THE ROLE OF SOIL CONSERVATION IN PROMOTING AGRICULTURE

PRO I)UCTION IN MASWA DISRICT, SHINYANGA - TANZANIA

BY

SINGU ISAACK ELIAS BEM/20006/82/DF

\ DISSFRT\TION SI’BMITTED IN PARTIAl. FULFILMENT THF REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF KAMPALA INTERNATION UNIVERSITY

NOVEMBER 2011 DECLARATION

I Singu Isaack Elias declare that this dissertation is my own work and has not been submitted for the award of a degree in any other university or institutions of higher learning.

Student’s name: SINGU ISAACK ELIAS.

Signature

Date: APPROVAL

This dissertation entitled “The Role of soil conservation in promoting agricultural production • i~:t T~inz~in a, ~ us done under my SU~CF\ isbn and it is ready for submission to the department of environmental sciences of Kampala International University for examination with my approval as supervisor

Supervisor: DANSON MUSINGUZI

Signature:

Date ~ Iv~~fa DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my lovely wife Mercy Daniel, my sons Eliya, Jonathan and ni~ dau~lik1 Iiii~tni Kabula v~ ho iaiss~d mc during my study at. Kampala intcrnational university. May God bless them.

111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am taking this opportunity to thanks our Lord Jesus Christ who kept me healthily throughout the learning period. My special thanks go to the lecturers in Environmental management department Mis Anne Tumushabe,(the head of department) Mr. Amon Orishaba, Mis Hadijah Katongole, Mr. Daniel Omuna and others for their technical guidance to me on how to go about this study.

My appreciations go to my supervisor Mr. Danson Musinguzi for being close to me during my study and for his cooperation. I also thank my employer, the district excusive director (DED) for financial support and my lovely brother Robert E. Singu with his family for being close to me and giving me assistance financially in case of any bankruptcy during my study.

Gratitudes go to my fellow Environment class members at Kampala International University for their assistance especially during group discussions, Mr. Johnson Jeps, Mr Linus, Mr Mohamed Miewa, Miss Rose Nankya, Mr. Kalisa Bwankoko, Mr. Kagisa and many others. Lastly great thanks go to our secretary Mrs. Omary Bori for assisting me typing re-arranging and editing my work. May God bless them all.

iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

\gricuhuic c~x~nsion relbim

ARIU Agriculture research institute Ukiriguru

CBOs Community Based Organization

DED District executive director

DGR District growth rate

EOs Extension officers

FFSs Farmers Field School

FEEs larmer Lo Farmer Extension

GDP Gross Domestic Product MALD Ministry of agriculture and livestock development MDC Maswa district council

NGOs Non Governmental Organization

SSF Small scale farmers

T&V Training and Visit

VEO Village executive officer

v DEFINITIONS OF OPERATION TERMS

Crop production is the art and science of crop raising in its broadest sense, agriculture comprises the eptire range of technologies associated with the production of useful products from plants and animals, including soil cultivation, crop and livestock management, and the activities of processing and marketing.

Extension service - an educational opportunity provided by colleges and universities to people who are not enrolled as regular students procedures in improving farming methods, techniques and any other Environmental issues~ The activities of educating or instructing; activities that impart knowledge or skill whereby people received no formal education.

Environmental degradation is a process through which the natural environment is compromised in some way, reducing biological diversity and the general health of the

Cil\ irunm~it. I hi~ process can be enurely natural in origin, or it can be accelerated or caused by human activities.

Food security means assurance of minimal adequate levels of food for consumption. It prevails if all people have access at all times to enough food for an active and health life.

Soil aggregates are clumps of soil particles that are held together by moist clay, organic matter such as roots by organic compounds from bacteria and fungi and by fungal hyphae pronounced highfee. Aggregates vary in size from about 2 thousandths of a millimetre across up to about 2 millimetres across, and are made up of particles of varying sizes

Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse, acidification, Sterilization salini7ation or other chemical soil reaction.

vi Soil erosion is the removal of topsoil by means of water, wind and tillage which resulted from natural, animals and human activities and affects both agriculture and the natural environment. Soil loss, and its associated impacts, is one of the most important (yet probably the least well-known) of today’s environmental problems.

Soil exhaustion is a condition that occurs frequently when plants of the same genus and spe cies are raised multiple times in the same location after one another. Through a deficiency in specific nutrients, reduced root growth with negative effects, depressed growth and harvests will then often appear, which can lead to reduced crops in fruit and vegetable gardens, and bad growth and flower blooms in a decorative garden.

Soil Fertile has an abundance of plant nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, an abundance of minerals including zinc, manganese, boron, iron, sulfur, cobalt, copper, magnesium, molybdenum, and chlorine and an abundance of organic matter. In addition. fertile soil has a pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.2 and good drainage.

vii TABLE OF CONTENT

Declaration. . ~A~pproval II I)edication ~Ii Acknowledgements iv list ofal,breviations V Definitions of operation terms vi Table of content viii Abstract Xi

CHAPTERONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.lBackgroundtothestudy 1 1.2Problem statement 3 1.3Objective of the study 4 1.3.lResearch questions 4 .4Si.ope and iut.aliuti oI the stud) area 4 1.5 Significance of the study 5

~ TWO 7 L.I’rER.A’rI.J1~.E L~E’~iIE’W 7 2.lAgriculture Potentiality 7 22 Natural resources 8 2.3 Soil erosion 8 22 Soil conservation technology 10 2.2.1 Farm planning 10 22.1 Classification of land based on slope and soil 11 22.2Culti’vationonSteepSlopes 11 22.3 Depositing effect ofrunoff 12 2.2.4 Damaging effects ofrunoff 13 2.3 Significance of slope 13 2.4 Aetiviucs which favour erosion 14 2.5 Prevention and control of erosion 14

VI” 2.5.1 Organic matter:-. 15 ~.5.. High ieiuli~y rates 15 2.5.3 Early Planting 16 2.5.4 Choice of crop 16 2.5,5 Companion crops 17 2.5.6 Mulching 17 2.5.7 Trash farming 18 2.5.8 Green manure 18 2.5.9 Rotations 19 2.5. 10 Contour farming 1 9 2.5.11 Ridging (or listing) 20 2.5.12 Strip cropping 20 2.5.13 Infiltration zones 21 2.6 Challenges experienced during implementation on soil conservation practices 21

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 24 3.1 Research design 24 3.2 Description of the study area 24 3.3 Study population 24 3.4.2 Sampling procedure 25 3.4 Sample size and sampling procedures 25 3.4.1 Sample sire 25 3.4.2 Sample size determination 26 3.5 Data collection instruments! methods 27 3.5.1 Questionnaire 27 3.5.2 Observations 27 3.5.3 Interviews schedule 28 3.6 Validity and reliability of the instruments 28 3.6.1 Reliability 28 3.6.2 Validity 29 ~ 7 Data analvsic 29 3.8Limitations of the study 29

ix rTT\pTrRrot’P. . . . . 30 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .30 4.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents 30 4.1.1 Gender and age ofrespondents 30 4.1.2 Education level ofrespondents 30 4.1.3 Occupation ofrespondents 31 42PatternoflanduseinMaswadistrict 32 4.3 Yield utilization pattern 33 4.4 Production constraints 34 4.5 House hold food security information 36

CI•I.A.PI’Elt FIVE 38 EXCCUTIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATIONS 38 5.1 Executive summary 38 5.2 Conclusions 41

~.., i{cwilunt11uaflons 42 5.3.1 Demographic characteristics ofrespondents 42 5.3.2 Pattern qIlciiul use 42 5.3.3 Yield utilization pattern 43 5.3.4 Production constraints 44 5.5.5 House holdfood security Information 45 REFERENCES 47 APPEI’Jl)ICES 49 APPEI41)IX 1 :Introciuctor3c letter 49 APPENI)I)C 2: (≥isestionnaires 54 APPENDlX3lnterviewGuide 54

x ABSTRACT This research study conducted in Maswa district. The overall objective of this study was to finding out the impacts of soil conservation practices in promoting agriculture production in Maswa district. The problem investigated by the researcher in this study was poor management practices of soil conservation in Maswa district and to suggest a better way of increasing sustainable soil use and crop production.

The researcher used face to face interviews using questionnaires and interview informant guides, observations and computer Microsoft world excel to correct data and transform it into information respectively. The raw data was arranged and coded to eliminate errors before analysis and discussion was done. The study revealed that Females are not involved in decision making concerning conservation practices, only 27% of female respondents involved in the study. Farmers in Maswa district keep large number of livestock over the carrying

~ ~\ ~ CI~uson ~I~d WjN alleet agricultuic production h~ causing laud degradation Whereas management practices and technologies in soil conservation done by community members in Màswa district is done by few farmers in the district. Very few number of household affords having enough food throughout the year and manage to take thrice meals per day for about 23%. About 25% of farmers have irregular meals The researcher concluded and recommends that proper dissemination of the knowledge in conservation particularly in improving slopes in mountains will have a significant impact in agriculture production and sustainability. Also soil management practices are very important in fertility improvement and development of soil. Therefore farmers who engage in conservation techniques should be emphasized in adopting these management practices in order to increase their crop productivity. Female should be involved in contributing and decision making in any study simply because women are back bone of all activities including soil conservation aspects to reduce soil erosion and sediment transport. Redefinition of legal ownership including the rights of women and disadvantaged groups and usage rights should be taken into account. Maswa district council has to put into priorities research activities so as to release fund for research early as this will enhance to accomplish the study at a stated time.

xi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Back ground to the study

Tanzania is predominantly an Agricultural country. The Agriculture sector contributes more than 50% of the country GDP 75% of the export earnings and provides about 85% of the total ernployrnent.(United Republic of Tanzania & Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security (2000) Agriculture Extension Reform in Tanzania. (AER)

Agriculture sector will continue to be erratically important in Tanzania to increase economic growth for a long time. With the exceptional of few private and parastatal farms, the agricultural economy is in hands of some 3 million small holder farmers on the community who about 930 cultivate less than 2 hectares each. Good and enough resources land plentiful relative to population but underutilized despite favorable resource has for Agriculture and other sector such as Forestry, Livestock are characterized by low productivity, little use of improved technologies e.g. tree establishment (which improve soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air and recycling nutrients from the soil and conserve soil thereby helping to increase crop yields and helping to ensure stability of the future production), pasture management, improvement of slopes by using terraces, contour structure and other practices. Low productivity is the leading problem major cause has been poor soil conservation among community members in Maswa district. This has further led to the following community problem categorization:

Problems of social economic aspect: These includes lack of appropriate technologies related to crop production, poor strategies for improved resource management, poor strategies of dealing with environmental hazards i.e. floods, inefficient use of land leading to iragmentallon.

Problems of technical aspects: Effects of present unsuitable crop management practice on environment, soil and water conservation, agro forestry, soil fertility management and many others. The role of soil conservation in promoting Agriculture production in Maswa district is the research problem under investigation. Effects of poor soil conservation measures in this district started to be seen by decrease in agricultural production between 1990s and 2000s due to soil erosion by means of wind and water. (Agriculture research institute Ukiriguru, (2006) There is fertility decline and farm lands are being overexploited throughout Tanzania areas because of human activities and natural factors. The soils in deforested. areas being degraded through improper land use practices. The impacts of these problems are cumulative and can affect entire regions and nations. Usually such environmental problems discussed in macro or global terms and indeed comprehensive policies are needed to deal with them at that level.

However, solutions to these problems also rest with each land user and his or her land-use practices. Maswa is among the districts in Shinyanga region Tanzania which experienced environmental degradation in form of soil erosion. This ending up with food shortage as fertility decline because soils has been washed out through water erosion. Training concerning improved agricultural practices has been calTied out by Extension Officers to ensure increase of food production per unit area among community members in Maswa district.

In recent years, Africa has experienced the worst food crisis ever man festered is escalating famine, hunger, suffering and death. Thousands of innocent lives have been lost. About one quarter of Africa’s population that is about 100 million people do not have access to sufficient food at all times to ensure an active health life( Gittiger, et al., 1990.)

Soil erosion whereby top layers washed out left unfertile land hence contributed to low yield in some way to the precarious food situation in Africa.

Although food production in Africa has increased over the years, it has failed to keep pace due to problem of soil erosion for example it fell by about 12.5% between 1965 and 1982 (Harrison, 1987), as a result of decline in food production, Africa has become more and more dependent on food imports and aid.

2 Tanzania has been no exception to the above trend. Like many other African countries, Tanzania has become a food deficit country especially since the 1980’s, the growth in the national food supply. In 1987, rice imports accounted for 17.4% of the total rice consumed and 69,3% of the i-ice marketed on the official market, (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, 1988).

Therefore ensuring increased Agriculture production in Maswa district, management practices to improve the environment in promoting agriculture production in Maswa district needed. It is important to strengthen community member’s position by capacity building and minimizing many constraints that they face and improving their access to resources and information.

1.2 Problem statement

The hilly areas in many slopes in many farms in Maswa district have been cultivated or cleared of their. natural vegetation with fewer planted trees, continuing challenge for a long time and most of the areas in this place experienced problems such as soil erosion and declining soil fertility, which all together have great environmental implications. Factors such as the growing population of the area, bad agricultural practices, lack of suitable soil conservation measures and poverty claimed to be the core sources environmental degradation in Maswa district. Many efforts have been made to change this situation by training farmers to practice use of ridges and tie ridges, use of cover crops and cultivation across the slopes; however such efforts have not been veiy successful to meet the objectives. Lack of education in environmental management to improve conservation and fertility of soils along mountains is among the reasons which caused this setback in this district. Use of contour structures, use of trash farming, use of green manure and use of strip cropping has indeed being solutions to environmental degradation, proper soil conservation practices is fundamental in achieving this objective. The problem investigated by the researcher in this study was poor management practices of soil conservation in Maswa district and to suggest a better way of increasing sustainable soil use and crop production.

3 1.3 Objective of the study

Main objective The overall objective of the study was to find out the impacts of soil conservation practices in promoting agriculture production in Maswa district.

Specific objectives (i) To find out the management practices and technologies done to conserve soil in Maswa district. (ii) To find out the effects of soil erosion on Agriculture production in Maswa district. (iii) To suggest the contributions of soil conservation practices in promoting Agriculture production in M aswa district (iv) To determine the efforts done by Maswa district council in trying to promote soil conservation and enhance Agriculture production in Maswa district.

1.3.1 Research questions

(i)What are the management practices and technologies done to conserve soil in Maswa district’? (ii) What are the effects of soil erosion on agriculture production in Maswa district’? (iii)What are the measures necessary to improve soil conservation practices in Maswa district? (iv)What are the contributions of district authority towards improving soil conservation practices and promoting agriculture production in Maswa district?

1.4 Scope and location of the study area

The area of study was Maswa District which is one of the seven districts in Shinyanga Region. The District lies between the latitudes 2.45° and 3.15° South of the Equator and between the It is bordered by Meatu District in the East, Bariadi in the North and Northwest, Kishapu in the South and Southwest and Kwimba District in the West.

4 Longitude is 33° and 34.10 East of the Greenwich Meridian. The altitude of the District lies between 1200m and l300rn above sea level.

Administratively the district has 3 divisions namely Mwagala, Sengerema and Nung’hu, 18 wards and 99 registered villages, also there is one Township authority that has 26 hamlets. The council has got 10 departments and these include Agriculture, Livestock and Co operatives, Education, Natural resources, Community development, Work and infrastructure, Health, Financial, Water, Human resource and Administration department.

1.5 Significance of the study

The findings of this research being useful in providing necessary information for the policy formulation by stake holders, specifically the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania with the regard to extreme poverty and hunger alleviation and improved living standards of community members especially in rural areas. Furthermore this research used to guide further research in Maswa district and also benefited scholars, students, policy makers and development agencies from nations emerging from food insecurity in any part of the World.

Systems observed used in Maswa district can be widely expanded for the benefit of smallholders living in remote areas with poor market infrastructure. It is therefore important that research and development focused on land management interventions that reach the poorest and most vulnerable land users especially the women and on understood of the problems they face.

More on the socio-economic issues (gender, land size and ownership, culture, income) of the target rural farmers, emphasized what to do to meet their daily needs for food, income, shelter and as such research must be increasingly relevant to the intended beneficiaries.

This study on the importance of soil conservation practices and technologies being of great importance in contributing to the most needed researches geared towards liberating the local

5 farmers from poverty and environmental constraints which hinder their Agriculture production and prosperity.

The government being in a position of knowing the major activities which carried in an area to be surveyed and its economical and environmental impacts It helped local communities to practice good methods of land conservation and management to improve Agricultural productions and enabled local communities to overcome the challenges which hinder agricultural productions due to soil erosion.

6 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Agriculture Potentiality

The district grows food crops such as sorghum, millet, sweet potatoes, cassava, groundnuts and maize in some areas. A cash crop like cotton is grown in the large part of the District. Paddy is becoming dominant cash and food crop in Sengerema and Nung’hu divisions, The area suitable for irrigation is 52,375 (ha), among this only 1,111 (ha) are under development at 4 irrigation schemes of Bukangilija, Buyubi, Bukigi and Ijinga. Three irrigation schemes with estimates of 3,800 (ha) are at feasibility studies stage. There are 33,384 pairs of Oxen ploughs are mostly used in land cultivation and oxen for crops and goods, 138 tractors that are mostly used in land cultivation in the district. The use of power tillers for cultivation is limited depending on the type of the soil. However, in the year 2010 the per capita income was estimated to be Shs. 145, 495.The District has 3 markets, and 7 open markets where mostly of the Agricultural crops are sold

The following table showing types of crops with actual yield per hectare in tons as compared to the recommended yield per hectare in tons in Maswa district season. 200 8/2009. Table 1. Yields of crops per hectare in Maswa district 200812009. CROP TYPE ACTUAL YIELD/HA RECOMMENDED (TONNAGE) YIELD! HA (TONNAGE) Maize 2.0 5.4 Paddy 2.3 7.5 Beans 1.5 2.5 Groundnut 1.5 1.8 Cassava 4.5 5.0 Sweetpotatoes 5.1 6.0 Millet 1.2 1.5 Cotton 0.78 2.0 Sunflower 1.0 1.5 (Source: Maswa agri culture department research 2008/2009)

7 Previous studies have put little attention on the benefits of soil conservation to the rural small- scale farmers. Most research studies have targeted biophysical aspects and technologies, for example soil fertility management and impact of soil conservation on soil fertility. Therefore, this research will focus on finding soil conservation measures in promoting Agriculture production per unit area in Maswa district.

2.2 Natural resources

The district has got 77 sq Km of raised trees and natural vegetation ,either the district has got an area of 10,240 (ha ) Shishiyu holding grounds that is under the management of the Ministry of livestock development and fisheries. The district has a strategy of growing 10,000,000 trees up to 2011.

2.3 Soil erosion.

Soil erosion creates major problems. Small-scale farmers can no longer successfully grow certain food crops and are forced to change their farming practices, but lack the knowledge and resources to do so. Completed by necessity they continue growing the wrong crops in the wrong places causing even more damage and degraded land.

The magnitude and extent of increased rates of soil erosion and runoff that could occur under simulated future precipitation regimes arc large. More importantly, analyses of the climate record in the United States show that changes in precipitation patterns are occurring now. In fact, the magnitude of observed trends in precipitation and the bias toward more extreme precipitation events are, in some cases, larger than simulated by global climate change models, particularly since 1970. Extrapolating those relationships to the changes in precipitation observed over the past century suggests increases in soil erosion ranging from 4 percent to 95 percent and increases in runoff from 6 percent to 100 percent could already be evident on cropland in some locations. When fertile topsoil is lost, nutrients and organic matter needed by crops often are removed along with it. Erosion tends to remove the less dense soil constituents such as organic matter, clays, and silts, which are often the most fertile

8 part of the soil. Flowever, the loss in productivity caused by erosion has not been so evident in many parts in Africa since it has been compensated for over the years by improved crop varieties and increased fertilization

Unless additional protective measures are taken, such increases in soil erosion and runoff from cropland if widespread could reverse much of the progress that has been made in reducing soil degradation and water pollution from cropland in the United States.

Further downstream soil erosion creates problems for the fishermen of Lake Victoria. Millions of tones of fertile soil wash into the lake causing an explosion of water hyacinth that clogs ports. Eutrophication of the lake has destroyed the local fishing industry. At the moment most farmers grow a number of annual crops like maize, millet and beans. Severe soil erosion causes crops yields to be lower every year, and in severely eroded areas yields have declined by up to two thirds (Lou verchot) More sustainable forms of Agriculture including tree-based enterprises such as orchards and fodder plantations for livestock are more promising in the long term. They can halt soil degradation, rehabilitate degraded areas, and thereby raise crop yields.

Land degradation and soil erosion is perceived as an important problem in the dry land zones of the Mediterranean (Erik L.H. Commeraat). Therefore understanding of processes and their quantification is needed. However, the scale of measurement is often not compatible with the size of the areas of interest. Thresholds in often with specific spatial-temporal domains, introduce a strong non-lime arty in the hydrological and erosion response. Measurements are carried out with an emphasis on the spatial linkages involved in the hydrological and erosion response of a 12 km2 large instrumented watershed in semi — arid Spain.

In the Mid- Atlantic region, soil erosion is one of the major contributors to degradation of water quality (I)oran, JW, et al (1994) It is closely linked to phosphorus pollution because most phosphorus transported into the Chesapeake Bay is attached to soil particles. In practice,

9 this means that soil erosion control practices will also degrease phosphorus movement in the landscape.

Soil erosion also seriously reduces soil quality. The loss of productive topsoil by erosion exposes the subsoil, which usually is less productive, and has undesirable physical characteristics for field work and plant growth. Degraded soils are visible throughout the undulating parts of the Tanzania in higher spots in fields where clay knobs or stone outcrops come to the surface. Crop establishment is poor on these knobs because of coarseness.

2.2 Soil conservation technology

2.2.1 Farm plamuiimig

Farm planning means planning and dividing a farm into homestead and fields so as to obtain the best use from the land and it embraces arable areas, pastures, tree plantations, homestead, roads, water suppiy, drainage and physical soil conservation measures in most cases of farm planning. However, the farm in being cultivated already, so the changes to be carried out tend

10 he rather limited.

As can be seen from the paragraph above soil conservation is a part of farm planning and in this report farm planning considered: Available land for cultivation, livestock and for conservation, ground conditions as to the type of soil, occurrence of rock outcrops, infiltration rate, and erodibility, present erosion on slopes and along watercourses, and existence of gullies and damaging sedimentation. Existing soil conservation measures, including the usage of different areas considering the soil conservation.

Soil conservation measures, including the usage of different areas under the proposed soil conservation measures and the need for aids for conservation purposes.

10 2.2.1 Classification of land based on slope and soil

The topography is hilly, field boundaries should coincide with the contours, or the gradients of out off drains and terraces. This should be coerce also be valid for the boundaries between farms, to be considered during the land adjudication work. Now we can classify land in regard to its soil conservation needs: Flat land, sloping less than 2%, can usually be farmed without any special soil conservation measures. Gently sloping land from 2 to 12 %. where physical soil conservation measure are not obligatory according to the Agriculture Act, but desirable on slopes of erodible soils and in semi-arid areas.

For slopes exceeding 12 %, but not exceeding 55%, terracing is needed. Bench terraces can be used, if the depth of the soil is more that 0.5-08 m. on steep slopes, especially if exceeding 35 %, modified bench terraces can be recommended. Tractors working along the contour can be used up to 17%. Slopes exceeding 55% should be covered by grass and/or forest. Soils, which are rocky, stony or shallow, should be used as pastures or for forest.

2.2.2 Cultivation on Steep Slopes

On steep slopes (25 — 55%) it is convenient to cultivate coffee on terraces (6 or 3 m wide), or fruit trees and bananas on modified bench terraces. Avoid planting tobacco on steep slopes. Keep the rotational periods of tobacco short between the periods of grass. The reason for this can be seen in the table below, where there are figures for a comparison with maize:

11 Table 2 Soil losses in tons per acre SOIL LOSSES IN TONS/ACRE

On medium slope 1st Year — 21H~ Year

Maize 1.8 — 4.5 Tobacco 3.6 10.9 On steep slop

Maize 2.5 — 10.5

Tobacco 12.3 — 46.0 Source: Gachene CKK et al 1997

On very steep slopes (exceeding 55%) grasses of high yielding fodder crop, e.g. Napier grass or local grasses and pastures should he planted: The benefits of grasses are; Protection of soil from raindrop erosion, high infiltration rate along roots, and through previous roots holes, filtering water into non erodible flows and depositing transported sediment. To be effective the grass over must be dense, without bare spots and without paths, where people and cattle have compacted the soil through trampling.

2.2.3 Depositing effect of runoff

Soil that is eroded from its original location is always deposited somewhere else. This may be a distance of a few inches or hundreds of miles. The distance which soil particles are transported depends upon their size, shape and density, and energy of the runoff water. Coarse particles move the shortest distance and settle out first as the velocity of the runoff water decreases. This is followed by the successively finer particles of sand, silt and clay.

Downstream deposition is evidenced by Sedimentation of channel, Silting — up of dams/reservoirs and sedimentation of bottom lands.

12 2.2.4 DamagIng effects of runoff

Runoff water tends to accumulated and concentrate in drainage lines. As it concentrates more and more towards the lower ends of building, crops etc. — will depend on the volume of floodwater which has accumulated, the speed at which it is flowing and the size and nature of particles (from silt to bouldeit, from maize plants to tree-trunks) - Doran J.W. etal (1994) Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment Special publications N. 35

2.3 SIgnIfIcance of slope

The steeper the slope the greater the erosion is due to the increase in downhill splash erosion and run off velocity. The longer the slope the greater the erosion is due to accumulation of runoff volume and depth. The shape of slopes also influences erosion, convex slopes increase in steepness towards the bottom with consequent increase in run-off volume and velocity.

Decline in Ibrtility of any area of land may be as much, or more, due to the loss of plant nutrients through the erosion process, accompanied by other unfavorable changes in soil physical conditions, as the removal of nutrients in harvested crops. As the cycle of erosion proceeds, the decline in land fartility is followed by poorer protection by plant cover of the soil surface from raindrop impact, the development of less permeable conditions at the soil surface, and a higher ratio of run-off to infiltration, which itself loads to flash-floods and farther erosion. If a higher proportion of water than before runs off the land after rainstorms, underground water supplies will not be replenished as quickly as before, and a farther observed efThct of land degradation is the drying up of wells and streams in the dry weather.

13 2.4 Activities which favour erosion

Erosion is favored by any management practice which by action or inaction either permits intense rainfall to strike the unprotected soil surface or encourage the accumulation of large volumes of runoff water, or allows runoff to flow rapidly across the soil surface,

Under the influence of intense rainfall on the unprotected land surface, some types of land may be dcgrad~d much more readily than other types. Differences in erosion hazard can be attributed to differences in basic land and soil characteristics, for example:

Land — slop, degree of past erosion, wetness

Soil - depth, topsoil texture, profile permeability nature of limiting materials, characteristics of the soil surface. Such malpractices as excessive grazing, injudicious burning, too-frequent use of certain annual crops, loosening of soil by cultivation on steep slopes or in flow channels of drainage lines, insufficient resonations of organic matter, incorrect preparation of areas to be planted and many.

2.5 Prevention and control of erosion

Minimization ol the effects of rainfall impact at the soil surface must lie at the heart of any efforts to prevent erosion. Minimization of the volume and velocity of runoff water must lie at the heart of any efforts to control erosion. The average annual rate of soil loss must not exceed the natural rate of soil formation (approximately 5 tons per acre per year) Prevention is always better than cure. Once lands have been destroyed and some are more easily destroyed that others) expensive reclamation works are necessary, but this is not always feasible if it is to be restored to anywhere near its former productive state. Such a situation could have been avoided, with much saving of time and money, by preventing such degradation by the wise use of land it the first place.

The most basic principle to be followed in preventing erosion is that of appropriate management of land. In many cases the requires on the part of any farmer a better

14 understanding of the close relationships that exist between how good is his management of land and how severe is loss by erosion from his farm. One cannot stress to strongly the singular importance of careful management of land in order to prevent irreparable damage y erosion. The key to successful erosion prevention is the maintenance of a good vegetative cover over the soil surface. This cover minimizes or prevents rainfall impact, and helps to maintain the information capacity of the soil’s surface. Seen from this standpoint, a primary aim of good land management must be to maintain a good vegetative cover over the soil.

In order to maintain the balance between gain by production and loss by poison, land~use systems should marry those types of use which have a high risk of permitting erosion to those areas of land which have a small hazard of being eroded, and must also stabilize areas which have a high hazard of being eroded by imposing uses which have only small risk of permitting erosion.

2.5.1 Organic matter:

Organic matter increases the aggregation of soil particles and makes the aggregates more water-stable. The reason is ionic bonds between clay particles and organic substance (The outermost ions of opposite charge of the two materials are attached to each other.) as a result of this aggregation the infiltration and percolation rates will be increased. Thereby decreases the runoff of water and its erosion. The porous organic matter decomposed or not, increases the water holding capacity of the soil. Decomposed organic matter increases the mineral nutrients available to ants.

2.5.2 High fertility rates

High fertility results in good growth of crops and is the best insurance against rain drop erosion. The protection of the soil is proportional to the horizontal growth of the plants. The large raindrops of heavy rains will hit the leaves instead of the ground, and drip to the ground without sufficient force to erode the soil. An improved crop density can reduce the area of bare ground from 40% to 10%, thus reducing the raindrop erosion by four times. How

15 differences in crop density influence the cultivation, can be seen from the following example (Hudson 1959):

Table 3. Production of maize crop under soil looses per year

FIELD 1 — FIELD 2

Production of Maize crop 5 Bags/Acre — 20 Bags/Acre Area needed for production 200 Acres 50 Acres of 1,000 bags

Soil losses per year 20 tons/Acre — 5 tons/Acre Source: Gachene CKK et al 1997

From these figures it can be calculated that 1 ton of maize can cost 40 tons of soil (on field No. 1) or 2.5 tons of soil (on field No. 2), specific chemicals (divalent ions), especially calcium from fertilizers, increase the shear strength of clay soils. Such a stabilization of the soil makes it more resistant to rain and erosion. - Gachene CKK, et.al (1997) Soil erosion effects on soil properties in a high land areas of central Kenya.

2.5.3 Early Planting

Early planting is important in East Africa, as much of the erosive rains come during the beginning of the rainy season whereby cracks are still open, reducing run-off and erosion. An early planting during the rainy season will develop better plants and give protection against soil erosion e.g. the mean annual soil loss in an experimental tobacco field was three times greater after late planting compared to early planting.

2.5.4 Choice of. crop

On erodible soils the choice of crop for cultivation should be considered. The soil loss through erosion varies according to the type of plant, providing that it is well established: grass (least soil loss), small grain crop, maize, cotton, peanuts and cassava (most soil loss). There are great differences in soil loss between the various plants. The erosion is at least five

16 times greater on a field with a small grain crop that on a pasture. The soil loss from a field of clean-tilled cotton can be 50% greater that from a field of maize.

2.5.5 Companion crops

The question of intercropping or “Companion crops” is contradictory. Interpolating of cotton with maize in Kenya has given good results, but trials with maize and beans have given the same cash return whether mixed or in pure stands. I lowever, mixed cropping, practiced for a long time by smaliholders in Kenya is conducive to less soil erosion. Further, it can be assumed that the interpolating of beans or other legumes between the rows of maize makes a rotation less necessary. Examples of other companion crops are: 1) maize plus cassava. or sweet potatoes, cotton, ground nuts, simsim, pigeon peas, grams or sun flower 2) pigeon peas plus beans or millet, 3) cotton plus millet or gram or coriander 4) ban grass plus legumes. Ploughing by oxen makes interpolating difficult.

2.5.6 Mulching

This is the application of covering on the ground by using dead plant or crop residues. Examples of suitable mulches are banana-leaf mulch and a mulch of grass. As for maize, the stalks can make seed bed and planting operations more difficult that without mulching. It is recommended that the trash should be applied once a year, at the end of the long rains. Mulching is indeed one of the most effective methods to minimize erosion. There are several reasons for this:

A crop residue covering the ground decreases rain drop erosion slows down the water flows and increases the infiltration rate as the pores of the soil are not clogged (through surface sealing by clay particles after rains). It also encourages insects and worms to make holes into the ground, thus increasing the permeability of the soil to a large extent. Mulching is also effective against wind erosion, which may be dangerous between the cropping periods. especially on sandy-silt soils.

17 Straw mulch can reduce the soil loss through erosion by 95%. In experiments in Ohio a layer of straw mulch was laid on a wire plat form 1 inch above the ground, and this arrangement did not decrease the soil loss. This demonstrates the importance of rain drop erosion compared with superficial water flows. Not only does mulching reduce the soil loss but it also reduces the deterioration in soil texture caused by erosion. It has been reported from different parts of Africa, that erosion removes particles of clay plus humus and silt more easily than sand from the field. Consequently the longer the field soil is cultivated without soil conservation measures the coarser it will become. Mulching can also increase the crop yields by 27%, according to an experiment in Kenya. Sometimes, however, the mulch is eaten by termites. When starting the cultivation of tea it is recommended to put 1 strips of mulch between the rows of planted tea (a spacing of about l.5m). In the dry Sahelian and Sudan areas the incorporation of organic residues reduces the crop yields at least during the first year, probably due to insulation of the topsoil and reduction in capillarity.

2.5.7 Trash farming

Trash Farming means ploughing in crop residues and Cultivation by leaving stubble on the surface of the soil to serve as mulch. This method is little used in the tropics to prevent erosion, one reason being that maize stalks ploughed in will be eaten by termites. Compost vegetable scraps and yard waste instead of discarding. We can provide informational flyers about what compost is and how to do it. You can create your own compost pile, purchase a pre-fab enclosed plastic compost bin.

2.5.8 Green manure

Green manuring is the ploughing in of young growing plants into the soil. This method, recommended in many parts of the world, has not been accepted by small-scale farmers in Kenya. The measure protects the soil against soil erosion, but as to the manure effect, experiments in the Trans Nzoia have shown a yield increase only in the following season. Farmers in Kenya prefer using compost manure instead of the practice of green manure. In

18 fact the compost has a better effect on the crumb structure of the soil, and the stalks in the compost are not eaten by termites.

2.5.9 Rotations

Maize should, if possible, be rotated with grass since grass gives a good crumb structure speaking contouring is not always exactly along the contour (level) but can have a similar gradient to that of terraces and cutoff drains. Even if maize is planted by hand, this should be in rows across the slope (along the contour). When the maize plants are about 1 foot high, the rows should be slightly ridged to prevent water from flowing down the slope.

2.5.10 Contour farming

if you use a plough for contour farming, this is called contour ploughing. The effectiveness of plough furrows in collecting water is greater on gentle slopes that on steep slopes. The erosion in plough furrows along the contour does not remove so much clay and carbon as erosion in furrows up and downhill according to measurements on slopes of 0.5% in Upper Volta (Christoi 1966): The decreased run of in contour cultivation permits a better retention of the nutrients. Consequently an increased yield can be expected through contour ploughing.

19 The risk in contour farming is that depressions in the rows can cause an overspill of the collected water which will start to flow down the slope, causing large rills or small gullies. Contour farming is not a suitable method, if water flows and nTis cut through the ridges. Nowadays contour farming is practiced all over Kenya and cultivation up and down bill is becoming the exception in small-scale farming. In large-scale farming, however, it may sometimes be difficult to plough along the contour. A normal tractor can safely and

economically work on slopes of up to 17 %. On steeper slopes the risk of overturning increases. But a four wheel- drive tractor can work on slope s of up to 25%

2.5.11 Ridging (or listing)

Ploughed ridges can be enlarged by hand or by ridging equipment drawn by oxen or tractors, This method is used in East African countries in such crops as maize, sorghum and cotton. After harvesting the crop residues can be buried when the ridges are broken down. In Kenya, however, ridging is not common except with tobacco and potatoes Ridging can increase the risk of overflows after heavy or prolonged rain because the ridges made by farmers are not perfectly graded or completely level. Large ridges can increase wash erosion compared to those on flat land, because the ridges consist of loose soil and have steep side. Tied ridging and pitting can easily retain the water from a 3 inch storm. Another advantage is that the ridges need not necessarily be cut accurately on the contour.

2.5.12 Strip cropping

Contour strip cropping promotes good soil structure and decreases erosion by water follows. Rain erosion is decreased on the alternating wide strips of grass, but still proceeds on the cropped strips. Total strip cropping can reduce the soil losses considerably. The wide strips of pasture and crops are sometimes bordered by narrow grass strip terraces, or by channels diverting surplus water. This combination of strip cropping and terracing could be used, if

20 every second terrace (according to the usual rules for spacing) was removed and a rotation was introduced.

Strip cropping is best on permeable soils and on slopes which are not too steep, preferably not

exceeding 15 — 20%. In Kenya the maximum widths of crop strips might be:

Table 4. Required width under percentage slope CROP WIDTH % SLOPE COMMENTS IOM 30—20 Should either be closer than n 10 M 20M 20 -12 Less than 12% a formula can be used to calculate width 33M 7X%SLOPE Source: Gachene CKK et al (1997,

2.5.13 Infiltration zones

If the farmers are not interested in terracing of slopes (wash stops developing into bench terraces or digging terraces) wide strips of perennial vegetation with trash left on the ground can be a substitute for terraces. The idea of such strips along the contour (“contour belts”) is to stop nil erosion through infiltration, so an annual crop can be cultivated in a strip below the infiltration zone. This is not strip cropping, as the infiltration strip has perennial vegetation without rotation (e.g. tea and bananas) - Land-use Planning Manual (Land-use planning and physical conservation.) Published in Malawi

2.6 Challenges experienced during implementation on soil conservation practices

Soil resource is vital to the survival of the human being in Maswa district. Not only does it provide the literal foundation of their existence, it is the source of most of the agricultural products that sustain their life food, fiber, timber, and energy. Because damages to soil quality

21 are nearly always permanent, preservation of this resource is critically important to maintaining agricultural productivity and environmental quality. One of the most widespread threats to soil quality is wind and water erosion, an ever- occurring process that impacts lives in numerous ways, the direst of which is lost food production. It is estimated that soil erosion in Maswa district is damaging the productivity of 29% acres of cropiand and is adversely affecting the ecological health of 39% acres of rangeland. The lack of arabic land and evidence of soil degradation have been identified as causes for the reduced of many conservation practices. The decrease of these conservation practices is often attributed to accelerated erosion and degradation caused by improper land management or scarce resources.

In addition to on-site soil loss, erosion results in off-site sediment movement that causes problems downstream. Sediment deposit and clog drainage ways, increase potential for flooding, decrease reservoir capacity, and carry nutrients and pesticides that degrade water quality. Curreni assessments in Maswa district done by the Ukiriguru agriculture research institute of impaired water bodies in 2006 indicate that 40% of the stream miles and 45% of the reservoir areas are impaired because of sediment. Therefore, minimizing erosion is not only important for saving the soil, it is essential for preserving potable water resources and improving water and air quality.

Agriculturalist and others in Maswa district have made progress over past decades to understand and control erosion. However, the pressures of increased population on land use and agricultural production continually create new and additional soil erosion problems. Funding of innovative research to identify and develop new or improved practices/systems for successfully combating soil erosion is of paramount importance for obtaining a significant reduction in the rate of erosion in the future.

22 The current situation, and suggest the outlook for the future, in an easy to follow format exploring how agricultural production practices must change in future years to address the newest challenges. Maj or issues, research, recommendations, and government programs are covered. Present research challenges are reviewed, and contributors visualize how agricultural production practices will change in future years to address the newest challenges in soil and water conservation

23 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research design

The research used descriptive analytical and observatory research designs. These were selected because they are effective ways of data collection and done on survey-based on quantitative and qualitative data analysis, also co-relative research which interested in testing weather two variables are related. Cross sectional design used in order to reduce time and cost involved because it is done once in trying to understand the implication of soil conservation in promoting agricultural production.

3.2 Description of the study area

The district has a total of 3,398 square kms of land with its 2,475 sq. krns used for agriculture and livestock keeping. 77 square km is forest reserve and 846 square km are mountainous with slight bushes and shrubs. (Agriculture and livestock census, 2002)

Maswa districi has a semi arid climate with bimodel rainfall pattern of between 45and 1000 mm with an average of 750mm. per annum. Source: Maswa meteology centre data 2000. The average rainfall decreases from north to south and from west to east. The short rains starts in mid November to mid January and the long rains starst early March up to May. The average temperature is 26° C. Large parts of the district have hardly and vegetative cover and the soil fertility in large tracks of the district is medium to poor.

3.3 Study population The researcher targeted the community members from different places especially in villages within the district, in order to make a good presentation of the whole district, this included farmers, Ii vestock keepers, agricultural extension officers and village executive officers

24 3.4.2 Sampling procedure

According to year 2002 population and housing census, there were 304,402 (157,759 female and 146,643 males) people in the District with a growth rate of 2.3%. The population in the year 2010 was estimated to be 418,091 people and an average of 98 people per square kilometer, the number of households is 48,921 with an average of 6 people per household. Out of the total population, 52% are female and 48% are males, 92% live in rural areas and 8% live in urban areas.

The District has a working force (18-60 years), which is 48% of total population. More than 90% of the working force is employed in Agriculture and Livestock keeping while less than 10% is employed in non-agricultural employment, such as trading, employment in Governmental and Non-Governmental institutions.

The income of’ the district depends on Agriculture output. However, weather fluctuations to a large extent affect crops and livestock production. The basis of the district economy is Agriculture and livestock keeping. According to 2002 census about 76% of the population is employed in Agriculture sector. The most important cash crops are cotton and rice. Food crops include sorghum/millets, maize, rice, sweet potatoes and groundnuts and some cassava.

The researcher targeted the communities from different places especially in villages within the district, in order to make a good representation of the whole district, these included farmers, livestock keepers, agricultural extension officers, environmental officers and executive village officers.

3.4 Sample size and sampling procedures

3.4.1 Sample size Stratified random sampling method used to select respondents in 4 wards in Maswa district. (The most affected areas by soil erosion), the research based on the sample size and time frame which will be strictly one month.

25 In each ward 25 respondents interviewed, that is 10 &rmers. 10 livestock keepers. 2 agricultural extension officers, 2 environmental officers and 1 village executive officer. This made a total of 100 respondents (household leaders) to be interviewed to represent the whole district Afier all five wards were surveyed, data compiled together and one report written to represent the whole district

3.4.2 Sample sIze determInatIon

Sample size determination with the intended degree of accuracy in the study of between 5% and 10% referred to as 0.05 and 0.1 levels of significance will be set and at confidence level of 90%. Size of population where sample will be drawn for more than 10,000 or more than that the formula is as follows: The Slovin’s formula 1997 used to determine the number of respondents as shown below:

Fonnula N l+N(e2)

Where;

N = where population is 48,921. (That is the number of households in Maswa district) d= degrce of accuracy desired set at 10% or 0.1 Confidence level is at 90% n= the sample size

Solution 48,921 1+48,921(0.1)2

48,921 1+489.21

26 48,921 1~1= —______490.21

n= 99.796

n= 100

Therefore the sample size will be 100 respondents.

3.5 Data collection instruments! methods

The following data collection methods were used. That is questionnaire, interview observation and literature review. Both secondary and primary data are to be collected in this study. During collcciion of primary data also observation of the affected area will take place as on the real time situation on how soil erosion affects agricultural production.

3.5.1 Questionnaire

Well prepared questionnaires arranged to answer the objectives of the study were prepared. These were used during face to face interview in which the research could request the respondent to give appropriate responses by filling in the answer to questions. This was used because it assisted in handling large population and large area in a short time, assisted the researcher gather the required information and this method is simple to use.

3.5.2 Observations

Observation as a method of data collection undertaken by a researcher to make comparison on the data provided so as to confirm whether the information given by respondents. Several farms visited to see constructed structures and saw land form characteristics. Furthermore,

77 conservation assisted to see what is happened in the field and relate it to the literature reviewed. This was used because gave a researcher first hand information, a researcher collected lot of information and picked only the required information only and also saved as time save method of data collection

3.5.3 Interviews schedule

Interview guide will be used also to collect information and in this case reviewing of the existing documents will be done by the use of interview guide especially for Government officials, CBQs, NGOs and any other development partners. These people in the respect area will be given interview guide to be answered and collect as to supplement on information from the questionnaires. This was used because a researcher got assistance in direction of operation and selected the required personnel or resources provided information and also simple acquired information at a relatively short time because of involving understanding people.

3.6 Validity and reliability of the instruments

3.6.1 Reliability

The research process involved pre testing of questionnaires by distributing them to the community members gathered together and interview guide to government officials ,CBOs and other non organizational. The researcher asked them and them answer so that necessary corrections iciated to the problem under investigation by looking objectives are made. In addition views from the supervisor were sought to insure the reliability of the instrument. Again questionnaires was post tested attempted to minimize random error and hence increase reliability to the data collected by selecting an appropriate group of subject as a technique of assessing reliability.

28 3.6.2 Validity

The researcher had in the process constantly checked and verified questions and other collected information during the study to ensure completeness and accuracy. This called for constant editing of data and results to insure that there are minimal error rates, Meaningfulness of inference based on the research results obtained from the analysis of the data under study. This done with low accuracy the data obtained in the study to represent the variable at the study.

3.7 Data analysis

After data was collected using questionnaires, observations, interviews and from literature reviews, coding followed by converting information to numerical codes representing attributes or measurements of variable. Quantitative analysis was used whereby data was described and summarized using descriptive statistics in order to bring the meaningful description and distribution of scores using few statistics.

3.8 Limitations of the study

Infrastructure especially in remote areas limited access to the intended clients to be visited, Fearness oC some clients’ also limited accessibility of getting enough data and financial constraints delayed the process of conducting the research. Lack of cooperation between the researcher, government officials and local communities also became a problem.

29 CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents

4.1.1 Gender and age of respondents

The researcher interviewed 27% females and 74% males during the study. Majority of the

respondents were in the age bracket of 3 1 — 44 years old representing a percentage of 27%. However the study involved few respondents in age bracket 20- 30 because most of them were still in school and they not own lands. Other was not around due to different responsibilities like watching after herds. Also at age brackets 60 were not involved simply because they are old and decided to leave agriculture activities to their sons.

Table 5: Gender and age range of respondents Age rank Male Female 20 -30 years 15 5 31 -44 years 35 12

45- 00 ~u~rs 21 S 60> 7 2 Total 73 27 Source: Field study

4.1.2 Education level of respondents

Community member in Maswa district have low formal education level Most of them have primary education by 49%, ordinary level is about 37%, Only 4% have advanced level of education. They depend on keeping large herds and involve in agriculture activities rather than registering their children to schools hence lack enough skills in soil conservation practices. Females are not involved in decision making concerning conservation practices, only 27% of female respondents involved in the study; they are followers what men’s says.

30 Table 6: Education back ground of respondents Level Number of respondent Percentage Primary 49 49 Ordinary level 37 37 Advanced level 4 4

Tertiary! University degree - 0 Total 100 100 Source: Field study

4.1.3 Occupation of respondents

The main source of income of people in Maswa district was crop farming especially subsistence farming (5 2%) which is mainly for food production, 32% of respondents practice mixed farming although 7°/a practice animal rearing under free range systemNomads were 4% and small business 3%. This trend is because most people in Maswa district do not have enough land for crop production and at the same time they practice mixed cropping. Very rare they practice small business and animal rearing on small scale.

Table 7: Occupation of respondents Activity Number of respondents Percentage Animal rearing on small scale 7 7 Nomads 4 4 Subsistence farming 52 52 Mixed(Crops & Livestock) 32 32

Small business 3 3 Total 100 100 Source: Field study

31 4.2 Pattern of land use in Maswa district

About 94% of community members in Maswa district possess farms and the average farm size is 1 — 3 acres it is bout 41%. 6% of farmers used to hire farms from their neighbors. Activities they carry out rest of the farm is grazing animals but during dry season they used to graze on their farms after harvest whereby animals utilize crop residues. Cropping system used is mixed that is crops and animal rearing by 70%, few farmers practice crop rotation that is 25% and rarely 5% they practice mono cropping system. 68% of respondent usually grow food crops however 20% of respondent also grow cash crops by and horticultural crops is about 12%

Table 8: Pattern of land use Land %age Farm %age Cropping %age Types of (Yoa~fl j)OSSCsSIOIi SlLL~ System crops

YES 94 1 — 3 41 Mixed 70 Food crops 68 acres

NONE 6 3 - 5 37 Crop 25 Cash crops 20 acres rotation

Over 5 22 Mono 5 Horticultural 12 acres cropping crops Source: Field study

Types of crops grown include maize, millet, paddy, cowpeas, chick peas, ground nuts, cotton, cassava. sweet potatoes etc. The yield production per acre varies between farmers. only 150/0 of farmers attain the required yield per unity area for maize crop, 4% for paddy crop and no any farmers attain require yield per acre for sorghum crop.

32 4.3 Yield utilization pattern

Most of farm produce used for household consumption, others they sell at urban market about 56%. The average income from sale is between 30,000/= to 50,000/= T.sh which they spend for family needs for example clothing, buying utensils, uniform for students, for medications

C Ic,.

Table 9: Yield utilization Average % age of Amount sold % age of Sold at % age of income respondent respondents respondents Less than Less than 3

10,000 - bags 11 Loan 28 10,000- 30,000 23 3 5 bags 26 Urban 56 market

30,000 —50,000 38 5 — 7 bags 33 Farm 2 gate Above 50,000 39 Above? bag 20 Road 14 side Sourcc Field ~flidv

It was observed that due to large number of livestock over the carrying capacity causes soil erosion and this affect agriculture production by causing land degradation as when animals are grazed (mainly farmers use free range system) on land it loosens soils by trampling, soils taken by agents that is wind and water leaving a bare land and sometimes removal of trees and an~ other soil coverage. Thcrelbre the land loses its ~alue hence low producti~ it~.

33 Table 10: Number of animals by type Cattle 1431 Goat 698 Sheep 365 Source: Field study

4.4 Production constraints

Concerning production constraints it was observed that people experienced soil erosion in their areas but still practicing bad cultivation methods of crop production farmers continue cultivating without fertilizer application and cultivating along slopes. According to response by respondents management practices and technologies in soil conservation done by community members in Maswa district done by few farmers in the district, for example measures taken to solve soil erosion problem for example ridging was 6~Y0, contour structure 1 1%, fertilizer application 6%, planting trees 44% and 33% were not doing anything to conserve soils and water. The amount of fertilizers applied was not enough for optimum production 36% of respondents not applied any type of fertilizer.

The effects of soil erosion in promoting agriculture production is that when most topsoil is removed due to natural, animal, and human activity (over grazing, over cultivation) results in land infertility and it leads to desertification and devastating flooding. It is estimated that 20 percent of the world’s topsoil was lost during 1950-1990, and its loss is continuing at a faster rate.

Access to extension services by community members observed that was good (92% of respondents) but lack practical work to apply soil conservation practices to increase production.

34 Table 11: Response of responded to key issues concerning soil and water conservation in promoting agriculture production. Grazing systems Free range 24 Control grazing 4 Soil erosion experience Yes 69 No 31 Measures to solve soil erosion No any 33 problems Ridging 6 Contour structure 1 1 Planting trees 44 Fertilizer use 6 Types of fertilizer used Farm yard manure 40 Industrial fertilizers 1 0 None 36 Green manure 14 Access to extension services Yes 92 No 8 Source: Field study

Crop yield per acre reduced as compared to actual estimated yield under well conserved land resulting to food insecurity (people have not access to enough food for an active and health life at all times.) to community members by 58%, only 38% can afford to take meals thrice a day.

35 Table 12: Crop yield attainment by respondent CROP YIELD PER ACRE/KG Percentage Maize 20,000 -25,000 15 15,000-19,000 40 Below 10,000 44 Cotton 1,000 -15,000 18

5,000 - 9,000 46 Below 5,000 36

Sorghum 20,000 -25,000 — 15,000 19,000 31 Below 10,000 69

~ ~u~aiocs 20,000 - 25,000 23

15,000 - 19,000 77 Below 10,000 Paddy(Rice) 20,000 -25,000 4 15,000 -19,000 74 Below 10,000 28 Source: Field study

4.5 House hold food security information According to food security on table 13, it was observed that few number of household afford having enough food throughout the year and manage to take thrice meals per day for about 23%. About 25% of farmers have irregular meals and the copping strategies to household food security is insuring household food security by work for food 50% of farmers use this strategy. however34% of farmers sell house resources like cattle, land and others as another strategy.

36 Tablel3: Household food security information No. of H/H having enough food Number of respondents Percentage throughout a year Meal per day

- Twice 52 52

- Thrice 23 23

- Irregular 25 25 Copping strategies to household food security.

- Selling house resources 34 34

- Work forfood 50 50

- Loan 16 16

Source: Field study

37 CHAPTER FIVE EXCCUTIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATIONS

5.1 Executive summary

Back ground According to year 2002 population and housing census, there were 304,402 (157,759 female and 146,643 males) people in the District with a growth rate of 2.3%. The population in the year 2010 was estimated to be 418,091 people and an average of 98 people per square kilometer.

Maswa is among the districts in Shinyanga region Tanzania which experience environmental degradation in corm of soil erosion. This ending up with food shortage as fertility decline because soils has been washed out through water erosion.

Problem statement The hilly areas in many slopes in many farms in Maswa district have been cultivated or cleared of their natural vegetation with fewer planted trees hence experienced soil erosion and declining soil fertility, which all together have great environmental implications. Factors such as the growing population of the area, bad agricultural practices, lack of suitable soil conservation measures and poverty are claimed to be the core sources environmental degradation in Maswa district, The problem investigated by the researcher in this study was poor management practices of soil conservation in Maswa district and to suggest a better way of increasing sustainable soil use and crop production.

Objectives The overall objective of the study was to find out the impacts of soil conservation practices in promoting agriculture production in Maswa district. Specific objectives was to find out the effects of soil erosion on Agriculture production and to determine the efforts done by Maswa district council in trying to promote soil conservation and enhance Agriculture production in Maswa district.

38 Scope and location of the study area

The area of study was Maswa District which is one of the seven districts in Shinyanga Region. The District lies between the latitudes 2.45° and 3.15° South of the Equator and between the It is bordered by Meatu District in the East, Bariadi in the North and Northwest, Kishapu in the South and Southwest and Kwimba District in the West. Longitude is 33° and 34.1° East of the Greenwich Meridian. The altitude of the District lies between 1200m and 1300m above sea level.

Significance of the study The findings of this research will be useful in providing necessary information for the policy formulation by stake holders, specifically the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania with the regard to extreme poverty and hunger alleviation and improve living standards of community members.

It will help local communities to practice good methods of land conservation and management to improve Agricultural productions and to enable local communities to overcome the challenges which hinder agricultural productions due to soil erosion.

More on the socio-economic issues (gender, land size and ownership, culture, income) of the target rural farmers, emphasizing what to do to meet their daily needs for food, income, shelter and as such research must be increasingly relevant to the intended beneficiaries. Furthermore this research can be used to guide further research in Maswa district.

Reviewed literature Reviewed literature suggests that Farm planning means planning and dividing a farm into homestead and fields so as to obtain the best use from the land and it embraces arable areas, pastures, tree plantations, homestead, roads, water supply, drainage and physical soil conservation measures in most cases of farm planning. It also suggest to practice soil conservation practices that is use of contour structure, ridging and listing, use of green manure, use of compost, strip cropping, crop rotations and others

39 Decline in fertility of any area of land may be as much, or more, due to the loss of plant nutrients through the erosion process, accompanied by other unfavorable changes in soil physical conditions, as the removal of nutrients in harvested crops. As the cycle of erosion proceeds, the decline in land fertility is followed by poorer protection by plant cover of the soil surface from raindrop impact, the development of less permeable conditions at the soil surface, and a higher ratio of run-off to infiltration, which itself loads to flash-floods and further erosion. If a higher proportion of water than before runs off the land after rainstorms, underground water supplies will not be replenished as quickly as before, and a further observed effect of land degradation is the drying up of wells and streams in the dry weather.

Community member in Maswa district have low formal education level Most of them have primary education, only 4% have advanced level of education hence lack enough skills in soil conservation practices. Females are not involved in decision making concerning conservation practices, only 27% of female respondents involved in the study.

Livestock keepers keep large number of livestock over the carrying capacity causes soil erosion and this affect agriculture production by causing land degradation. Concerning production constraints it was observed that people experienced soil erosion in their areas but still practicing bad cultivation methods of crop production. Crop yield per acre reduced as compared to actual estimated yield under well conserved land resulting to food insecurity, people have not access to enough food for an active and health life at all times

Main method used The researcher used face to face interviews using questionnaires and interview informant guides, observations and computer Microsoft world excel to correct data and transform it into information respectively. The raw data was arranged and coded to eliminate errors before analysis and discussion was done.

40 5.2 Conclusions

The soil conservation measures has proven that conserving can be the most effective ways in the management and protection of soils to control erosion hence ensures house hold food security. Proper dissemination of the knowledge in conservation particularly in improving slopes in mountains will have a significant impact in agriculture production and sustainability. Therefore farmers can alleviate hunger hazards by increasing production of food per unit area. By increasing food availability Maswa community members will increase their income by selling excess produce hence improve living standard. Soil management practices are very important in fertility improvement and development of soil. ThereFore farmers who engage in conservation techniques should be emphasized in adopting these management practices in order to increase their crop productivity in general.

According to research based outcome the main source of income by community member in Maswa district observed that is farming especially crop production and animal rearing being mixed cropping by 53%. Livestock keeper’s age rank is between 50 to 70 years old having low formal education level hence lack enough skills in soil conservation practices. They usually keep large herds instead of having few and productive one ending by causing soil erosion because the district having not enough land for grazing as compared to the number of livestock.

People experienced soil erosion in their areas, this is due to bad cultivation methods of crop production (human activities) that is continuous cultivation without fertilizer application, cultivating along slopes, cutting down tree and any other human activities and access to extension services by community members is good but lacking practical work in applying soil conservation practices to increase production per unit area. This is due to farmer’s attitude; most of them are very reluctant to use methods of soil conservation practices.

Females are not much involved in decision making concerning conservation practices; they are followers what men’s says. Measures taken to solve soil erosion problem is minimal in the district, in spite of being aware with effects of soil erosion people do not apply any measures

41 to overcome this problem. Yield per unit area is low, only 15% of respondent attain the actual yield estimated for maize production.

53 RecommendatIons

£3.1 Demographic characteristics ofrespondents

I recommend involvement of females to be included in participatin& contributing and decision making in any study simply because women are back bone of all activities including soil conservation aspects. I also recommend that women must be given priority~ empowered through seminars workshops, trainings and given chance to be selected as leaders. This will help them to build confidence and being free to participate in decision making especially in soil conservation practices Increased educational efforts and financial incentives are needed to implement both currently acceptable and newly generated technologies to reduce soil erosion and sediment transport. Given the current agricultural economy, it is unreasonable to expect producers alone to bear the risk and financial burdens of implementing new and sometimes costly practices. Partners have to be trained using Training and Visit method (T&V), advised to use manures and fertilizers, use of contours or terraces and plant cover crops, use of soil conserving and erosion control uees especially nitrogen fixation.

£3.2 Patient ofland use

Many countries are undei~oing a process of profound social transformation; a reiiew and restructuring or the entire system of ownership rights is, in the majority of cases, essential to the accomplishment of new national objectives. Past patterns of ownership rights should be transformed to match the changing needs of society and be collectively beneficial. I recommend special attention should be paid to:

42 Redefinition of legal ownership including the rights of women and disadvantaged groups and usage rights for a variety of purposes, Promoting land reform measures to bring ownership rights into conformity with the present and future needs of society;

Clear definition of public objectives and private ownership rights and duties which may vary with time and place, Also transitional arrangements to change ownership from traditional and customary patterns to new systems, especially in connation with communal lands, whenever such patterns are no longer appropriate;

Methods for the separation of land ownership rights from development rights, the latter to be entrusted to a public authority and adoption or policies for long-term leasing or land, the land rights of indigenous peoples so that their cultural and historical heritage is preserved. New programs are needed to reward good stewards of the land who are already using soil conservation practices, in order that those practices are maintained rather than only addressing new problems and problem areas, special efforts are needed to maintain the progress already made toward a sustainable. The district council and their departments need to increase their support for soil erosion research. Research support has been dwindling at a time when new erosion and related problems need to be addressed to maintain an affordable, abundant, safe, and secure food supply.

5.3.3 Yield iitili~atioii patterli

I recommend monitoring about yield utilization and pattern influence the behavior of consumers, and what further action is needed to change their diets (and lifestyles) towards more healthy patterns. The implications for agriculture and livestock will have to be assessed and action taken to deal with potential future demands of an increasing and more affluent population. To meet the specified levels of consumption, new strategies may need to be developed. For example, a realistic approach to the implementation of the recommendation concerning high average intake of food crops, requires attention to be paid to crucial matters such as where would the large quantities needed be produced, how can the infrastructure be

43 developed to permit trade in these perishable products, and would large-scale production of horticultural products be sustainable, Information on food consumption has hitherto been obtained from national Food Balance Sheet data. In order to better understand the relationship between food consumption patterns, diets and the emergence of no communicable diseases, it is crucial to obtain more reliable information on actual food consumption patterns and trends based on representative consumption surveys.

The impact that agricultural policies particularly subsidies, have on the structure of production, processing and marketing systems and ultimately on the availability of foods that support healthy food consumption patterns should not be overlooked. Farmers should be trained to initiate other business for example gardening, poultry keeping and other activities aimed at increasing their income. The government through Ministry of Agriculture should intensify and spread projects around Maswa district since Agriculture projects have proven to be significant and of great benefit to the farmers’ welfare as more farmers should be encouraged to join and get involved in the projects.

5.3.4 Production constraints

Existing role for rural development policy to address soil conservation needs and challenges should at least be continued into the future and Soil Framework Directive should be adopted to provide the essential targeted national wide policy framework while leaving enough flexibility to allow for regional and district implementation. Soil conservation objectives should also be included more explicitly in the Rural Development Strategic Guidelines and proper investment in indicators and monitoring would allow better future evaluation of the impact of any soil conservation measures adopted.

More training and awareness on improving slopes along mountains and how to control soil erosion practices should be provide to the farmers in order to increase production of food

44 crops for the purpose of ensuring house hold food security among community members throughout the season.

I recommend the Maswa district council to put into priorities research activities so as to release fund for research early as this will enhance to accomplish the study at a stated time flame and escape failures due to weather condition, interferences with other programs and other factors. Also farmers should be educated to acquire skills and knowledge on soil erosion through farmer to farmer extension (FFE) whereby a group of farmers visit another group for the aim of studying a selected skill, use of demonstration plots, the use of farmers field schools (FFS) It was observed that access to extension services by community members is good but lacking practical work in applying soil conservation practices to increase production per unit area.

Farmers should be educated and trained on modern production practices using less scientific and technical knowledge to ensure their understanding without compromising the content of the material. Indigenous knowledge on traditional methods of improving slopes along mountains should be incorporated within the practices being introduced as new technology so that comn-nmity members in Maswa district should be able to adopt hence eroded areas will be improved. Farmers have to be trained using Training and Visit method (T&V), advised to use manures and fi~rtilizers, use of contours or terraces and plant cover crops, use of soil conserving and erosion control trees especially nitrogen fixation.

5.5.5 House holdfood security information

A whole new set of government projects has taken innovative approaches to improving women’s roles as gatekeepers of food security. I recommend that Maswa district council should provide an integrated package of health, nutrition, and educational services to poor families and directs monetary transfers directly to women Experiences from the past 15 years suggest that mainstream. Gender~sensitive projects are the best way to meet women’s needs and improve their socioeconomic status. Projects should be designed to benefit women by enhancing their productivity and earnings alongside those of men. A review of 271 World

45 Bank projects by shows that when projects address the needs of both men and women their sust~insbility increases by 16 percent Project planners and policymakers need to shift their attention from the important question of how to help women to the central question of how to help men and women.

46 REFERENCES

Arthur T. Hubbard, Encyclopedia of Surfhce and Colloid Science Vol 3, Santa Barbara, California Science Project Marcel Dekker, New York (2004) ISBN 0-8247-0759-1

ARIU (2006) Effects of impaired water bodies in Maswa district Tam2nia East Africa.

B.O. Vanlauwe, C. Nwoke, J. Diels, N. Sanginga, R. J. Carsky, J. Deckers, and R. Merckx, Utilization of rock phosphate by crops on a representative topo-sequence in the Northern Guinea savanna zone of Nigeria: response by Mucuna pruriens, Lablab purpureus and maize, Soil Biology & Biochemistry 32:2063-2077. (2000)

Bruinsma J, ed. World agriculture: towards 2015/2030. An FAO perspective Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/London, Earthscan, 2003

Chernick, S.. Horenstein, N.R and Soito K (1990) House Food security and the role of women World Bank disèussion paper no. 96. The World Bank, Washington.

Christoi (1966) The decrease run off in contour cultivation Erick L.H

Doran, J.W, D.C. Coleman, D.F. Bezdicek, and B.A. Stewart (eds) (1994). Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment SSSA Special Publication number 35

FAO (1999) Integrated soil Management for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security in Southern and Eastern Africa (Proceeding of the Expert Consultation) Harare, Zimbabwe, 1997, Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations, Rome

Gachene CKK et al (1997) Soil erosion effects on soil properties in a highland area of central Kenya Soil Science Soc. Am J. 61,559— SM Gittinger, J.P., Chernick, S., Horenstein, N.R., and Soito K., (1990). House 4.Gittinger, J.P.,

47 Guo X et al. Structural change in the impact of income on food consumption in China 1989- 1993. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 2000, 48:737-760

Food security and the role of wornen.World Bank discussion paper no. 96. The World Bank, Washington.

Harrison (1987)

Kanyanjua S.M. and G. Thuranira (1998) Effects of fertilizer inputs on maize yields and chemical properties of selected Acrisols in Kenya. In Proceedings of the 16th Conference of

Soil Science Society of East Africa 13th — 18th December, 1988 Tanga, Tanzania

Khisa et al (2002). The effect of post harvest crop cover on soil erosion in a maize-legume based cropping system in Gatanga, Kenya. Journal of Agriculture in the Tropics and Subtropics, Vol 103, pp 17-28.

Land-use Planning Manual (Land-use planning and physical conservation) Published in Malawi.

Maswa meteology center data, 2000.

Ministry of agriculture and livestock development (1988) Main land Tanzania Food situation Occasional paper Food strategy Unit Dar- Cs- salaam.

Watkins Y.C. Teasdale J.R and Abdul-Baki A Cover crops in sustainable food production, Food Reviews International 16:121-157 (2000)

Winston LC and Lipsomb JF, (1973) The history of Kenya agriculture University Press of Africa, Nairobi, Kenya, 74 pp.

48 APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 INTRODUCTORY LETTER

MASWA DISTRICT COUNC~L

Telegrams: ~MSW” S.LP 170, Telephone: ± 028 2750271 MASWA, Fox: ± 028 2750376 SHINYANGA.

E~.moB: [email protected]

Kumb. Na. MDC/TR/SS/VQLVII/448 12/05/201 1

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY P. 0. BOX 20000, KAMPALA UGANDA.

REP: APPLICATION FOR RESEARCH PROJECT

Refer to the heading above.

With reference to your letter dated O2ndMay,201 I ,concerning the application for research project in our organization for your student iscock E. Singu. lam happy to inform you that the Local government has accepted your request and that is ready to accept him to conciuci research on Role of Soil conservation in promoting Agriculture production in Maswa District research during that specified period.

The student will perform his duties in Agriculture and Live S[ock department under supervision of District Agricultural and Live Stock Development Officer (DALDO).

With regards

~ :/ ,-~-, IC~Tc~ ~ I B.S.Ntabagi For: District Executive DirecTor MASWA DISTRICT COUNCIL. s~QUNCIL f~C7f~ ST~y cotu~c~ APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAERES

TOPIC: THE ROLE OF SOIL CONSERVATION IN PROMOTING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN MASWA DISTRICT, SHINYANGA- TANZANIA Village Ward Division District

Dear respondent, I am Singu Isaack Elias from Kampala International University Uganda. I am conducting an academic research on soil conservation roles in promoting agriculture production in this district. I humbly request your indulgence in answering these questions to enable me get information on this research study. Any work given to me shall he treated with high levels of confidentiality and be used only for academic requirements.

HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS, FARM SIZE AND LAND ALLOCATION PATTERN Al. Demographic characteristics

Date of interview ... I. Sex of respondent: (a) Male (b) Female (Tick 2. Age of respondent in years (Years) 3. Occupation of respondent

4. Marital status - 5. Level of education 6. Number of people living in the household 7. What is the main source of income/ activity

8. If farming, please specify the type: (a Animal rearing on a small scale (b Nomadic pastorism

50 (c Crop farming Explain 9. In case you rear animals! livestock, then answer the question 10 to 12. 10. Type and number of animals: Type Number

11. How do you graze your Livestock? (a) Zero grazing (b) Free range grazing (c) Controlled Grazing 12. Where do you graze your livestock? (a) In my plot (b) Communal grazing plot (c) in any plot

A2. PATTERN OF LAND TENURE 13. Do you possess a farm’? (a) Yes (b) No

14. If yes what is the farm size (a) < 1 Acre (b) 1 — 3 Acres (c) 3-5 Acres (d) =>5 Acres 15. What other land use practices do you carry out on the rest of the land?

16. Which type of crops do you grow9

17. For each crop mentioned above how much you produce per hectare?

18. When did you start growing crops in a steep area Year) 19. Are you growing tape root crops (a) Yes (b) No 20. When did you start growing tape roots (Indicate year) 21 Cropping systems: (a) Mixed cropping (b) Relay cropping (c) Crop rotation (d) Mono cropping.

51 B. YIELD ANI) UTILIZATION PATTERN 22. Farm produce is sold at: (a) Loan market (b) Urban market (c) Farm gate (d) Road side (e) Others (Specify) 23. Access of sellers/ buyers to your produce: (a) Yourself(b) from other farmers. 24. Forms in which produce is sold: (a) as fresh storage for root crops (b) In processed forms. 25. If processed in what type of processing

26. What is an average income from crop sales (T.shs.) (a) > 10,000 (b) 10,000 — 30,000 (c)

30,000 — 50,000 (e) 50,000? 27. How do you spend money obtained from crop produce sales? RODUCTION CONSTRAINTS 28. Do you experience soil erosion in your area (a) Yes (b) No 29. Which measures do you take to solve the problem? (a) To plant trees (b) To plant cover crops (c) To construct contours (d) To use fertilizers (e Others specify 30. Do you use lertilizers in crop cultivation’? (a) Yes (b) No 3 1. If yes what type of fertilizers used (a) Green manure (b) Farm Yard manure (c) Industrial fertilizers or (d) Mixture? 32 What rates ol’ fertilizers are applied per acre9 Where do you obtain fertilizers used in production? (a) Local retail shop (b) Agro vet shops (c) Local market (d) Cooperatives (e) From other farmers 33. Are the amounts applied enough for optimal production? (a) Yes (b) No 34. If no what are the strategies to increase fertilizer application 35, Do you have an access to extension services? (a) Yes (b) No 36. If yes how often annually? (a) One (b) twice (c) More than twice (d) as the need rises 37. How do you rank environmental situation in your village’? (a)Poor (b) Fair (c) Good. 38. How do you rank environmental situation in your house? (a)P~or (b) Rtir (~) Good

52 D: HOUSE HOLD FOOD SECURITY INFORMATION. 39 Does your crop harvests/income sustain the house hold to the next harvest? (a)Yes (b) No. 40. How many meals does your family consume per day? (a) Once (b) Twice (c) Thrice (d) Irregular 41. What are the cropping strategies for your house hold food security? (a) Selling of house hold resources (b)Work for food (c) Others... specify Thank you for your cooperation.

53 APPENDIX 3 INTERVIEW GUIDE

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS~ CBOs, NGOs STAFFS AND DEVELOPMENT PARTINERS

Dear respondent, I am Singu Isaack Elias from Kampala International University Uganda. I am conducting an academic research on soil conservation roles in promoting agriculture production in this district. I humbly request your indulgence in answering these questions to enable me get information on this research study. Any work given to me shall be treated with high levels of confidentiality and be used only for academic requirements.

A. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA. 1. Name of the officer 2. Title! office 3. Education level (a Secondary (b Primary (c Tertiary 4. Age 5. Gender of the respondent (a Male (b Female

B. ACTIVITIES DONE IN SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES 5. Do you knou what Agriculture department do’~ 6. If yes what does this department do in soil conservation measures?

7. Do you think they are doing a good work in fighting against declines in soil productivity in this area’? 8. If yes why’? 9. If no why’?

54 10. Do you think effort done by the leaders have put more in any efforts to solve problems of the farmers in this district9 II. If yes how? 12. If no why9

C. EFFECTIVENESS OF ACTIVITIES TO SOLVE SOIL EROSION! MPROVE FERTILITY. 13. What are the major ways of fighting against soil erosion done by Agriculture department in your area? 14. Do you think those ways employed are reliable 15. If yes state how

16 11 HOt sLaW.

15. What would you want agriculture department to do in conserving soils in your area

D. CHALLENGES MET BY GOVERNMENT IN PROMOTING SOIL CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES 16. What are the likely challenges you experience in practicing agriculture activities. 17. What are the possible solutions used in used in solving these problems

1 8. Do you have any suggestions concerning these challenges.? 19. If yes state

Thank you for your cooperation.

55