https://doi.org/10.15760/honors.587 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in University Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of PDXScholar. Please contact us if we can make this document more accessible: [email protected]. War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the Outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election By Louis Pino Bello An undergraduate honors thesis submitted in partial fulllment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in University Honors and Communication Studies Thesis Adviser Mary Chase Ph.D Portland State University May 2018 War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the Outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election Page 2 Abstract This paper is a qualitative analysis of news reports, broadcast media, tweets, posts, memes, books, biographies and textbooks which uncovers how technology was used to filter the words and ideas of millions of American voters, create or exploit ideological divisions, customize and deliver propaganda via “fake news” to dramatically sway the outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election
    Journal of Economic Perspectives—Volume 31, Number 2—Spring 2017—Pages 211–236 Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election Hunt Allcott and Matthew Gentzkow merican democracy has been repeatedly buffeted by changes in media tech- nology. In the 19th century, cheap newsprint and improved presses allowed A partisan newspapers to expand their reach dramatically. Many have argued that the effectiveness of the press as a check on power was significantly compro- mised as a result (for example, Kaplan 2002). In the 20th century, as radio and then television became dominant, observers worried that these new platforms would reduce substantive policy debates to sound bites, privilege charismatic or “telegenic” candidates over those who might have more ability to lead but are less polished, and concentrate power in the hands of a few large corporations (Lang and Lang 2002; Bagdikian 1983). In the early 2000s, the growth of online news prompted a new set of concerns, among them that excess diversity of viewpoints would make it easier for like-minded citizens to form “echo chambers” or “filter bubbles” where they would be insulated from contrary perspectives (Sunstein 2001a, b, 2007; Pariser 2011). Most recently, the focus of concern has shifted to social media. Social media platforms such as Facebook have a dramatically different structure than previous media technologies. Content can be relayed among users with no significant third party filtering, fact-checking, or editorial judgment. An individual user with no track record or reputation can in some cases reach as many readers as Fox News, CNN, or the New York Times.
    [Show full text]
  • Estes Valley Library Presentation
    Fake News 101 To Believe or Not to Believe Elizabeth Skewes College of Media, Communication and Information The problem of ‘fake news’ • Increasing disagreement about facts • Blurring of the lines between opinion and fact • Increasing influence of opinion and personal experience over fact • Declining trust in formerly respected sources of factual information News trends in U.S. history • 1880s to 1890s: A surge in populism • Economic inequality a problem, especially between industrial giants and agricultural base • Increased flow of immigrants, who were blamed for driving wages down • Period saw a rise in yellow journalism • Led by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer • Use of false or misleading stories to attract audiences (and advertisers) • News organizations took clear stances and vilified the opposition • Greater public confusion and reduced trust of media and government News trends in U.S. history • 1920s to 1930s • Income inequality reached historical high in 1928 • Stock market crashed in 1929; unemployment was 24.1 percent • Rise of economic protectionism • Tabloid journalism era • Used sensationalized language and intermingled fact and fiction • Focused less on news, though, and more on sex, violence, and alcohol • Established news organizations competed by offering more non-news content News trends in U.S. history • 1960s to 1970s • Period marked by protests against the Vietnam War, racial discrimination, social ills • Surge of populism under the leadership of George Wallace, • Got 13.6 percent of the vote in the 1968
    [Show full text]
  • Leveraging Machine Learning for Fake News Detection
    Leveraging Machine Learning for Fake News Detection Elio Masciari, Vincenzo Moscato, Antonio Picariello and Giancarlo Sperl`ı University Federico II, Naples, Italy Keywords: Fake News Detection, Machine Learning. Abstract: The uncontrolled growth of fake news creation and dissemination we observed in recent years causes contin- uous threats to democracy, justice, and public trust. This problem has significantly driven the effort of both academia and industries for developing more accurate fake news detection strategies. Early detection of fake news is crucial, however the availability of information about news propagation is limited. Moreover, it has been shown that people tend to believe more fake news due to their features (Vosoughi et al., 2018). In this paper, we present our complete framework for fake news detection and we discuss in detail a solution based on machine learning. Our experiments conducted on two well-known and widely used real-world datasets sug- gest that our settings can outperform the state-of-the-art approaches and allows fake news accurate detection, even in the case of limited content information. 1 INTRODUCTION intentionally and verifiable false and could mislead readers (Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017). There are two Social media are nowadays the main medium for key features of this definition: authenticity and intent. large-scale information sharing and communication First, fake news includes false information that can and they can be considered the main drivers of the Big be verified as such. Second, fake news is created with Data revolution we observed in recent years(Agrawal dishonest intention to mislead consumers(Shu et al., et al., 2012).
    [Show full text]