Implicationsof Age StructuresforEpipaleolithic HuntingStrategiesin the WesternTaurus Mountains,Southwest Turkey

LeventATICI Departmentof Anthropology Mail Stop 455003 University of Nevada, LasVegas LasVegas,NV89154-5003 (U.S.A.) [email protected]

AticiL.2009. —Implicationsof Age StructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategiesin the WesternTaurus Mountains,Southwest Turkey. Anthropozoologica 44(1):13-39.

ABSTRACT Thispaperinvestigateshunter-gathererbehavioralstrategiesduring the Epipaleolithicperiodin thewesternTaurus MountainsofMediterranean Turkey.Sevenarchaeofaunalassemblagesexcavated from Karain Band Öküzini caveswereanalyzed andinterpreted withaspecialemphasison age structuresandtheirimplicationsforgeneralhunting strategies,sitefunction KEYWORDS anduse, andseasonality.Adetailed analysisofagestructuresbased on dental Karain, wearandepiphysealfusion datacombined withotherzooarchaeological Öküzini, Turkey, evidence hasrevealed thathunter-gatherers in theWesternTaurus Mountains Epipaleolithic, intensivelyhunted wildsheepandgoat,mostlytargeted prime-ageanimals, Seasonality, shifted from seasonallyrestricted siteuseandhunting tounrestricted Mortality Profiles, DiscreteAgeCohorts, multiseasonalsiteuseandhunting pattern,andprogressivelyhunted larger Synchronized Killing. numberofjuvenilecaprinesthroughout theEpipaleolithic.

RÉSUMÉ Incidence desrépartitions parâge dans lesstratégiesde chassedurantl’Épipaléo- lithiquedans lachaîneduTaurus,sud-ouestde laTurquie. Cetarticleaborde lesstratégiescomportementalesdeschasseurs-cueilleurs durantl’ÉpipaléolithiquedanslachaîneduTaurus occidentalde laTurquie méditerranéenne.Septensemblesfauniquesprovenantdessitesde Karaïn Bet d’Öküzini ontétéanalysésetinterprétés,mettantl’accentsur lesrépartitions parâgeetleurs implicationssur lesstratégiescynégétiquesgénérales,la fonction etl’utilisation dusite, etlasaisonnalité.L’analysedétaillée des répartitionsparâge, d’aprèsl’analysedel’usuredentaireetlesdonnéesde

ANTROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ©PublicationsScientifiquesduMuséumnationald’Histoirenaturelle,Paris. 13 AticiL.

MOTS CLÉS lafusion épiphysaire, combinée àd’autresdonnéesarchéozoologiques, Karain, montrequeleschasseurs-cueilleurs desmontagnesduTaurus occidental Öküzini, Turquie, ontchasséintensivementdesmoutonsetdeschèvressauvages,quelachasse Epipaléolithique, visaitprincipalementdesanimaux jeunes,qu’ilssesontdéplacésde sites saisonnalité, saisonniers,strictementréservésàlachassevers dessitesmultisaisonniers, profilsde mortalité, famillesd’âgedistinctes, non-dédiésspécifiquementàlachasse, etqu’ilsontabattu progressivementet abattagesynchronisé. majoritairementde jeunescaprinésdurantl’Épipaléolithique.

INTRODUCTION archaeologicallyobserved EpipaleolithicLevantine forageradaptations(TheLevantinemodel) andtheir TheEpipaleolithicperiodmarked aperiodofinten- applicability toothersub-regionsoftheNearEast. sivechangesin hunter-gathererbehavioralstrategies Thescarcity ofresearchonAnatolianEpipaleolithic thatled totheemergence ofagriculturaleconomies in generalandlackofcomprehensivefaunalanalysis during theTerminalPleistoceneandEarlyHolocene from AnatolianEpipaleolithicsitesin particular in theNearEast.Thechangesfrom UpperPaleolithic leavethiscrucialsub-region oftheNearEast largely subsistence strategiesasreflected in thefaunalrecord unknown. Thecorpus ofdataaccumulated through oftheEpipaleolithicoftheeasternMediterranean extensiveresearchonthefaunalassemblagesfrom andoftheLevantgenerallywere: well-dated stratigraphiccontexts ofKarain Band (1) intensified hunting ofungulatessuchasgazelles Öküzini makesthesesitestheonlycurrentlyavaila- (e.g.,Davis1983; Bar-Yosef 2002; Bar-Oz2004; blecandidatesforinvestigatinganimalexploitation Bar-Oz etal. 2004;Munro2004;Munro& patternsduring theEpipaleolithicin Anatolia, and Bar-Oz2005); forcomparing thesepatternswiththosein other (2)increased dietary breadth,whichisoftenreferred sub-regionsoftheNearEast. toasthe“broad-spectrumrevolution”(originally Besidesinvestigating generalhunting strategies, coined byFlannery 1969) andwhichinvolved thispaperseekstotest whethertherewasatrajec- intensified exploitation ofsmall gamesuchashare, tory towardprogressivelyyoungeragestructures tortoise, andbirds(e.g.,Dobneyetal.,1999;Munro andashifttowardmoresedentary life ways during 1999,2004;Stiner2001,2005;Stineretal. 2000; theinvestigated part oftheEpipaleolithicperiod Surovell 1999;Weiss etal.,2004); (from ca.20,000 to14,000 calibrated years BP)in (3)increased selectivehunting ofjuvenileanimals thewesternTaurus MountainsofMediterranean (e.g.,Bar-Yosef andMeadow1995;Davis1983; Turkeyasobserved in EpipaleolithicLevantine LeggeandRowley-Conwy 1987; Liebermann 1993a; faunalassemblages.Adetailed analysisofage Munro2004);and structuresbased on dentalwearandepiphyseal (4) increased duration oftheoccupation atsame fusion datahasbeenprimarilyused todetermine sitesorashifttowardmoresedentary life ways (e.g., whetherproportionsofyoung animalsin thefaunal Bar-Yosef andBelfer-Cohen1989;Davis1983; assemblagesremained constantorprogressively Lieberman1993b, 1998;Moore1985;Mooreand increased overtime.Afocus on thejuvenilecaprine Hillman1992; Nadeletal. 2004;Rocek1998; teethfrom theEpipaleolithic“bonebed”atKarain Tchernov1982,1984;Valla1998, 1999). BCaveandfrom contemporaneous stratafrom Theseadaptivestrategieshavebeenthoughttohave Öküzini Cavehasbeenused toidentifydiscrete laidthefoundation fortheemergence ofanimal agecohortsandsynchronized killing ofcaprines, domestication andpastoraleconomiesin theNear andtodeterminewhetherÖküzini andKarain East.Assuch,itisessentialtoestablishindividual Bcaveshad multiseasonalsiteusepatternsanda chronologicalandculturalframeworksforeachsub- shifttowardmoresedentary life ways during the region oftheNearEast,andtotest thevalidity of Epipaleolithic.

14 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

A GE S TRUCTURES AND H UNTING S TRATEGIES specialized responseandheavy reliance on asingle Dataderived from theanalysesoftootherup- resource;alowrichness anddiversity ofecofactual tion andwearandofepiphysealfusion ofungu- andartifactualassemblagessuggesting brief occu- latesrepresented in archaeofaunalassemblages pationsbysmallernumbers ofpeopleperforming havecommonlybeenused todemonstratethe restricted and/orspecialized activities; aprime-domi- demographyofmortality andtointerpretgeneral nated orcatastrophicmortality profile(e.g. mass hunting strategies(Kurten1953; Voorhies1969; kills);andrestricted,seasonalhuntingconsistent Klein 1982; Koike&Ohtaishi 1987; Stiner1990, withpreybehaviorassociated withlargenumbers of 1991;Lubinski 2001a, b;Lubinski &O’Brien2001; animalsanddiscretecohorts.Incontrast,residential Pike-Tay&Cosgrove2002). Mammalianage mobility orforagers produce amoregeneralized and structureshavebeenused toinfermobility patterns opportunisticresponsetolocalresources; deposits andsitefunction aswell astointerprethunting containing ahigh richness ordiversity ofecofactual strategies. andartifactualremainsreflecting amorecomplete Overrepresentation ofprime-age, adultanimals setofactivitiesperformedbyalargernumberof compared tovery young orvery oldanimalspoints people;acombined mortality profileofattrition and to‘selectivehunting’(Stiner1990). Enloe(1997: prime-agetargeting ofsmallernumberofanimals 101) notesthatprimedominated hunting probably (e.g.,singlekills);andunrestricted, multi-seaso- involved selection bysexandage.Theprime-age nal,small hunting episodeswithsmall numbers dominated patternmayreflectselection forlargest ofanimals(Binford1980; Sutton 2000; Pike-Tay sizeorthemeatiest gameafteradrive, selection &Cosgrove2002; Burke2006). whenscavenging from acatastrophickill event,or Seasonality maybe defined astemporalperiodicity skilled hunters selecting primeanimals(Pike-Tay in resource useaswell asin siteuse.Seasonality and &Cosgrove2002:106). Based on theirstudiesof function anduseofsitesareall interrelated aspects of theSikadeergamepopulationsattheHokkaido mobility patternsandsettlementsystems,informing Reservein Japan,KoikeandOhtaishi (1987)report us about patternsofsocialorganization (Rocek& thathunting withbows andarrows andtargeting Bar-Yosef 1998). Thus,itisessentialthatsiteuse animalsonebyoneproduce astrongerselection andfunction,andseasonality ofresource procu- among thegameanimals,creating abiasagainst rementbe included in anydiscussion ofhunting fawnsandyearlings.‘Fawn-abundant’ patterns,in strategies.Oneshouldexpecttodetectvariationsin contrast,suggest adifferenthunting technique, most taxonomiccomposition depending upon whether probablytrapping,andproduce acatastrophicage asitehasrestricted seasonaluseorunrestricted profile(Koike&Ohtaishi 1987:265). multiseasonaluse.Intheformercase, acollector sitetypefocusing on oneortwotaxawill create S EASONALITYOF H UNTING AND S ITE U SE faunalspectradominated bytargeted preydueto Thestudyofpast hunter-gathereradaptationsand its seasonalabundance.Inthelattercase, amore theirresource procurementstrategiesusuallybegins opportunisticandgeneralized hunting strategywill withaneffort totypeanarchaeologicalsiteusing include almost every preyformencountered. theconventionaltaxonomyofmobility patterns conceptualized byBinford(1980). Twomodelsof prehistoricmobility patternsthathavebeenreco- REGIONALSETTING OF THE SITES gnized forhunter-gatherers are: 1) circulating or residential mobility offoragers, Karain (BlackCave)andÖküzini (OxenCave) who ‘movepeopletoresources’; cavesarelocated 1kmapart in thefoothillsofthe 2) radiating or logistical mobility ofcollectors,who Taurus Mountains,nearthevillageofYağca, some ‘moveresourcestopeople’(Binford1980; Barton et 30 km northwest ofAntalyaandofMediterranean al. 1995;Kelly1995,1998;Sutton 2000:222). coast in southwest Turkey(Fig. 1). Sitefunction modelspostulatethatspecialized col- Karain Cave, located 450mabovethesea leveland lectorsitesreflecting logisticalorganization showa 150mabovethetravertineplain thatitoverlooks,

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 15 AticiL.

F IG.1.—Location of Karain Band Öküzini caves.

16 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

isacomplexofseveralinterconnected chambers Öküzini excavationsrevealed 13discretegeological (A-Gcurrentlyknown). Incontrast,Öküzini Cave horizons(GH 0through XII)within a3.5-meter islocated atthecontactofthebaseoftheKatran Epipaleolithicsequence including amixed pro- Mountainswiththetravertineplain,approximately tohistoriclevelpreceded byEpipaleolithiclayers 300 mabovetheseallevel. Thesitesaresituated in thathavebeensubdivided intofour culturalphases anecotonalzonehaving access toawide rangeof orarchaeologicalunits (AUs1,2,3,4) based on microenvironments including steepmountainscut characteristicsofthelithicassemblages(Yalçınkaya byshort valleys; broad, flattravertineplain andopen etal. 1996,1998). grasslandwithshrubs,marshes,andgallery forests; andpineforests limited tohigh altitudes. CHRONOLOGICALFRAMEWORK

EXCAVATIONS AND STRATIGRAPHY Calibrated radiocarbon dateslisted in Table1repre- sentgeologicalhorizons(GH),units,andassem- BothKarain andÖküzini caveswerefirst discovered blages.Forthesakeofconsistencyandeaseofuse, andintermittentlyexcavated byKöktenin1950s. thesitesandtheirstratahavebeenassigned codes. AfterKökten,hissuccessorIınYalçınkayaofAnkara Theelimination ofboneandaberrantcharcoaldates University excavated Öküzini between1989and andoutliers from thelargecorpus ofradiocarbon 1999 in collaboration withalargeinterdisciplinary dates,whilereducing thesamplesize, hasenabled team(Albrecht1988, 1992; Yalçınkaya etal. 2002a). us toestablishamoreconsistentandpresumably Yalçınkayaalsorestarted excavationsatKarain B reliablechronologicalframeworkfortheEpipaleo- in 1996(Yalçınkaya etal. 2000,2001).Thestra- lithicatKarain BandÖküzini.Thus,hereafterthe tigraphiccolumn atKarain Bcomprisesmixed siteandfaunalassemblagecodeslisted in Table2 deposits from theNeolithicthrough MiddleAges, areused.Sevenassemblagesfrom Karain Band withunderlying Pleistocenecomponents divided Öküzini caves,covering aperiodfrom approxima- intothree geologicalhorizons(GH):Epipaleoli- tely19,800 to13,700 calBP,provide thefaunal thic(PI.1 andPI.2),UpperPaleolithic(P.II),and materialemployed in theremainderofthispaper. MiddlePaleolithic(P.III)(Yalçınkaya2002b). At Withits longersequence, Öküzini covers theentire

T ABLE 1. —Radiocarbon daterangesforfaunalassemblagesfrom Karain B(KB)and Öküzini (OK)(asdefined and used byOtte etal. 2003; Yalçınkaya etal. 2002a). GH =GeologicalHorizon,AU=ArchaeologicalUnit,and FA =FaunalAssemblage.

Calibrated withOxCAL BP Calibration limits Version Beta4.0* *Ramsey2006 68% 95% StratumuncalBP Error±From ToFrom ToAU FA Phase

Öküzini CaveGH Ia 10,922 55 12,91012,85012,95212,824VI OK6NA Öküzini CaveGH II 12,002 81 13,949 13,77814,04013,710VOK55 Öküzini CaveGH III 12,059 63 13,98313,833 14,05613,775VOK55 Öküzini CaveGH IV 12,35059 14,45714,119 14,722 14,053IV OK44 Öküzini CaveGH VI 13,027 3915,520 15,230 15,706 15,118 III OK33 Öküzini CaveGH VII 14,5759817,88617,385 17,99217,069II OK22 Öküzini CaveGH VIII 14,6248817,948 17,50918,015 17,151 II OK22 Öküzini CaveGH IX-X16,037 107 19,34219,08019,44019,002 IOK11 Öküzini CaveGH XI 16,460 95 19,791 19,491 19,84219,459 IOK11 Karain BCaveGH PI.1 15,9254719,16519,00519,27518,965PI.1 KB21 Karain BCaveGH PI.216,1974619,45719,32519,47819,203 PI.2KB11

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 17 AticiL.

T ABLE 2.—Siteand FaunalAssemblage codes(asdefined and and21percentofall excavated units respectively, used byAtici2007). adequatetogeneratestatisticallyviableandrobust Assemblage BP cal. from BP cal. toPhase ageprofiles(see Table8). OK513,900 13,700 5 D EMOGRAPHY OF M ORTALITY : OK414,500 14,100 4 E PIPHYSEAL F USION OK315,500 15,200 3 Atthemost fundamentallevel,epiphysealfusion OK218,000 17,300 2 dataarevery coarsegrained andnotrobust; age OK119,800 19,000 1 profilesbased on long boneepiphysealfusion thus KB219,800 19,000 1 servetoshowonlygeneraltrendsin agestructures KB119,800 19,000 1 in thefirst 2.5 years oflife, whichisthewaythat theyareused here. Thestateofepiphysealfusion forcaprinebones lengthoftheEpipaleolithic, whereasKarain Bhas wasrecorded todocumentagestructuresfollowing ashortersequence dating toonlytheearlierphase thefusion sequence andcorresponding agebrackets oftheLateGlacial. Radiocarbon determinations thatZeder(2006)hasdocumented formodern clearlyshowthatthestrataPI.2andPI.1 atKarain B wildcaprine( Ovis orientalis and Capraaegagrus ) (KB1andKB2)arecontemporaneous withÖküzini specimensfrom Iran(Table3). Theagestageassign- GHsXII through IX(OK1). ments andcorresponding sequence offusion were modified toaccommodatetaphonomicboneloss. Zeder(2006)separatesproximalhumerusasan METHODOLOGY independentfusion stagetorepresentspecimens olderthan48months(>48months). Yet,asone R ECOVERYOFFAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES oftheleast denseelements,proximalhumeriare All deposits from bothcavesweresystematically usuallysignificantlyunderrepresented in archaeo- processed using bucketflotation during theexca- faunalassemblages.Thus,Ilumped proximal vation fortherecovery ofwoodcharcoalandother humerusintoan“olderthan30 months” category plantremains.All theexcavated sediments,from (>30 months)toavoidsamplebias-related problems bothKarain BandÖküzini,werewet-screened (see Table3). using asetofnested sievesconsisting ofthree Basedon theassumptionthatwildcaprineswill differentmeshsizes:4,2,and1mm. Thus,there displaysimilardevelopmentalpatternsin similar isno orminimalbiasinvolved in therecovery of environments,i.e.,in ZagrosandTaurus Mountains, theseassemblages.Recording ofthefaunalmaterial weexpecttoreconstructageprofilesaccurately.In from thesiteswascarried out attheexcavation ordertoavoiddoublecounting,MNEvalueswere facility oftheKarain Caveprojectnearthevillage used ratherthanNISP forgenerating ageprofiles. ofYağca in Antalya, atthePrehistory Laboratory Fortheestimation ofMNE values,acombination ofPrehistory DepartmentatAnkaraUniversity ofMorlan’s (1994) definition ofdiscretefeatures in Ankara, andattheZooarchaeologyLaboratory orlandmarks(e.g.,nutrientforamina)approach ofHarvard’s PeabodyMuseuminCambridge, andBunn andKroll’s (1986)“manualoverlap” Massachusetts,USA. approachwereemployed.Thisapproachinvolves laying out all theboneson thebenchandrecor- S AMPLING ding MNEswhile‘eyeballing’theoverlapforeach Theexcavation units —ArchaeologicalHorizons skeletalelementandportion. Itisessentialto (AH)—formthebasisforsampling forboth notethateffortstorefitfragmented specimens caves(Gamble1978). AHswerecombined into weremade forevery elementcategory beforefinal GeologicalHorizons(GH)togeneratelargerand recording. Besides‘eyeballing’overlap,degree of comparableanalyticalunits.Sampled andanalyzed fragmentation forall thespecimenswasrecorded. assemblagesfrom Öküzini andKarain Bcover43.3 Bysodoing,acertain degree ofstandardization

18 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

T ABLE 3.—Fusion stagesand corresponding age classesforcaprines (modified afterZeder2006; P=proximal,D=distal).

Stage Age class Elementportion

I>2monthsProximalradius II >6monthsDistalhumerus,distalscapula III >12monthsProximalsecond phalanx,proximalfirst phalanx IV >18monthsDistaltibia, distalmetapodia V>30 monthsPcalcaneus,Pfemur,Dfemur,Pulna, Dradius,Ptibia, Phumerus hasbeenreached in estimating theMNE values inflating MNE counts.Hence, corrected MNE andin avoiding doublecounting andinflating the counts wereused. elementnumbers. Thethree-cohort systeminvolvesjuvenile, prime- adult,andoldadultcohorts,covering theprin- D EMOGRAPHY OF M ORTALITY : cipallife stagesoflong-livingspecies.Although T OOTH E RUPTION AND W EAR thisisacoarseandlow-resolution methodto Recording tootheruption andwearstageshelps constructaveraged agestructures(see Steele& todiscriminatedifferentageclassesandtoinfer Weaver2002),themethodprovidestheadvan- age-related selection decisionsmade byEpipaleo- tageofusing conventionaltoothweardata(i.e., lithichunters.Ageclasseswererecorded forwild Payne1973)notonlyforteethinmandiblesbut sheep,wildgoat,andfallowdeerfollowing pro- forlooseteethaswell. Thus,whenlargeseriesof ceduresdescribedbyDenizandPayne(1982). mandiblesarenotavailableduetohigh degrees Eruption andwearofmandibulardeciduous offragmentation,theanalyst canusedP4-P4or fourthpremolars (dP4) andmandibularperma- dP4-M3pairs tocoverthepotentiallife spanof nentfourthpremolars (P4),first (M1),second anungulate(Stiner2005:200). Table4shows (M2),andthird(M3)molars wererecorded forall three agecohorts/life stagesandcorresponding taxatoinvestigatethedemographyofmortality wearstagesforcaprinesfollowing Payne(1973). andgeneralhunting patterns.Inordertoavoid Numbers in Table4(e.g.,dP41-12)referto doublecounting,MNE valueswereused rather sequentialdrawing conventionsdeveloped by thanNISP.Particularemphasiswasplaced on Payne(1973). Formytabulations,Iconstructed documentation oferuption andwearofmandi- agestructuresusing bothpairs andpicked theone bulardeciduous fourthpremolars (dP4),which withthelargernumberofspecimens.BothdP4 in turnhelpstodeterminesameagecohortsand +P4anddP4+M3pairs yielded viablesample toidentifypeaksindicating discretecohorts,pro- sizes(N=307 and300 specimens,respectively). viding insights intotheseasonality ofhunting Thus,Ionlyused dP4+P4pairasithad aslightly andofsiteuse. highersamplesizeandvery slim chance ofoverlap Eruption andwearofmandibulardeciduous betweenthetwoteeth. fourthpremolars (dP4),mandibularfourthpre- molars (P4),andmandibularthirdmolars (M3) werealsoanalyzed forlooseteethandforteeth T ABLE 4. —Three age cohorts and corresponding Payne (1973) still embedded in mandiblesforall taxafol- wearstages. lowing Stiner’s(1990,1991,1994,2005) prey Payne Stage Life Stage agestructures(thethree-cohort system). Wear stageandsymmetrywereconsidered, andteeth dP4—1-12Juvenile thatmayhavecomefrom thesamemandible P4—1-8 Prime wereeliminated toavoiddoublecounting and P4—9 Old

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 19 AticiL.

T ABLE 5. —Wearstagesforindividualteethand theircorre- spondentlife stages.Medianage dataafterAtici&Stutz (2002).

Payne Stage Life Stage MedianAge dP4—1 Juvenile 0m dP4—2-4 Juvenile 0-2m dP4—5 Juvenile 2.5 m dP4—6-7Juvenile 4.5 m dP4—8 Juvenile 15 m dP4—9-12OlderJuvenile 16.5 m P4—1-5 Young Adult/ 24m Prime P4—6-7Prime 30 m P4—8 Prime 48 m P4—9 Old 69m

Fig. 2.—Common mortality modelsfound in naturepresented in tripolarformat. todeterminewhetherproportionsofyoung ani- malshunted remained constantorprogressively increased overtimeasobserved in Epipaleolithic Thenumberofindividualsin eachagecategory Levantinefaunalassemblages(e.g.,Bar-Oz2004; ispresented asproportionalvaluesandplotted Munro2004). Inaddition,having twolinesofevi- on tripolar/ternary graphs.Thetwolowerpanels dence, epiphysealfusion andtootheruption/wear, on thegraph showattritionalandnonselective/ toaddress thesamequestionsprovidesameans living models,twoofthemost common morta- toindependentlyexamineagestructuresandto lity patternsseeninnature(Fig. 2)(Stiner1991, detectthehunting ofyoung animals.Aprogres- 2005:202-203). Theattritionalmodelpredicts sivelyincreasing proportion ofyoung individuals highernumbers ofyoung andoldindividuals, wouldbeanindicatorofthetransition from inten- whereastheliving structuremodelmirrors the sivehunting towildherdmanagement,andfrom proportionsofageclassesexisting in nature.The (un)conscious selection tolivestockhusbandry three corners ofthegraph correspondtorepre- (Peters etal. 2005;Vigne etal. 2005). Anincrease sentationsheavilydominated byasinglekill-off in hunting morejuvenilesmayalsobe associated strategy.Based on heranalysisofMediterranean withresource depression ordepletion asaresultof MiddleandUpperPaleolithic, andEpipaleolithic population increase(Munro2004). Incalculating sites,Stiner(2005:203-204) reportsacommon proportionsofyoung animalsbased on epiphy- patternsuggesting prime-dominated nonselective sealfusion,Iused unfused proximalradius,distal living structureacross timeandspace.Natufian humerus,distalscapula, proximalfirst phalanx, gazelleassemblages,however,showastrong bias andproximalsecondphalanx(Table3). towardhunting juveniles.Stiner(2005) suggests Inordertocalculatetheproportionsofyoung thatprime-dominated patternsareindicators of animalsrepresented in theassemblagesbased on “cursorial”or“ambush”hunting. Thismethodo- tootheruption andwear,Iused thewearstages logyisapplied toKarain BandÖküziniarchaeo- (dP41-12)ofthemandibulardeciduous fourth faunastoinferhunting strategiesfrom mortality premolar(dP4) following Payne(1973)assug- patterns. gested byStiner(1990,2005). Table5lists the wearstages,life stages,andmedianagestages, P ROPORTIONOF Y OUNG C APRINES whereasTable6lists thelettercodesthatwere Besidesdetecting overall trends,themortality data used todocumentagecohortsandseasonality in generated in thisresearchhavebeenprimarilyused theTaurus assemblages.

20 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

T ABLE 6.—WearstagesfordP4and correspondentlettercodes T ABLE 7.—Correlation coefficients and significancelevelsfor and seasons. bone density vs.%MAU.Highlighted valuesshowasignificant positivecorrelation. Payne Letter Median Season Stage Code Age %MAU Spearman’srho Density** dP4—1 A0mLateSpring OK5Correlation Coefficient .723* dP4—2B0-2mLateSpring/EarlySummer Significance(2-tailed) 0.000 dP4—3C0-2mLateSpring/EarlySummer N24 dP4—4 BC 0-2mLateSpring/EarlySummer OK4Correlation Coefficient0.249 dP4—5 BC 2.5 mSummer Significance(2-tailed) 0.241 dP4—6C4.5 mFall N24 dP4—7C4.5 mFall OK3Correlation Coefficient0.376 dP4—8 CD 15 mSummer Significance(2-tailed) 0.070 dP4—9 D16.5 mLateSummer/EarlyFall N24 dP4—10D16.5 mLateSummer/EarlyFall OK2Correlation Coefficient .588* dP4—11D16.5 mLateSummer/EarlyFall Significance(2-tailed) 0.003 dP4—12D16.5 mLateSummer/EarlyFall N24 OK1Correlation Coefficient0.398 Significance(2-tailed) 0.054 N24 SEASONALITYOF HUNTING KB2Correlation Coefficient .712* AND SITE USE Significance(2-tailed) 0.000 Becausetheeruption sequence ofteethinungulates N24 isreasonablystandardized, tootheruption/weardata KB1Correlation Coefficient0.080 from very young animalshavebeenused tointerpret Significance(2-tailed) 0.711 seasonality ofhunting ( e.g. ,Frison 1991;Pike-Tay N24 &Cosgrove2002; Lubinski &O’Brien2001; *Correlation issignificantatthe 0.01level (2-tailed). Pokins2001). Spiess (1979:78)notesthat‘deciduous ** Lyman1994. molarwearpatternswill onlyappeardiscretein sites oflimited seasonalhunting.’Frequencydistributions orhistogramsofdeciduous mandibularfourthpre- isolatehumanbehaviorastheresponsibleagent molar(dP4) wearpatternscandocumentpeaksof foraccumulation,modification,anddestruction wearcorresponding todiscreteagecohorts,signaling ofbonesatKarain andÖküzini caves.Atbothof theexistence ofrestricted killing events.Using such thesites,degree offragmentation ishigh andlong information in conjunction witheruption andwear boneshaftfragments dominatethearchaeofaunal datafrom permanentmandibularmolarteeth(M1, assemblages. M2,andM3)canhelp demonstrate‘synchronized First,themarked inter-assemblagevariationsin the mortality,’whichinturncanhelp determineseason representation ofarticularendsandin boneloss ofhunting andofsiteuse(Enloe1997:98). suggest asetofcomplexbehaviors anddifferent taphonomichistoriesforindividualassemblages.A detailed examination ofthesurvivorship patterns RESULTS withrespecttobonedensity revealsthatthereare notsignificantcorrelationsbetweenbonedensity and A SSEMBLAGE C HARACTERIZATION AND ITS skeletalpart survivalratesforeachassemblageand I MPLICATIONS FOR S ITE F ORMATION P ROCESSES thatpre-burialbonedestruction must haveoccur- Beforefocusing on hunting strategiesandseaso- red in addition to,orinstead of, post-depositional nality,Ibrieflycharacterizetheassemblagesand boneloss (Fig. 3; Table7; Atici2007).

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 21 AticiL.

F IG.3.—Multiple scatterplotdiagramshowing the relationshipsbetween bone density and %MAU foreachofthe assemblages.

Tracesleftbycarnivoresin theformofgnawing, andsmashing ofaxialelements andarticularends biting,orswallowing andregurgitating bonesare forgreaserendering (Atici2007). extremelyrareorcompletelymissing from all ofthe Thesepatternssuggest thattheduration ofoccu- assemblages.Thelackofimpacts bynon-human pation overtimeatKarain andÖküzini wasrather bioticagents on thefaunalremainsiscomplemen- constantandthatthesiteswereoftenfrequented ted bythelackofimpacts byabioticagents such byhumans,indeed somuchsothatcarnivores asfluvialtransport,weathering,rootetching,and andothernon-humanbioticagents didnothave erosion. Theseall suggest thateachassemblageat access tobonesevenafterhumanconsumption Karain BandÖküzini wasdeposited andburied anddisposal. ratherrapidlywithminimalexposuretotheattri- tionalanddestructivephysicalandchemicaleffects T AXONOMIC C OMPOSITION oftheweather.Theresults ofgeoarchaeologicaland AND H UNTING S TRATEGIES archaeometricalresearchalsopointtorapidsedi- Table8shows theNISP valuesfortheprincipaltaxa mentaccumulation andstratificationatÖküzini identified in Karain BandÖküzini assemblages. (Pawlikowski 2002). ForKarain B,wildsheep(Ovis orientalis)andwild Thesecondstepofthetaphonomicanalyses,thus, goat( Capraaegagrus )exclusivelydominatethe excludescarnivoreravaging,otherbioticagents,and Epipaleolithicmenuofforagers; whileforÖküzini abioticagents asmajorboneaccumulators/collectors, fallowdeer( Damadama )contributed todietasa modifiers,anddestroyers,isolating culturalfactors secondary foodanimal. astheprimary andmajortaphonomicfilter.The Thecontributionofthetertiary taxasuchasroe taphonomicanalysesalsopointtopreyprocurement deer( Capreoluscapreolus )andwildboar( Susscrofa ) intensification being reflectedin faunalassemblages. ismarginalforeachoftheassemblages.Alsopre- Thisintensification involved dismembermentof sentaretheremainsofred deer( Cervuselaphus ) carcasses,removalofmeat,fragmentation oflong andaurochs( Bos primigenius )inextremelysmall bonesandevenphalangesformarrowextraction, numbers.Carnivores,too,areextremelyunderrepre-

22 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

T ABLE 8. —NISP valuesforprincipaltaxabeforethe proportionalallocation of sheep/goatNISP.

Total TaxaKB1KB2OK1OK2OK3OK4OK5 %NISP NISP Avifauna(Birds)160 281210994624388 0.60 Testudo graeca (Tortoise) 0000356573 0.11 Lepus europaeus (Hare) 71101332321040.16 Small mammals(Rabbitsize) 01182123 57111 0.17 Mediummammals(Dog size) 16135518390.06 Bosprimigenius (Aurochs)700000070.01 Cervus elaphus (Red deer)005000160.01 Sus scrofa (Wild boar)7222 094 041 166 0.25 Capreolus capreolus (Roe deer)01015 15 2930 900.14 Damadama (Fallowdeer)1001191 2971015 222 363 3098 4.76 Capraaegagrus (Wild goat)28057199 358 25097921333 2.05 Ovisorientalis (Wild sheep) 62120139714011077 1937139616.08 Sheep/Goat17744 69312426 1422412241 1518 6135569785.51 Other0001252422 63 0.10 TOTAL NISP 189167232 426916432 14737 21611389 65136 100.00 sented (< %0.1) in eachKBandOK assemblage. caprinestheexclusivelytargeted taxaoftheinha- Wolf( Canis lupus ),red fox( Vulpesvulpes ),Eurasian bitants ofKarain B. lynx( Lynxlynx ),brownbear( Ursusarctos),stone ForÖküzini,thepictureisratherdifferentwith marten(Martesfoina ),andwildcat( Felis silvestris) theappearance ofsecondary fallowdeerhunting areamong thecarnivoresrepresented in Karain B byOK1andtheapparentinclusion oftertiary andÖküzini assemblages. roedeerandwildboarbyOK3.ForOK1,which wasoccupied contemporaneouslywithKB1and T RENDS IN T AXONOMIC R EPRESENTATION KB2,therepresentation offallowdeerisnotable TheNISP forthegeneralsheep/goat(O/Cor withaproportion of28.3percent.InOK2,the Ovis/ Capra )category wasproportionallyallocated proportion offallowdeerdropsbackto1.8, and tothesheepandgoatcategoriestospecifically thenrebounds,increasing upto6.9 percentin examinethepatternsin theexploitation ofthese OK3,10.8percentin OK4,and30 percentin twocaprinespeciesaswell asbetweencaprinesand OK5. Therisein fallowdeerproportionsoccurs fallowdeer.Fig. 4shows thatcaprinesdominate attheexpenseofwildsheepproportions,which theKarain Bassemblages.InKB1,caprinesare displaytheoppositetrend.Astoroedeerandwild represented withaproportion of99.9 percent, boar,asimilartrendtowardaprogressiveincrease whilein KB2theirremainsmakeup100 percent in representation overtimeisevidentaswell. Yet, oftheentireassemblage.InKB1,theremaining becausetheirremainsmakeupfarunder1percent 0.1 percent(n =10)oftheremainsare9antler ofthetotalNISP (wildboar0.25percent; roedeer fragments and1loosemaxillary toothidentified 0.14 percent),itisunlikelythatthistrendwaseco- asfrom afallowdeer.Thissuggests thatmale nomicallyasignificantone. fallowdeerskull(s)orantlers werecollected and Themost interesting aspectofthetrendsdescribed broughttothecaveformanufacturing antlertools, aboveistheabsence offallowdeerremainsandthe perhapshammers used in flintknapping. Thus,it focus on caprinesin Karain Bassemblages.Because isunlikelythatfallowdeercontributed tothediet KB1,KB2,andOK1haveasignificanttemporal ofKarain BEpipaleolithicforagers.Thismakes overlap,occurrence oftheonetaxon atoneofthe

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 23 AticiL.

F IG.4.—Trendsseen in the distribution of ungulatetaxa. sites,buts its completeabsence from theothermay forwildsheepandgoats since thesamplesizefor havesignificantimplicationswithrespecttohunting fallowdeer,roedeer,andwildboardonotallowus tacticsandstrategies,siteuseandfunction,and togeneratedependableandconclusivedata. seasonalprocurementofanimalfoods. Theepiphysealunion datawereprimarilyused to Asfarasthetrendforsheepandgoathunting,with determineproportionsofyoung animalshunted as theexception ofOK5,wildsheepoutnumberwild anindependentcheckofageprofilesconstructed goatin eachoftheassemblagesalbeitin varying using tootheruption andweardata.Table9reports ratios.Theratio ofsheeptogoatMNE shows atrend percentageMNE ofanimalsbyageclass andfusion ofsteadyincreasein favorofsheepfrom 2.6:1in stagerecorded foreachoftheassemblages. KB1to3.3:1inKB2; from 2.8:1inOK1to4.2:1 Fig. 6suggests thatoverall kill-off patternsforthe in OK2andto5.3:1inOK3.InOK4,adecline Karain BandÖküzini assemblagesweresimilar: bringsthesheep/goatratio backto1.3:1. InOK5, nearlyall theanimalssurvived 2monthsofage, 85.5 however,thesheeptogoatratio of0.7:1reflects a to96.3percentofanimalssurvived 6monthsofage, biasagainst sheepforthefirst time(Fig. 5). 77.5 to88.2percentofanimalssurvived 12months ofage, 72 to79.7percentoftheanimalssurvived A GE S TRUCTURES AND H UNTING S TRATEGIES: 18monthsofage, and42.6to68.2percentofthe E PIPHYSEAL F USION animalssurvived 30 monthsofage(Table9). Kill-off patternsorsurvivorship curvesfortheKarain BandÖküzini assemblagesweregenerated using age A GE S TRUCTURES AND H UNTING S TRATEGIES: atdeathestimationsbased on long boneepiphyseal T OOTH E RUPTION AND W EAR fusion states.Theproportionsofanimalssurviving Table10detailsthecombined dP4+P4wearstage beyondagivenagecategory wereobtained only datautilized in constructing caprineageatdeath

24 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

F IG.5.—Patternsobserved in wild sheep and goatdistribution.

T ABLE 9. —Epiphysealfusion dataforcaprine long bones(figuresrepresent%fused based on the elements listed in Table 3).

%SURVIVORSHIP (%FUSED) Stage Age class KB1KB2OK1OK2OK3OK4OK5 0>0months100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0 I>2months100.096.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0 II >6months96.387.5 86.785.5 93.1 100.0100.0 III >12months88.277.5 78.081.785.4 80.784.6 IV >18months79.772.075.074.374.4 72.278.3 V>30 months52.8 42.654.5 48.247.5 63.268.2 MNE 1229543110611 354 120 124 ormortality profilesforKarain BandÖküzini thecontemporaneous assemblageofOK1does assemblages.Fig. 7shows caprineageatdeath nothaveall theagegroupsrepresented.Theage- ormortality profilesforKarain BandÖküzini at-deathdataaresparseanddiscontinuous.This assemblages. maybe theresultofthemuchsmallersamplesize. KB1andKB2agestructuresarevery similarwith Despitethesedifferences,thesmall numberof abimodaldistribution ofage-at-death. Themain teethcreatesapatternthatisidenticaltoKB1 focus ofhunting appears tohavebeentheprime andKB2in thatthetwopeaksforOK1over- adults betweentheagesof2and4years,witha lapwiththeonesfortheKBassemblages.The first mode peakinthe4yearoldagegroupand first clusterisin the2.5 monthsoldgroupand asecondpeakinthe2.5 to6montholdgroup. thesecondoneisin the2to4years oldgroup. Itisworthnoting thatalmost all caprineage Thevery youngest agegroupiscompletelymis- groupsarerepresented, saveforthenewborns, sing in OK1astheywerein theKB1andKB2 in bothKB1andKB2.UnlikeKB1andKB2, assemblages.

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 25 AticiL.

F IG.6.—Kill-offpatternsor%Survivorship curvesforthe assemblagesbased on the caprine long bone epiphysealfusion data.

T ABLE 10.—Caprine age structuresbased on the dentalweardatafordP4+P4pair.Medianage isafterAtici&Stutz (2002) following Deniz&Payne (1982).

Payne Stage Life Stage MedianAge KB1KB2OK1OK2OK3OK4OK5

dP4—1 Juvenile 0m0001200

dP4—2-4 Juvenile 0-2m1107610

dP4—5 Juvenile 2.5 m15333341

dP4—6-7Juvenile 4.5 m88111 622

dP4—8 Juvenile 15 m3316210

dP4—9-12OlderJuvenile 16.5 m11402000

P4—1-5 Young Adult/ 24m 14 7216610 Prime

P4—6-7Prime 30 m148716425

P4—8 Prime 48 m2511420 1023

P4—9 Old 69m 2103110

Corrected MNE Total934618 85 4014 11

%JUVENILE (dP4stages1-12)40.9% 41.3%27.8% 35.3%47.5% 57.1% 27.3%

26 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

F IG.7.—Caprine age structurehistogrambased on tootheruption and weardata.

Withalargesample, theOK2assemblagehasa OK4departsfrom thepatternsdescribed abovefor similarmortality patterntoKB1andKB2,showing theKB1,KB2,andOK1-3assemblagesin thatthe abimodaldistribution. Themain targets ofhunting centraltendencyaroundthe2.5 monthsoldage appeartohavebeenprimeagecaprineswithacluster groupsuggests thatthefocus ofhunting shifted at2to4years.Asecondary focus ison theyounger from primeagecaprinestojuveniles,apattern agegroupsincluding newbornsand4.5 months consistentwiththejuvenileproportion data.This old.Unlike, KB1,KB2,andOK1,newbornsand patternmaybe aproductofsmall samplesize, very oldanimalsarerepresented, albeitsparsely,in but itdoesnotrelatetonaturaltaphonomicloss theOK2assemblage.OK3alsofits thepatternjust asbonesandteethofyoungeranimalsaremore described forOK2.It,too,hasabimodalpattern susceptibletoattrition. withthesamecentraltendenciesaroundthe2to ThepatternthatOK5displays isvery similarto 4monthand2to4yearagegroups.Newbornand thepatternthatisobserved andnoted abovefor very oldindividualsarerepresented again in very all oftheassemblages,exceptforOK4. But,the small numbers. small samplesize(N=11) makesitdifficulttobe

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 27 AticiL.

sureoftheinterpretation. Thissmallerassemblage sizecanindicateloweroccupation duration and frequencyatÖküzini Caveduring thelatest part oftheEpipaleolithic, oritcouldreflectmarked seasonality in hunting activities,oritcouldbedue totaphonomicfactors. Tosummarize, thereisacommon patternin almost all oftheassemblageswiththeexception ofOK4. Theprimary targets ofcaprinehunting appeartohavebeenanimalswithin the2to 4years oldageinterval. Theseanimalsrepresent thelargest andthefittest individualsandthus themost suitabletargets formaximumnutritio- nalandenergeticreturn. Theyoungercaprines aging 2.5 to15monthsoldwerethesecondary focus oftheEpipaleolithichunters.Newborn andvery oldanimalswereprobablyavoided for F IG.8.—Observed ungulatemortality modelsshownintripolar economicreasons; evensotheywereoccasionally formatforKarain Band Öküzini assemblages. hunted aswell. “living structure”or“nonselectivemortality”model, T HREE-A GE-C OHORT S YSTEM whichindicatesrepresentation ofeachofthethree Based on Table10,toothweardatafordP4+P4 agecohortsin proportionsfoundnaturallyin the pairwereconverted intoproportionstorepresent wild.Thispart ofthegraph isalsocharacterized three age-cohorts:juvenile, prime, andold.These bythedominance ofprimeageindividuals.Stiner three age-cohortswerethenplotted asatripolar (1990,1991,1993,1994,and2005) associates graph toexaminewhetherthereisabiasagainst thispatternwithindividualcursorialorambush anyofthecategories.Table11 detailsthethree hunting,acharacteristichunting methodofhuman age-cohortsandtheirproportionsforeachofthe predators.Thus,wecanpictureEpipaleolithic assemblages; Fig. 8illustratestheseresults. hunters oftheWesternTaurus Mountainsasskilled Actualisticstudieson theprey-predatorrelationships hunters organizing small hunting partiesandtar- patternsprovide zooarchaeologists withaframework geting thebest andlargest caprinesformaximum toexaminearchaeologicallyobserved mortality pro- meatreturn. Theternary graph alsoshows that files.AsFig. 8illustrates,all oftheKarain Band thereisatrajectory atKarain andÖküzini toward Öküzini assemblagesfall intothelowerrighthand progressivelyincreasing juvenilecaprinehunting, side paneloftheternary graph. Thisarea reflects a although overall trendwithfluctuating proportions

T ABLE 11. —Caprine dentalweardataconverted intothree-age cohorts.

Assemblage Juvenile Prime Old %Total OK527.372.70.0100.0 OK457.1 35.77.1 100.0 OK347.5 50.02.5 100.0 OK235.361.23.5 100.0 OK127.8 72.20.0100.0 KB241.356.5 2.2100.0 KB140.9 57.02.2100.0

28 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

ofjuvenilecaprinesmasksthispatternatfirst glance. andKB2,respectively)evenexceed thosereported Theprogressivelyincreasing proportionsofjuvenile byMunro(2004) forLevantineNatufiangazelle caprinesobserved in OK1through OK4,however, assemblages(34.5percent),complicating themat- mightsignalachangein thehunting techniques ter.Bar-Oz(2004) andMunro(2004) pointtoa andanintensified exploitationofcaprines. similarconflictin theNatufiangazelleassemblages atEl-WadTerrace, Hayonim Cave, andHayonim P ROPORTIONS OF Y OUNG C APRINES Terrace in Israel. Theystatethatthepercentageof Theproportionsofyoung individualsin eachof young individualsbased on long boneepiphyseal theassemblagesestimated from fusiondatapoint fusion andtootheruption andweardatagenerate toaprimedominated patternatKarain Band differentmortality patterns(Bar-Oz2004:69; Öküzini throughout theEpipaleolithicsequence. Munro2004:15). Theproportion ofjuvenileanimalsis12.8percent Obtaining differentmortality patternsbased on bone forKB1,22.5 percentforKB2,13.3percentfor fusion andtootheruption/weardataappears tobe OK1,18.3percentin OK2,14.6percentforOK3, ageneralpatterninthezooarchaeologicalrecord 19.3percentforOK4,and15.4 percentforOK5. across timeandspace duetothecoarsegrained Thesevaluesdonotfitaprogressivelyincreasing fusion dataandthestrongereffects oftaphonomic juvenilehunting scenario ofakindthathasbeen boneloss on epiphysealaging (Atici2006),orto observed in LevantineEpipaleolithicgazelleassem- ‘difference in theageboundariesseparating juveniles blages(e.g.,Bar-Oz2004;Bar-Oz etal. 2004; from adults in twomethods’ assuggested byMunro Munro2004;Stiner2005). Munro(2004) reports (2004).Despitethediscrepanciesbetweenthetwo atrendtowardincreasing juvenilegazellehunting methodsofconstructingagestructures,however, in LevantineEpipaleolithicassemblagesanddocu- itisclearthatjuvenilecaprines,besidesprimeani- ments 26.6percentjuvenilegazellesin theKebaran, mals,aresignificantlyrepresented in almost all of 28percentin theGeometricKebaran,and34.5 per- theKarain BandÖküzini assemblagesasrevealed centin theNatufian. Incontrast,Bar-Oz(2004: bytoothweardata. 69) reportsthattheproportionsofjuvenilefallow deerare23.3in theNahalHaderaVassemblages, 17percentin theHefzibah7-18assemblages,and SEASONALITYOF HUNTING 17.8percentin theNeve-Davidassemblages.Thus, AND SITE USE liketheMediterraneanLevantinefallowdeerassem- blages,theWesternTaurus caprineassemblagesdo Determination ofageatdeathandseason ofkil- notshowaprogressivelyincreasing juvenilehunting ling based on tootheruption andweardatacanbe patternbased on epiphysealfusion data. accurateandpreciseonlywithasamplesizeofmore Whenusing caprinetootheruption andweardata than30 to40(Klein &Cruz-Uribe 1984;Ship- in theKarain andÖküziniassemblagestoestimate man1991) andonlywhenusing theshort-lasting young animalproportions,however,asignificantly earlystagesofwear(Spiess 1979;Frison 1991; differentpicturearises.Based on therecording ofthe Lubinski &O’Brien2001;Pokins2001;Pike-Tay first 12wearstagesofcaprinedeciduous mandibular &Cosgrove2002). fourthpremolars (dP4),theproportion ofyoung DenizandPayne(1982)postulatethatteethprogress individualsis40.9 percentforKB1,41.3percent through thefirst fivestagesvery rapidly,permitting forKB2,27.8percentforOK1,35.3percentfor analysts to“time”or“age”themwithmorepreci- OK2,47.5 percentforOK3,57.1 percentfor sion,whereastoothwearstage6(C),theso-called OK4,and27.3percentforOK5. Inthesecases, “maturewearstage,”lasts amuchlongertime, limi- theleapfrom 35.3percentin OK2to57.1 per- ting precision. Thepatternobserved in KB1,thus, centin OK3isnoteworthy,markingasignificant isreliablewithrespecttosamplesizeandrobustness changetowardintensification in caprinehunting. (MNE =58;MNI =38)(See Table12). Yet,theproportionsofjuvenilecaprinesin the TheanalysesofcaprinedP4wearpatternsfrom earliest levelsatKarain B(40.9 and41.3forKB1 KB1andKB2in comparison withcaprineand

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 29 AticiL.

T ABLE 12—Frequencyof deciduous mandibularfourthpremolar(dP4) wearstages. dP4WearStage KB1KB2OK1OK2OK3OK4OK5 A-1 0001200 B-2000 0210 C-3000 5600 BC-4 1107100 BC-5 20 45 6541 C-6781 6321 C-764011 711 CD-8 4527320 D-9 12302000 D-10300 0000 D-11 5100000 D-12000 0000 TotalMNE 58 26 84529103 fallowdeerdatafrom OK1provide us withaunique patternobserved hereisidenticaltothatofKB1, opportunity toexploretemporalandfunctionalrela- withmarked seasonality abletobe inferred from the tionshipsbetweentheoverlapping strataatthesites. disproportionalanddiscontinuous distribution of ThefrequencydistributionsorhistogramsofdP4 casesacross wearcategories.Indeed, theOK1data wearpatternscandocumentdifferentpeaksof appearevenmoreseasonallyrestricted thandoes wearormulti-modaldistributionscorresponding theKB1,withthebimodaldistribution centered todiscreteagecohorts,signaling very restricted on wearstagesBC-5 andCD-8pointing tofirst killing events.Aglance atFig. 9illustratesthepre- andsecondyearcohortsandmid-summertofall sence ofsuchdiscreteagecohortsandthus suggests hunting. Theunderrepresentation ofthefirst three synchronized killing events in most Karain Band wearstagesisobserved hereaswell. Öküzini assemblages. BecausetheKarain Bassemblagesaremade up Thebimodaldistribution ofwearstagesdetected almost exclusivelyofcaprineremains,onlytheOK1 helpsustimetheseasonsofthesehunting episodes. assemblagecouldbeexamined forcontemporary Thefirst andstrongest peakisin thewearstage fallowdeertoothweardataasanindependentcheck BC-5 area, thecohort between2.5 and4.5 months forseasonality.Oneunwornandonevery slightly old.ThiscorrespondstoarangebetweenJulyand wornfallowdeermandibularfourthpremolar October,asmodernAnatolianmouflon andbezoar (dP4) couldbeassigned tothefirst andsecond goathaveamodalandstandardized birthtaking stages,respectively,denoting newbornfawns.Based place in May(Kaya&Aksoylar1992). Thesecond on arestricted birthschedulein May(Chapman clusteringisin thearea oftoothwearstageD-9, &Chapman1975),thesewouldbeaged to0to thesecondyearcohort aged to16.5 monthsold, 2months,May-July,suggesting alatespring to again corresponding toalate-Summer-Fall hun- earlysummerkill-off. ting. Thus,astrong signalpointing toarepeated Eventhough twospecimensarenotenough to andseasonallyrestricted hunting strategycanbe generatereliabledataforconstructing season detected.Alsonotableistheunderrepresentation ofhunting andsiteuse, theystill formahighly offirst three agestages,corresponding tonewborns valuablepiece ofdirectevidence formultiseasonal and2-3montholdcaprines. siteuse.Thus,thesetwospecimensexpandsite Fig. 9alsocapturestheagecohort discreteness seasonality from MaytoOctober,orlatespring and phenomenon fortheOK1caprineassemblage.The fall. Aratherimportantquestion arises,however,

30 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

F IG.9.—Caprine age cohort discreteness in Karain Band Öküzini assemblages. astowhatexplainsthelackofnewborncaprinesat Wildsheepandgoatareknowntomovebetween bothsites.Using onlythecaprinedata, onecould high andlowelevationsseasonally,andalsogene- havehypothesized thattheEpipaleolithicforagers ratepatternsofseasonalpreyabundance through didnotoccupyÖküzini andKarain Bduring the specificsocialbehaviors (Dean1997; Kaya1990). spring. Thefallowdeerdata, however,require Thus,arelativelyhigherdegree ofmobility and rejection ofthishypothesis.Had theEpipaleo- morerestricted seasonalsiteusemayhavebeen lithichunters atKarain BandÖküzini avoided dependanton preyavailability andpredictability newbornsduetoanoptimalforaging strategy during theEpipaleolithicin theTaurus Moun- (i.e.,maximummeatreturn),theyshouldhave tains.Thus,preybehaviormaywell accountfor donethesameforfallowdeernewborns.Thus, thelackofnewborncaprinesin KB1andOK1. thelackofnewborncaprinesdoesnotappearto Kaya(1990)reportsvery high mortality ratesfor be duetoseason ofoccupation orhunting strategy AnatolianMouflon in Konya, Turkey(72 deathof targeting only primeanimals.Ananswertothe 85births,85%). Coupled withhigh infantmorta- lackofnewborncaprinesin theKB1andOK1 lity rates,inaccessibility orunavailability appears shouldbesoughtin preybehavior. tobe thereason whyremainsofcaprinenewborns

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 31 AticiL.

areabsentfrom theKB1andOK1assemblages.By spring throughfall andsuggest amultiseasonalsite thetimecaprineswere4monthsoldorolder,i.e., usepattern. during thelatesummerandearlyfall,however, InOK4,ashifttoaseasonallymorerestricted hun- Epipaleolithichunters started regularlyhunting ting andpossiblyoccupation isevident.Acentral themastoothweardataattest.Atthesametime, tendencyin thearea oftheBC-5 wearstageanda secondyearcohorts(ca.16.5 monthsold;wear disproportionaldistribution ofspecimensacross wear stageD-9) werealsohunted aswereolderanimals stagessuggest discreteagecohortsandsynchronized theseason ofdeathofwhichcannotbe accurately killing in mid-summerandfall.Thispatternmaybe determined using macroscopicmethods. aresultofeithersmall samplesize(N=8)orareal ThefrequencyofcaprinedP4wearstagesrevealsa phenomenon. Yet,asImentioned above, asample similar,yetsomewhatdifferentpatternofhunting sizeof30 to40isconsidered necessary forstatistical andseasonality forKB2,withacentraltendency viability andmeaningfulresults.Still,thispattern in thearea ofthe“mature”or“long lasting”C-6 couldbereal,asitisobserved forKB1,KB2,and wearstage.Thispatternhampers determination of OK1withmuchlargersamplesizes.Thepresence ageatandseason ofdeathandsuggests thatseaso- ofnewbornsrepresented bythefirst twowearstages, nality ofkill-off wasnotasrestricted asitwasfor however,makesthesituation complicated again,as OK1. Therearestill anumberofBC-5 wearstage itexpandstheseason ofhunting toinclude thelate specimens(MNE =3),indicating latesummerto spring. FiveunwornfallowdeerdP4s(stageA-1) fall hunting andsiteoccupation,but themode provideanotherlineofevidence tosuggest spring in thearea oftheC-6wearstagewouldsuggest a kill off.TheOK5assemblagedidnotyieldsamples less restricted multi-seasonalhunt.Whatremains largeenough todrawanymeaningfulconclusions. constant,however,istheunderrepresentation of Yet,three caprinespecimensrepresentwearstages newborncaprines. 5through 7showing,again,mid-summerandfall Having looked atseasonality andsiteusepatterns hunting. Inaddition,twounwornfallowdeerdeci- synchronically,Inowprobe long termtrendsin duous mandibularfourthpremolars (wearstageA-1) seasonality andsiteuseusing thelongersequence add spring hunting toexpand, again,theduration ofÖküzini. ForOK2,agecohort discreteness isnot ofoccupation tomultipleseasons. asmarked asitisforKB1andOK1(see Fig. 9). A patternofcontinuous andproportionallydistribu- ted casesacross wearstagessuggests less restricted DISCUSSION seasonality,increased duration ofoccupation,and atrendtowardmulti-seasonality.Besidescaprine TheKarain Bfaunalassemblagesarecharacterized teeth,onlyoneunwornfallowdeerspecimenthatwas bytheexclusiverepresentation ofcaprineswithpro- assigned tothestageA-1 (newborn) wasobserved. portionsover99 percentandtheabsence offallow Thus,combined caprineandfallowdeertoothwear deer.Assuch,onecouldarguethatKarain Bwasa dataindicatelatespring,summer,andfall occupa- specialized collectorsitewithalogisticalmobility tion andhunting,andatrendtowardless marked pattern. Thelackofconspicuous featuresandof seasonality andincreased sedentismorlongerterm evidence fordistinctorganization ofspace within useofaspecialized hunting camp. thedeposits couldsupport thisargumentand Fig. 9suggests thatthepatternseeninOK3also furthersuggest thatanarrowerrangeofactivities indicatesmulti-seasonalhunting,whichinturn took place atKarain B.Yet,techno-typological hints atanincreased duration ofoccupation. The analysesofthelithicassemblagesshowthatawide first three wearstagespointtolatespring and rangeofactivitiesprobablytook place atthesite earlysummer,andBC-5 points tomid-summer duetothenon-specialized tool kits recovered.The andfall. Inaddition,asingleunwornfallowdeer presence ofall stagesofcorereduction andtool dP4(stageA-1) confirmslatespring hunting. As making,including debitageandsplinters along withOK2,combined fallowdeerandcaprinedata withbroken,unfinished, orexhausted/discarded expandtheseason ofoccupation atOK3from late pieces,indicatesthatflint-knapping took place in

32 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

thecave(Özçelik 2001). This,in turn,indicates specialized site, asneitherexamination of16ibex thatKarain Bwasused asaresidentialbasecamp sitesfrom CantabrianSpain andFrenchPyrenees andreflects amoregeneralsiteuse.AsforÖküzini, norcomparison ofibexsitesin Greece andIberian thethickness andbroad horizontalextentofthe peninsulagenerated atemplatetoaccountforthe Epipaleolithicdeposits,thediversity andrichness varietyofhumanactivities,hunting techniques, ofthelithictool kits foundthere(see Kartal2002, lithicindustries,taxonomiccomposition,andeven 2003),thepresence offeaturessuchashearths, preybodypartsrepresented in faunalassemblages andfaunalassemblagescharacterized bythebones (Straus 1987andGamble1997cited in Phoca- ofadiverserangeofanimalsincluding birdsand Cosmetatou2004:218-219).). Adichotomized bytherepresentation ofall caprineagegroups approachtocharacterizing foragersubsistence does attest tothecavebeing amoregeneralized forager notworkwiththeKarain BandÖküzini data, and sitethanKarain B,but alsoreflecting residential theconventionalframeworkthatseekstotypesites mobility.Thus,settlementandmobility patterns using binary oppositionsordichotomiesusually atKarain BandÖküzini reflectcomplexbeha- failstodealadequatelywithaseriesofcontingent viorandacontinuumfrom logisticallyorganized, complexbehaviors. seasonallyrestricted, andcollectortypespecialized Inthecontext ofthecurrentdiscussion,theloca- settlements toresidentiallyorganized, foragertype tion ofthesiteswithin thesamemicroenvironment generalized settlements.Thiscontinuumisreflected shouldbeconsidered in relation totheiruseand in thefaunal,floral,andlithictechnologyrecords function. Thelocation ofKarain BCavemakesit (Atici2007). anexcellentspottohuntwildgoatmoving nearby Besidesthesynchronicexamination offunction and on thesteepslopesofsharpmountainsandaround useofKarain BandÖküzini caves,thenatureof thedeepandnarrowvalleys,andtomonitorwild therelationshipsbetweenthesitesandtheirsur- sheeponthebroad AntalyaTravertinePlain that rounding landscapeisanothersignificantaspect stretchesall thewaytotheMediterraneanSea.In ofsiteuseandfunction during theEpipaleolithic. contrast,Öküzini Caveissituated just afewmeters Strauss (1993)suggested thatthe‘tacticaluseof abovethetravertineplain.Thedifferenttopographic topographicfeaturesin hunting’wasasignificant positionsofthetwositessoclosetooneanother factoraffecting thelocation andfunction ofsites within asingleecotonalzonein whichavariety of during theUpperPaleolithicin WesternEurope. resourcescouldbeexploited witheasemighthave Inparticular,asite’s location closetoabundant led tospecialization in certain exploitation strate- resourceshasbeenconsidered akeycharacteristic giesandtopreferentialfocus on differentanimal ofspecialized sitesandlogisticallyorganized col- taxaduetodifferentialseasonaluseofthesites.A lectors asformulated byBinford(1978, 1980). specialized hunting strategytargeting exclusively Thisconceptwasoftenapplied toEuropeanUpper caprinesatKarain B(99.9 percent)andcaprines Paleolithicsitesandwaslinked tospecialized ibex andfallowdeeratÖküzini (99 percent)isevident ( Capraibex )hunting ( e.g. ,Strauss 1987,1993, from thefaunalspectraobserved atthesites.The 1997,1999,2006; Phoca-Cosmetatou2004). apparentabsence ofevidence forfallowdeerat Phoca-Cosmetatou(2004),however,describesa Karain Bismost likelyaresultofculturalandbeha- discrepancyfortheEuropeanUpperPaleolithic vioralchoicessuchasseasonalhunting andspecific assemblagesregarding specialized ‘Ibex-sitePheno- mobility patterns.Itshouldbereiterated thatwild menon.’According toPhoca-Cosmetatou(2004: sheepoutnumberwildgoatin bothÖküzini and 218),ibexsitesdisplayanumberofshared features Karain Bassemblages,despiteKarain B’s location includinglocationofthesitesathigherelevations wherewildgoats areathomeatanelevation of nearecotonalzones,intensified resource exploitation, 450mabovethesea leveland150mabovethe andanarrowersetofculturalactivitiesattested by travertineplain thatitoverlooks.Thispattern,too, specialized tool-kits,andopportunisticandshorter most likelystemsfrom hunting locality preference duration ofoccupation. Yet,Phoca-Cosmetatoualso in favorofthebroad andflattravertineplain and acknowledgesthefactthatthereisnotastandard opengrasslandwithshrubs,marshes,andgallery

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 33 AticiL.

forests in thefoothillsoftheTaurus Mountains.In toinclude latespring andearlysummer.Thus, thissense, thepatternobserved forKarain Bdiffers faunaldatasuggest amid-summerthrough fall from specialized ibexsitesfrom UpperPaleolithic occupation atKarain B,andalatespring through Europe(Straus 1987; Phoca-Cosmetatou2004). fall occupation atÖküzini Caveforthefirst part Mortality datafrom eachoftheKarain BandÖkü- oftheEpipaleolithicatthosesites.Itisinteresting zini assemblagesalsopointtoamoregeneralized thattheuseofthesitesoverlapsduring themid- foragertypeofsiteusewithrepeated small-scale summerandfall,but onlyÖküzini yieldsaspring hunting targeting mostlyprime-aged animals.Such signal. Fortherest oftheEpipaleolithicperiod ahunting strategywouldhaveinvolved ambushor (Phases2-5),thelongersequence ofÖküzini indi- cursorialhunting tactics,whichresultin non-selective catesmultiseasonalsiteusewithmuchweakerage orliving structuremortality profiles,including all cohort discreteness patternssignaling less restricted agegroupsin theproportionsnaturallyfoundin andless synchronized killing events. ungulateherds.Thisiswhatwasobserved forthe Karain andÖküzini faunalassemblages.Besidesthe mortality patterns,ananalysisofagestructuresalso CONCLUSIONS clearlyshows thathunting ofakindthatinvolved taking increasing numbers ofjuvenileanimals Thispapershedsnewlighton theexploitation of through time, thetrendobserved fortheLevantine wildanimalresourcesduring theEpipaleolithic archaeofaunalassemblages,didalsoexist in the periodin thewesternTaurus MountainsofMedi- WesternTaurus Epipaleolithic.Thereis,however, terraneanTurkey.Sevenarchaeofaunalassemblages littlebasistoassociatethispatternwithhuman excavated from Karain BandÖküzini caveswere induced resource depletion duetoenvironmental analyzed andinterpreted withanemphasison age deterioration orpopulation increase.Theobserved structuresandtheirimplicationsforgeneralhunting trendtowardamoreintensified useofcaprines,as strategies,sitefunctionanduse, andseasonality.The reflected in progressivelyyoungeragestructuresat presentworkhassoughtanswers tothefollowing Karain BandÖküzini,isaccompanied byatrend questions:DidEpipaleolithichunter-gatherers of towardrelativelybroaderdietary breadthby13,900 theWesternTaurus adoptnewstrategies,suchas withtheaddition ofhigh-yieldtertiary taxasuch intensified hunting ofungulates,increased selective asroedeerandwildboar,small- andfast-moving huntingofjuvenileanimals,andincreased duration taxasuchashareandpartridge, andsmall- and oftheoccupation atsamesitesorashifttoward slow-moving taxasuchastortoise(Atici2007). moresedentary life ways,asobserved forLevantine Thesetrendsbecamemoreconspicuous during the hunter-gatherers,ordidtheyfollowacomple- environmentallymorefavorableBölling/Allerød telydifferentand/orindependentdevelopmental climateoptimum. Becausethisisso,thedietary trajectory?Adetailed analysisofagestructures intensification canbe seenasaresultoftheavaila- combined withotherzooarchaeologicaldatahas bility,accessibility,predictability,andabundance yielded ampleevidence forthefollowing forager ofcaprinesofall agegroups. adaptationsduring thefinalpart ofthePleistocene Thecombined useofdataobtained from caprineand in theWesternTaurus Mountains: fallowdeerdentalaging in theassemblagesreveals 1) specialization andintensificationinwildsheep thatÖküzini andKarain Bcaveshad multiseasonal andgoatexploitation; siteusepatternsthroughout theEpipaleolithic.The 2) astablehunting strategyprimarilytargeting caprinedentaldatafrom bothcavesclearlypoint prime-agecaprinesthroughout theEpipaleoli- totheexistence ofdiscreteagecohortsandthus to thic; synchronized killing andrestricted seasonalhunting 3) ashiftfrom seasonallyrestricted siteuseand during themid-summerandfall fortheearliest hunting patterntounrestricted multiseasonalsite Epipaleolithic(Phase1,19,800-19,000 years ago). useandhunting pattern,and Fallowdeertoothweardatafrom Öküzini expand 4) atrendtowardprogressivelyyoungeragestruc- theseasonality ofhunting forPhase1atthatsite turesorincreased hunting ofjuvenilecaprines.

34 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

Thus,thebehavioralpatternsoftheEpipaleolithic zini caves.Iwouldliketoextendmyspecialthanks foragers andtheirpaleoeconomiesin theWestern toHarunTakıran,Metin Kartal,KadriyeÖzçe- Taurus Mountainsweresimilartothoseofthefora- lik,andBerayKösemofAnkaraUniversity for gers in theLevant.Studying thenatureofanimal theirexcellentworkatKarain andÖküzini caves. exploitationpatternsthatexisted duringtheend IwouldalsoliketoacknowledgeBenArbuckleand ofthePleistocenein westernAsiaislikelytohave ananonymous reviewerwho read thispaperand significantimplicationsforour understanding of provided insightfulcommentary andconstructive theoriginsofagriculturallife ways in generaland criticism. Theirsuggestionssignificantlyimproved ofpastoralisminparticular.Heavy reliance on high- thequality ofthepaper. yieldungulatessuchasgazellesin theLevantand Financialsupport forthisresearchwasgenerously caprinesin theTaurus archasbroad implications. provided byDepartmentofAnthropology,Harvard ItisnowclearthattheLevanthad along-standing University,aResearchCenterAward, HarvardUni- tradition thatinvolved thespecialized hunting of versity,aCoraDuBoisDissertation Completion anungulatespeciesthatwasneverdomesticated, grant,andgrants from theJapaneseInstituteof namely,thegazelle.TheWesternTaurus Mountains, AnatolianArchaeologyandMiddleEast Culture on theotherhand, had along tradition ofexploita- Centerin Japan. Igreatlyacknowledgeall these tion ofwildsheepandgoat,bothofwhichintheir institutionsfortheircontribution tothecomple- domesticforms,becamepart ofthebackboneof tion ofthiswork,whichwasapart ofmydoctoral laterpastoraleconomies.BecauseKarain Band dissertation. Öküzini caveswerenotoccupied during boththe EpipaleolithicandNeolithic, itisnotpossibleto directlyinvestigatethetransition from hunting to REFERENCES herding ortoargueforadirectcausalrelationship betweenlocalforageradaptationsandthedomesti- Ap$xk7UG,G.1988.—AnUpperpaleolithicsequence from Antalyain SouthernTurkey.Results ofthe cation ofanimals.Yet,theexistence ofalong-lasting 1985caveexcavationsin Karain B. L’Hommede specialized caprinehunting tradition throughout the Néandertal 8: 23-35. EpipaleolithicimpliesthatWesternTaurus Moun- Ap$xk7UGG.,Ap$xk7UGB.,BkxlkH.,BgxDkxD., tainsforagers developed thekindsofbehavioral w0#kxJ.,RlUpkW.,S7U07UW.,SG0x7UG., UkxMwl}} H.-P.&Ux$l}B.1992.—LatePleis- ecologicalknowledgeofwildsheepandwildgoat toceneandEarlyHolocenefindsfrom Okuzini:a thatwouldhaveserved asafoundation forthelater contribution tothesettlementhistory oftheBayof domestication oftheseanimals.Thus,areaswhere Antalya, Turkey. Paleorient 18(2):123-141. thereisalong tradition andhistory ofsheepand/ AGc7cL.2006.—Who letthedogsout? Bonedes- truction andits broaderimplicationsin interpre- orgoatexploitation wouldprovide usefulinsights ting theBronzeAgepastoraleconomiesatKaman intoour understanding ofcaprinedomestication. Kalehoyuk. AnatolianArchaeologicalStudies XV: Assuch,Karain andÖküzini cavesmakeastrong 121-131. casetoadd thewesternTaurus Mountainsontothe AGc7cL.2007.— BeforetheRevolution:AComprehen- mapofcaprinedomestication. siveZooarchaeologicalApproachtoTerminalPleis- toceneForagerAdaptations in theWestern Taurus Mountains,Turkey .Unpublished Ph.D.Disserta- tion. HarvardUniversity,Cambridge. Acknowledgements AGc7cL.&SGgG#A.J.2002.—Mortality Profile Iwishtoexpress myappreciation toRichardMeadow, AnalysisoftheUngulateFaunafrom Okuzini:A Preliminary Reconstruction ofSiteUse, Seasonality, mymentor,forhisvaluableinput andconstructive andMobility Patterns,in Ylp?j}ll|lI.,OGGkM., commentary during every stageofthisresearch. K0#p0z#lc J.&Blx-Y0#k+O(eds), La Grotte Without him,thisworkwouldnothavebeen d’Okuzini :Evolution duPaleolithiqueFinalduSud- completed.Ialsowouldliketoacknowledge Ouestde l’Anatolie. ERAUL96 . UniversitedeLiège, Liège: 101-108. OferBar-Yosef forhissupport during thiswork. Blx-O# G.2004. — EpipaleolithicSubsistence Strate- I’mgratefultoIınYalçınkayaforpermitting meto giesintheLevant:AZooarchaeologicalPerspective . studythefaunalassemblagesfrom Karain andÖkü- Brill AcademicPublisher,Boston.

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 35 AticiL.

Blx-O# G.,Dl|l}T.,Klg+wl}D.&Wkc}#Gkc}- E}p0kJ.G.1997.—Seasonality andagestructure Eyx0}J.2004. —TheNatufianeconomyatel-Wad in remainsof Rangifertarantus :Magdalenianhun- Terrace withspecialreference togazelleexploita- ting strategyatVerberie.Actesdu7e Colloque tion patterns. JournalofArchaeologicalScience 31: de l’InternationalCouncil forArchaeozoology. 217-231. Constance, septembre1994. Anthropozoologica BlxG0}R.N.E.,BkxxcWDkP.J.,WlplkxM.J.C.& 25-26:95-102. Bkyc}#R.E.1995. —Persistentplacesin Mesoli- Fpl}}kx|K.V.1969. —Originsandecologicaleffects thiclandscape: anexamplefrom theBlackMoun- ofearlydomestication in IranandtheNearEast,in tain uplandsofSouthernWales. Proceedingsofthe U7l0P.J.&Dcw$pk$|G.W.(eds), TheDomestica- PrehistoricSociety 61:81-116. tion andExploitation ofPlantsandAnimals.Aldine, Blx-Y0#k+O.2002.—Natufian:acomplexsociety Chicago:73-100. offoragers,in Beyondforagingandcollecting: evolu- Fxc#0}G.C.1991. —Hunting strategies,preybeha- tionarychange in hunter-gatherersettlementsystems. viorandmortality data . ,in SGc}kxM.C.(ed.), Kluwier; Plenum,NewYork:91-149. HumanPredators andPreyMortality.West View Blx-Y0#k+O.&Bkp+kx-C0Uk}A.1989. —Ori- Press,Boulder:15-30. ginsofsedentismandfarming communitiesin the Glw$pkC.1978.—Optimising information from Levant. JournalofWorldPrehistory 3(4). studiesoffaunalremains,in CUkxx|J.F.,Glw- Blx-Y0#k+O.&MklW0zR.H.1995. —Theorigins $pkC.&SUk}}l}S.(eds), Samplingin Contem- ofagriculturein theNearEast,in Pxc7k T.D.& poraryBritishArchaeology .BARInternational Gk$lgkxA.B.(eds), LastHunters,FirstFarmers: Series50.Archaeopress,Oxford: 321-353. NewPerspectivesonthePrehistoricTransition toAgri- KlxGlpM.2002.—ThemicrolithsofÖküzini,in culture .School ofAmericanResearchPress,Santa Ylp?j}ll|lI.,OGGkM.,K0#p0z#lc J.&Blx- Fe: 39-94. Y0#k+O(eds), La Grotted’Okuzini :Évolution Bc}+0xWL.R.1980.—Willowsmokeanddogs’ tails: duPaleolithiqueFinalduSud-Ouestde l’Anatolie. hunter-gatherersettlementsystemsandarchaeologi- ERAUL96 . UniversitedeLiège, Liège: 235-252. calsiteformation. AmericanAntiquity 45:4-20. KlxGlpM.2003.—AnatolianEpi-Paleolithicassem- Bg}} H.T.&Kx0pp E.M.,1986.—Systematic blages:problems,suggestions,evaluationsand butchery byPlio-PleistocenehominidsatOldu- various approaches. Anatolia 24:45-61. vaiGorge, Tanzania. CurrentAnthropology 27(5): Kl|lM.A.1990.—Anadoluyabankoyunu, Ovis 431.442. orientalis anatolica Valenciennes1856’nin yasama BgxlkA.2006.—Introduction tothespecialissue: alani vepopulasyon yogunlugu. X.UlusalBiyoloji Multidisciplinary approachestothestudyofsite Kongresi.AtaturkUniversitesiFen-EdebiyatFakul- function andsettlementdynamicsin prehistory. tesi,Erzurum,Turkiye: 373-382. JournalofAnthropologicalArchaeology 25(4): Kl|lM.A.&Al#0|plxM.Y.1992.—Bozdag 403-407. (Konya)’da yasayanAnadoluyabankoyunu, Ovis CUlMwl}D.I.&CUlMwl}N.G.1975. — Fallow orientalis anatolica Valenciennes1856’nin davranis- Deer .Terence Dalton,Lavenham(Suffolk). lari. TubitakDogaZooloji Dergisi 16(2):229-241. Dlyc#S.J.M.1983.—Theageprofilesofgazellespre- Kkpp|R.L.1995. — TheForagingSpectrum:Diversity dated byancientmaninIsrael:possibleevidence for in Hunter-GathererLifeways .SmithsonianInstitute, ashiftfrom seasonality tosedentismintheNatu- Washington D.C. fian. Paleorient 9:55-62. Kkpp|R.L.1998.—Individualforaging andgroup Dkl}R.M.1997.— UngulateEthoarchaeology:Inter- movement,in R07klT.R.&Blx-Y0#k+O.(eds), pretingLatePleistoceneandEarlyHoloceneArchaeo- Seasonality andSedentism:ArchaeologicalPerspectives logicalUngulateAssemblagesfromSouthwestAsia . fromOldandNewWorldSites .PeabodyMuseum MasterofArtsThesis.University ofArizona, Bulletin 6.HarvardUniversity,Cambridge: 9-23. Tucson. Kpkc} R.G.1982.—Age(mortality)profilesasa Dk}c#E.&Pl|}kS.1982.—Eruption andwearin meansofdistinguishing hunted speciesfrom sca- themandibulardentition asaguide toageing Tur- venged onesin StoneAgearchaeologicalsites. Paleo- kishAngoragoats,in Wcp#0}B.,GxcD#0}C.& biology 8(2):151-158. Pl|}kS.(eds), AgeingandSexingAnimalBonesfrom Kpkc} R.G.&Cxg#-Uxc$k K.1984. — TheAnalysis ArchaeologicalSites .BARInternationalSeries109. ofAnimalBonesfromArchaeologicalSites .University Archaeopress,Oxford: 155-205. ofChicago Press,Chicago. D0$}k|K.,Bkk7UM.&Jlggk#D.1999. —Hun- K0clkH.&OUGlc#Uc N.1987.—Estimation of ting thebroad spectrumrevolution:thecharacte- prehsitorichunting ratesbased on theagecomposi- rization ofEarlyNeolithicanimalexploitation at tion ofsikadeer( Cervusnippon). JournalofArchaeo- QermezDere, NorthernMesopotamia, in Dxc- logicalScience 14(3):251-269. ykxJ.C.(ed.), ZooarchaeologyofthePleistocene/ KgxGk}B.1953.—Onthevariation andpopulation HoloceneBoundary .BARInternationalSeries800. dynamicsoffossil andrecentmammalpopulations. Archaeopress,Oxford: 47-58. ActaZoologicaFennica 76:1-222.

36 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

LkDDkA.J.&R0zpk|-C0}z| P.1987.—Gazelle OGGkM.,Bl|0}I.L.,N0cxkGP.,Blx-Y0#k+O., killing in StoneAgeSyria. ScientificAmerican 257: Ylp7c}ll|lO.,KlxGlpM.,Lk0GlxWJ.-M.& 88-95. PkGGcGG P.2003.—Sedimentary deposition rates Lck$kxwl}D.E.1993a.—Variability in hunter- andcarbon-14:theEpipaleolithicsequence ofÖkü- gathererseasonalmobility in thesouthernLevant: zini Cave(Southwest Turkey). JournalofArchaeolo- from theMousteriantotheNatufian,in PkGkx- gicalScience 30:325-341. lc} G.L.,Bxc7lkxH.M.&Mkpplx#P.(eds), Hun- Ö#7kpcl K.2001. — Karain Magarasi BGozu Pleisto- tingandAnimalExploitation in theLaterPalaeolithic senDonemYontmatasEndustrisinin Tekno-Tipolojisi. andMesolithicofEurasia .AmericanAnthropological Unpublished Ph.D.Dissertation,AnkaraUniver- Association,Washington D.C.:207-219. sity. Lck$kxwl}D.E.1993b.—Theriseandfall ofseaso- Pl|}kS.1973.—Kill-off patternsin sheepandgoats: nalmobility among hunter-gatherers:thecaseof mandiblesfrom Avsankale. AnatolianStudies 23: theSouthernLevant. CurrentAnthropology 34(5): 281-303. 599-631. Plzpcl0z#lc M.2002.—Mineralogicalinvestiga- Lck$kxwl}D.E.1998.—Natufian“sedentism”and tionsatOkuzini Cave, in Ylp?j}ll|lI.,OGGkM., theimportance ofbiologicaldataforestimating K0#p0z#lc J.&Blx-Y0#k+O(eds), La Grotte reduced mobility,in R07klT.R.&Blx-Y0#k+O. d’Okuzini:Évolution duPaléolithiquefinalduSud- (eds), Seasonality andSedentism:ArchaeologicalPers- Ouestde l’Anatolie. ERAUL96.UniversitédeLiège, pectivesfromOldandNewWorldSites .Harvard Liège: 19-25. University,Cambridge: 75-92. PkGkx#J.,V0}Dk}Dxck#7UA.&HkpwkxD.2005. Lg$c}#lc P.M.2001a.—Estimating ageandseason of —TheUpperEuphrates-TigrisBasin:Cradleof deathofpronghornantelope( Antilocapraamericana Agro-Pastoralism,in VcD}kJ.-D.,PkGkx#J.& Ord)bymeansoftootheruption andwear. Interna- HkpwkxD.(eds), FirstSteps ofAnimalDomestica- tionalJournalofOsteoarchaeology 11:218-230. tion:NewArchaeologicalApproaches .OxbowBooks, Lg$c}#lc P.M.2001b.—Acomparison ofmethods Oxford: 96-124. forevaluating ungulated mortality distributions,in PU07l-C0#wkGlG0gN.2004. —Sitefunction and Pclk-Tl|A.(ed.), AssessingSeason ofCapture, Age, the‘ibex-sitephenomenon’:mythorreality? Oxford andSexofArchaeofaunas .Bibliothequed’Archeo- JournalofArchaeology 23(3):217-242. zoologie11. LaPensée Sauvage, Paris:121-134. Pclk-Tl|A.&C0#Dx0ykR.2002.—From rein- Lg$c}#lc P.M.&O’Bxck}C.J.2001. —Observa- deertowallaby:recovering patternsofseasona- tionson seasonality andmortality from arecent lity,mobility andpreyselection in thePalaeolithic catastrophicdeathassemblage. JournalofArchaeolo- OldWorld. JournalofArchaeologicalMethodand gicalScience 28: 833-842. Theory 9(2):101-146. L|wl}R.L.1994. — VertebrateTaphonomy .Cam- P0lc}#J.T.2001. —Whenthecats away,in Pclk- bridgeUniversity Press,Cambridge. Tl|A.(ed.), Innovations in assessingseason ofcapture, M00xkA.M.T.1985. —ThedevelopmentofNeo- age andsexofarchaeofaunas .Bibliothequed’Archeo- lithicsocietiesin theNearEast. AdvancesinWorld zoologie11. LaPensée Sauvage, Paris. Archaeology 4:1-69. Rlw#k|C.B,Bg7lC.E.,Ml}}c}D S.W.,RkcwkxP., M00xkA.M.T.&Hcppwl}G.C.1992.—ThePleis- Vl}DkxPpc7UGH.2006.—Developments in tocenetoHolocenetransition andhumaneconomy radiocarbon calibration forarchaeology. Anti- in Southwest Asia: theimpactoftheYoungerDryas. quity 80(310):783-798. AmericanAntiquity 57(3):482-494. R07klT.R.1998.—PithousesandPuebloson M0xpl}R.E.1994. —Bison bonefragmentation twocontinents:interpretationsofsedentismand andsurvivorship:acomparativemethod. Journalof mobility in theSouthwesternUnited Statesand ArchaeologicalScience 21:797-807. Southwest Asia, in R07klT.R.&Blx-Y0#k+O. Mg}x0 N.1999. —Small gameasindicators ofseden- (eds), Seasonality andSedentism:ArchaeologicalPers- tarization during theNatufianPeriodatHayonim pectivesfromOldandNewWorldSites .Harvard Cavein Israel,in DxcykxJ.C.(ed.), Zooarchaeology University,Cambridge: 199-216. ofthePleistocene/HoloceneBoundary .BARInter- R07klT.R.&Blx-Y0#k+O.(eds)1998.— Seasona- nationalSeries800.Archaeopress,Oxford: 37-45. lity andSedentism:ArchaeologicalPerspectivesfrom Mg}x0 N.2004. —Zooarchaeologicalmeasuresof OldandNewWorldSites .HarvardUniversity,Cam- hunting pressureandoccupation intensity in the bridge. Natufian. CurrentAnthropology 45:5-33. SUcMwl}P.1981. — Life HistoryofaFossil:AnIntro- Mg}x0 N.&Blx-O# G.2005. —Gazellebonefat duction toTaphonomyandPaleoecology .Harvard processing in theLevantineEpipalaeolithic. Journal University Press,Cambridge. ofArchaeologicalScience 32:223-239. SMck## A.E.1979. — ReindeerandCaribouHunters: NlWkpD.(ed.) 2002.— Ohalo II:A23,000 Year-Old AnArchaeologicalStudy .Academicpress,NewYork. Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer’sCamp on theShoreofthe SGkkpkT.E.&WklykxT.D.2002.—Themodified SeaofGalilee.University ofHaifa, Haifa. triangulargraph:arefined methodforcomparing

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 37 AticiL.

mortality profilesin archaeologicalsamples. Journal during thelast 20,000 years,in Bc}Gpc++ J.L.&Vl} ofArchaeologicalScience 29:317-322. Zkc#G W.(eds)., Paleoclimates,Paleoenvironments SGc}kxM.C.1990.—Theuseofmortality patterns andHumanCommunitiesintheEastern Mediterra- in archaeologicalstudiesofhominidpredatory neanRegion in theLaterPrehistory .BARInternatio- adaptations. JournalofAnthropologicalArchaeo- nalSeries133.Archaeopress,Oxford: 105-127. logy 9:305-351. T7Ukx}0yE.1984. —Commensalanimalsand SGc}kxM.C.(ed.) 1991. — HumanPredators andPrey humansedentismintheMiddleEast,in CpgG- Mortality.WestviewPress,Boulder. G0}-Bx07lJ.&GxcD#0}C.(eds), Animals and SGc}kxM.C.1993.—Modernhumanorigins-faunal Archaeology:3 . EarlyHerders andtheir Flocks.BAR perspectives. AnnualReviewofAnthropology 22: InternationalSeries202.Archaeopress,Oxford: 55-82. 91-115. SGc}kxM.C.1994. — Honor AmongThieves:AZooar- VlpplF.R.1998.—Natufianseasonality:aguess.in chaeologicalStudyofNeanderthalEcology .Princeton R07klT.R.&Blx-Y0#k+O.(eds), Seasonality and University Press,Princeton. Sedentism:ArchaeologicalPerspectivesfromOldand SGc}kxM.C.2001. —Thirtyyears on the“Broad NewWorldSites .HarvardUniversity,Cambridge: SpectrumRevolution”andpaleolithicdemography. 92-108. PNAS 98(13):6993-6996. VlpplF.R.1999. —TheNatufianCulture: Acohe- SGc}kxM.C.2005. — TheFaunasofHayonim Cave, rentthought? in Dlyck#W.&CUlxpk#R.(eds), Israel:A200,000 Years RecordofPaleolithicDiet, DorothyGarrodandtheprogress ofthePalaeoli- Demography,andSociety.HarvardUniversity,Cam- thic : studiesintheprehistoricarchaeologyofthe bridge. NearEastandEurope .OxbowBooks,Oxford: SGc}kxM.C.,Mg}x0 N.D.&Sgx0ykpp T.A.2000. 225-241. —Thetortoiseandthehare. CurrentAnthropo- VcD}kJ.-D.,HkpwkxD.&PkGkx#J.2005. —New logy 41(1):39-73. archaeozoologicalapproachestotrace thefirst steps SGxlg# L.G.1987.—UpperPaleolithicibexhun- ofanimaldomestication:generalpresentation, ting in Southwest Europe. JournalofArchaeological reflectionsandproposals,in VcD}kJ.-D.,PkGkx#J. Science 14(2):163-178. &HkpwkxD.(eds), FirstSteps ofAnimalDomes- SGxlg# L.G.1993.—UpperPaleolithicHunting tication:NewArchaeologicalApproaches .Oxbow TacticsandWeaponsin WesternEurope, in PkGkx- Books,Oxford: 1-16. lc} G.L.,Bxc7lkxH.M.&Mkpplx#P.(eds), Hun- V00xUck#M.R.1969. —Taphonomyandpopu- tingandAnimalExploitation in theLaterPalaeolithic lation dynamicsofanearlyPliocenevertebrate andMesolithicofEurasia .AmericanAnthropological fauna, KnoxCounty,Nebraska. University of Association,Washington D.C.:83-93. WyomingSpcialContributions toGeologySpecial SGxlg# L.G.1997.—Convenientcavities:some Paper 1:1-69. humanuseofcavesandrockshelters,in B0}#lpp C. Wkc## E.,WkGGkx#Gx0wW.,NlWkpD.&Blx- &T0pl}-SwcGUC.(eds), TheHumanUseof Y0#k+O.2004. —Thebroad spectrumrevisi- Caves .BARInternationalSeries667.Archaeopress, ted: Evidence from plantremains. PNAS 101(26): Oxford: 1-8. 9551-9555. SGxlg# L.G.1999. —High resolution archaeofaunal Ylp?c}ll|lI.,Lk0GlxWJ.-M.,KlxGlpM.,OGGkM., recordsacross thePleistoceneHolocenetransition ExklC.M.,AGc7cL.&L0Mk#I.1996.—1990- on atransectbetween43and51 degreesnorth 1995 Öküzini kazilari(Tardiglasiyeryerlesimleri). latitude in westernEurope, in DxcykxJ.C.(ed.), XVIII.KaziSonuclari Toplantisi I ,T.C.Kultur ZooarchaeologyofthePleistocene/HoloceneBoun- Bakanligi AnitlarveMuzelerGenelMudurlugu, dary .BARInternationalSeries800.Archaeopress, Ankara: 11-16. Oxford: 21-29. Ylp?c}ll|lI.,KlxGlpM.,ExklC.M.,AGc7cL., SGxlg# L.G.2006.—Ofstonesandbones:inter- K0#kwM.B.,Ck|pl}K.,Lk0GlxWJ.-M.& preting sitefunction in theUpperPaleolithicand OGGkM.1998.— 1995ve1996yillari Öküzini MesolithicofWesternEurope. JournalofAnthropo- kazilari. XIX.KaziSonuclari Toplantisi I. T.C.Kul- logicalArchaeology 25(4):500-509. tur Bakanligi AnitlarveMuzelerGenelMudurlugu, Sgx0ykpp T.A.1999. —Modeling occupation inten- Ankara: 47-71. sity andsmall gameusein Levant,in DxcykxJ.C. Ylp?c}ll|lI.,OGGkM.,Tl#lcxl}H.,O#7kpcl K., (ed.), ZooarchaeologyofthePleistocene/Holocene AGc7cL.,K0#kwM.B.,ExklC.M.&KlxGlpM. Boundary .BARInternationalSeries800.Archaeo- 2000.— 1998yili Karain kazisi. 21. KaziSonu- press,Oxford: 31-36. clari Toplantisi I. T.C.Kultur veTurizmBakanligi SgGG0}M.Q.2000.—Strategyandtacticin the Eski EserlerveMuzelerGenelMudurlugu,Ankara: analysisofarchaeologicalhunter-gatherersystems. 15-28. NorthAmericanArchaeologist 21(3):217-231. Ylp?c}ll|lI.,Tl#lcxl}H.,AGc7cL.,K0#kwM.B., T7Ukx}0yE.1982.—Faunalresponsestoenvi- O#7kpcl K.,KlxGlpM.&ExklC.M.2001. — ronmentalchangesin theeasternMediterranean 1999 yili Karain kazisi. XXII.KaziSonuclari Toplan-

38 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ImplicationsofAgeStructuresforEpipaleolithicHunting Strategies(Southwest Turkey)

tisi I .T.C.Kultur veTurizmBakanligi Eski Eserler Karain kazisi. XXIII.KaziSonuclari Toplan- veMuzelerGenelMudurlugu,Ankara: 9-20. tisiI. T.C.Kultur veTurizmBakanligi Eski Ylp?c}ll|lI.,OGGkM.,K0#p0z#lc J.&Blx- EserlerveMuzelerGenelMudurlugu,Ankara: Y0#k+O.(eds)2002a.— La grotted’Okuzini : 163-170. Évolution duPaléolithiquefinalduSud-Ouestde ZkWkxM.A.2006.—Reconciling RatesofLong l’Anatolie. ERAUL96.LesÉditionsde l’Université BoneFusion andToothEruption andWearin de Liège, Liège. Sheep(Ovis)andGoat( Capra ),in Rg#7cpp0D. Ylp?c}ll|lI.,Tl#lcxl}H.,K0#kwM.B., (ed.), AgeingandSexingAnimals fromArchaeological O#7kpcl K.&AGc7cL.2002b.— 2000 yili Sites .OxbowPress,Oxford: 87-118.

Submitted on 30 April 2008; accepted on 12January2009.

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 39