AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT
Being the Commission's Report for the
Year Ended 30 June 1974 AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC
ENERGY COMMISSION AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
To the Honourable R. F. X. Connor, M.P., Minister of State for Minerals and Energy, The Minister of State for Minerals and Energy Parliament House, The Honourable R. F. X. Connor, M.P. Canberra, A.C.T.
Sir,
In accordance with Section 31 of the Atomic Energy Act, Members of the Commission During the Year 1973-74 1953-73, we submit the Twenty-second Annual Report of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, covering the Commission's operations for the financial year ended 30 June 1974. Chairman Financial accounts for the year, with a report on the accounts R. W. Boswell, O.B.E., M.Sc. by the Auditor-General as required by the Act, are appended to the report. A statement of the Commission's capital assets as at 30 June
Deputy Chairman 1974 is also appended to the accounts.
R. G. Ward, MA, Ph.D.(Cantab.) Yours faithfully, Members R. W. BOSWELL, Chairman. K. F. Alder, M.Sc., F.I.M. R. G. WARD, Deputy Chairman. Sir Lenox Hewitt, O.B.E., B.Com., F.A.S.A., A.C.I.S., L.C.A. K. F. ALDER, Member. C. L. HEWITT, Member. Secretary
W. B. Lynch, B.A. 45 Beach Street, Coogee, N.S.W. 2034. 23 August 1974 Contents
INTRODUCTION 9 Nuclear Energy 9 Uranium Resources . 10 Commission Program 11 Organisation 11
ADVISORY COMMITTEES 2 THE ROLE OF NUCLEAR POWER AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE 12 Energy Resources and Their Availability 12 Established Nuclear Power Systems 13 Appointed under Section 20 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1953-73 Table of World Nuclear Power Stations 14 Recent Developments .. .. 15 Delays in Commissioning Plant . . 15 Safety Review Committee Regulation and Safety of Nuclear Energy 16 Regulatory Studies . .. . ]6 Professor Sir Sydney Sunderland, C.M.G., M.D., B.S., D.Sc., F.R.A.C.P., Safety Research .... . 16 F.R.A.C.S., F.A.A., Chairman. Overseas Developments ...... 18 Future Nuclear Power Systems 18 Dr C. J. Cummins, M.B., B.S., D.P.H. High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors 19 D. J. Stevens, O.B.E., B.Sc., A.lnst.P. Fast Breeder Reactors 19 Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion .. 19
Function: To review periodically the health and safety standards and procedures adopted 3 URANIUM 21 by the Commission in the operation of its World Demand and Supply Position . . .21 reactors and in the use of radiation, radioactive National Programs ... 25 substances, and toxic materials. Australian Situation ...... 26 Exploration and Development in Australia 27 Bureau of Mineral Resources ...... 27 Company Activities 28 Health and Safety in Mining and Milling Radioactive Ores . .... 30 Environmental Studies in the Northern Territory 31 Atomic Energy Advisory Committee 4 URANIUM FUEL CYCLE 32 A. W. B. Coady, C.M.G., B.A., B.Ec. Introduction to the Fuel Cycle 32 Sir Willis Connolly, C.B.E., B.E.E., B.Com., M.l.E.Aust. Uranium Hexafluoride ... . 33 Professor M. C. Kemp, B.Com., M.A., Ph.D. Uranium Enrichment .. ... 34 Nuclear Reactor Fuels 34 Sir John Phillips, K.B.E., B.Ec. Reprocessing and Recycling Power Reactor Fuel 34 Professor J. W. Roderick, M.A.(Camb.), M.Sc., Ph.D.(Bristol), F.A.A., Treatment, Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Wastes 36 M.l.Struct.E., M.I.C.E., A.F.R.Ae.S., M.I.E.Aust., M.A.S.C.E. 5 URANIUM ENRICHMENT 38 R. A. Simpson, B.E., F.S.A.S.M., M.I.E.Aust. World Requirements for Enrichment 38 Professor R. Street, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.(Lond.) Present Supply of Enrichment 39 Future Supply 39 L. W. Wcickhardt, M.Sc., F.R.A.C.I., F.A.I.M. World Supply-Demand Balance 40 Competitive Technologies — Current Status 42 Australian Domestic Requirements for Enrichment 44 Function: To advise the Commission on scientific, industrial and economic matters Association for Centrifuge Enrichment 44 relating to atomic energy research and Australian Centrifuge Enrichment Development 45 development. Other Enrichment Methods . 45 Contents Contents
RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION 46 9 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND SAFEGUARDS 87 Radioisotope Applications 46 International Atomic Energy Agency 87 Mineral Industry 46 OECD Nuclear Energy Agency 88 Hydrology 47 International Agreements for Co-operation 90 Radioisotopes in Industry 50 Colombo Plan 90 Radiation Research and Applications 52 Safeguards . 90 Radiation Sterilisation 52 Radiation Measurement 52 10 GENERAL 92 Radiation Polymerisation 54 Legislation 92 Radiobiology of Human Cancer 55 Senior Stall Changes . 92 Radioisotope Production and Services 55 Stafl' Numbers . ... 93 Production and Distribution . ... 55 Information Services .. 93 Radiopharmaceutical Research and Development 58 Safety Review Committee 94 Radiation Sources Research and Development . 61 Medical-Health Survey . . 95 Acknowledgments .. . .. 62 Overseas Visits . 95 Attachments 96 7 GENERAL NUCLEAR SCIENCE . 63 Distinguished Visitors to the Commission 96 Nuclear Science ... . . 63 Finance . 96 Chemistry of the Actinides 63 Radiation Cytogenetics 64 APPENDICES Oxidation of Uranium Dioxide Fuel Pellets During Hydrogen A Auditor-General's Report 99 Sintering 65 B Financial Accounts 100 Neutron Emission from Individual Fission Fragments 66 C Organisation of Commission 102 Fission Product Yield Analysis 66 D AAEC Research Projects 105 Neutron Capture 66 E AAEC Research Contracts 106 Development of Techniques .. 66 F AINSE Research and Training Grants 107 Neutron Activation Analysis 66 G Technical Papers by Commission Staff 111 Uranium Analysis 67 Patent Applications 116 Prompt Nuclear Analysis . 67 Radiography . 69 Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 71 Acoustic Emission 71 Spark Source Mass Spectrometry 72 Patents and Exploitation 75 Extramural Research 75 Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering 75 Australian School of Nuclear Technology 77
8 RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OPERATIONS AND SERVICES 78 Site Management 78 Reactor Operations 78 Waste Management 79 Engineering Services 79 Safety 80 Administration 80 Library Services 83 Medical Service 83 Computer Services 83 Scientific Services 85 1 INTRODUCTION
NUCLEAR ENERGY Relatively few countries of the world possess reserves of fossil fuels adequate and suitable for their own requirements, and quite a number have become largely dependent on foreign supplies. Prices of imported fossil fuels, particularly oil, have escalated rapidly over the past 12 months and this factor, coupled with possible future shortages and interruptions to supply has caused most countries — both developing and industrialised — to review their energy policies. As a result, it can be expected that greater attention will be given to the more efficient use of energy resources, research and development of new sources of energy will be accelerated, and nuclear power stations will provide an increasing proportion of the total elec- trical output. Some countries already committed to nuclear power (for example France and Japan) have announced accelerated or increased programs of construc- tion while others are about to place orders for their first units. There is a renewal of interest in nuclear marine propulsion and in the use of nuclear energy for other purposes such as the provision of process heat. The current nuclear power programs of most major countries continue to lag behind schedules due to delays resulting from environmental issues, licensing pro- cedures, construction and management problems. The United States Atomic Energy Commission recently revised its forecasts for nuclear power in the USA and other countries. When compared with their previous predictions made in December 1972, the new forecasts indicate a small reduction in total world installed nuclear generating capacity over the next decade because of the delays mentioned above. However, the figures imply that there will be a continued rapid build-up beyond the 1980s, the figures increasing from between 521 and 695 thousand megawatts in 1985, to between 1,700 and 2,560 thousand megawatts in 1995, and between 2,450 and 3,950 thousand megawatts by the end of the century. A range is given for each year, the values depending on the assumptions made. The predicted build-up will only be achieved if the problems presently being experienced by the nuclear industry arc resolved satisfactorily and that there is no major down-turn in world economic growth. In contrast to many overseas countries, Australia has relatively large fossil fuel resources and docs not at present depend to any significant extent on imported fuel oil for power generation purposes. Consequently, Australia is not under the COMMISSION PROGRAM same pressure as these other countries to exploit nuclear power. The Commission and State generating authorities have continued to review and compare the merits of nuclear and fossil-fuelled stations. It is not expected that nuclear power will play The present Commission , rogram places emphasis in the following areas: a major role in Australia until the 1990s. Nuclear Power, assessment of the potential contribution and the overall implications Comparisons between nuclear and conventional stations at the present time of nuclear power in the co-ordinated development of Australia's resources. arc difficult to assess because of economic and environmental issues. It is difficult Safety and the Environment: establishment of adequate arrangements for safety to determine the effects of inflation and possible changes in currency exchange and assessment, licensing and regulation of all nuclear facilities to control any potential interest rates on plant capital and fuel costs. A further complication is that there hazards to health and the environment; the long-term management and disposal of are at present no clearly defined Australian standards in respect to siting, safety radioactive wastes. and environmental matters for cither nuclear or fossil-fuelled power plants. Uranium and Nuclear Fuel: the development of uranium resources; consideration The Commission, in collaboration with the major State generating authorities, of the desirable extent and timing of uranium processing, including enrichment; the is engaged in the development of suitable licensing and regulatory procedures in development of a technical base on which Australia can establish its own uranium relation to nuclear power plants. In addition, the Commission is developing safety enrichment technology. criteria and standards. Radioisolopes and Radiation: to continue to produce radioisotopes, particularly to meet the rapidly expanding demand in Australia for radioactive Pharmaceuticals URANIUM RESOURCES for nuclear medicine and to explore further the benefits to be achieved by the application of radioisotopes and radiation in diagnostic and therapeutic medicine The world's reasonably assured uranium reserves, excluding the USSR, China and in industry. and certain east European countries for which no figures are available, have been International Relations: to assist in matters connected with the obligations arising estimated at 926,000 tonnes of uranium recoverable in the, price range of up to out of the Non-Proliferation Treaty and membership of the International Atomic US$10 per pound uranium oxide. A further 709,000 tonne uranium is estimated Energy Agency, and to implement adequate safeguards procedures. as reasonably assured resources if the recovery price range is increased to US$15 per pound uranium oxide, it is likely that additional resources in the order of 1.5 million tonnes could occur in unexplored extensions of known uranium- ORGANISATION bearing areas. In February 1974, the Commission made significant changes in its research and Uranium requirements for the Western World are estimated to be of the order administrative organisation. The basic structure is illustrated below and an expanded of 185,000 tonnes annually by 1990, increasing to about 285,000 tonnes a year by listing is given at Appendix C. The organisational lines are based on the main fields the end of the century. Cumulative requirements to 2000 seem likely to exceed of Commission interest grouped under three Branches — Administration, four million tonne uranium. The reasonably assured uranium resources recoverable Regulatory and External Relations, and Nuclear Science and Technology. at up to US$15 per pound uranium oxide, together with additional estimated Within the Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, new positions of Pro- resources, fall short of this figure by about one million tonnes. Obviously, new and gram Managers have been created which carry responsibility for co-ordination and significant uranium deposits will need to be found and developed by the mid-1980s. management of all activities within a field — Power and Energy, Uranium Fuel Existing facilities throughout the world for the large-scale implementation of Cycle and Nuclear Science and Applications. With the help of planning and review all steps in the fuel cycle — from mining and milling of uranium, to uranium units, the Program Managers assist in forward planning and contract research and enrichment, fuel fabrication, and fuel reprocessing — will be completely committed assessment projects to the professional research and project divisions in accord with by about the end of this decade. Since the lead time for construction of new plants the Commission's overall program. could be as much as ten years, the predicted future nuclear power program cannot be met unless action is taken over the next few years to provide large-scale industrial fuel-cycle facilities. COMMISSION ORGANISATION Australia's reasonably assured reserves recoverable at up to US$10 per pound CHAIRMAN uranium oxide now stand at 130,000 tonne contained uranium, equal to 14% of the non-Communist world's estimated resources in the same cost range. In addition, SPECIAL STUDIES UNIT - Australia has reasonably assured resources estimated at 58,000 tonne uranium in ADMINISTRATION the recovery range of US$10-15 per pound uranium oxide — approximately 8% NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND REGULATORY AND EXTERNAL BRANCH of the non-Communist world's resources in this category. TECHNOLOGY BRANCH RELATIONS BRANCH Any Australian demand for uranium for nuclear power generation appears unlikely before 1985, but between 1985 and 2000, local consumption could total (RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT) some 30,000 tonne uranium with a further 45,000 tonne uranium needed to fuel SITE - RESEARCH AND : PROGRAM installed reactors over their economic lifetime. On present resources, commitments MANAGEMENT PROJECT DIVISIONS MANAGEMENT at this scale would allow Australia to make substantial exports. I I
10 11 1973 oil prices. However, when the findings were reviewed in early 1974 using $6 per barrel for oil, it was found that nuclear power could prove economical even at the lower end of this power range. Although these findings would not apply to all countries, they do indicate prospects for smaller stations than now available commercially. An appreciable demand in the range 200-400 MW could produce systems of considerable interest to some Australian State power authorities. Fossil fuel (mainly coal) will, however, continue to be Australia's main energy source for power generation. 2 The acceptability of nuclear energy as a major future energy resource will depend on two other factors besides economics and the availability of uranium. These are: €> Continued demonstration by the nuclear industry that plants can be operated THE ROLE OF NUCLEAR POWER safely and reliably under well-defined regulations so that any effects on the environment and public health are kept below prescribed limits. AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE • The establishment of acceptable procedures for the long term management of radioactive waste products.
ESTABLISHED NUCLEAR POWER SYSTEMS ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR AVAILABILITY At 30 June 1974, 148 nuclear power stations capable of generating in excess of 56,600 MW were in operation in 19 countries. In addition, about 313 units, Events over the past twelve months — in particular the enormous jump in totalling about 282,000 MW. were under construction or otherwise committed. world oil prices, the temporary cut-back in Arab oil supplies, the embargoes This represents a net increase over last year's figures of 68 units or 72,750 MW. imposed on the USA and the Netherlands, and the numerous threats by Middle As in previous years, the major proportion of new orders was for light-water reactors East oil producers to limit and even curtail future production — have resulted in (LWRs) i.e., pressurised water reactors (PWRs) and boiling water reactors (BWRs). most countries taking a much closer look at nuclear power and its role in meeting The United States Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC) recently updated its their future energy needs. This applies not only to the major industrialised nations, forecasts of nuclear power growth in the USA and in other countries.* Four sets of some of which (e.g., France) have already announced an accelerated nuclear estimates are given for the USA, based on different assumptions (e.g., rate of program, but also to the developing countries, some of which are about to embark increase in per capita electricity consumption, construction delays due to regulatory on their first projects (e.g.. the Philippines). processes, etc.). For the remaining countries of the world, including communist Apart from a general trend to accelerate nuclear power programs, increasing countries and China, three different sets of estimates are included. Table 1 sets out attention is being directed toward the use of nuclear energy for other purposes, the range of these estimates at five-yearly intervals. for example in the chemical and metallurgical industries. Some of these applica- tions, such as the use of high temperature reactors for steel production, will require TABLE I further research and development, but programs which have been under way for INSTALLED CAPACITY MW THOUSANDS some years are now receiving much greater financial support. With oil at its present high price, nuclear marine propulsion is now considered to be economic for certain Other specialised applications. Year USA Countries Total The increasing importance of nuclear generation for the future has focused 1975 43- 52 39- 47 82- 99 attention on delays and other shortcomings of the past, particularly on the need 1980 85- 112 113- 157 198- 269 for adequate, speedy and efficient licensing. Far greater attention is being given 1985 231- 275 290 - 420 521 - 695 to ensuring long-term supplies of nuclear fuel, and to the adequacy of the nuclear 1990 410- 575 640 - 900 1,050- 1,475 industry to supply not only reactors, but all components and services related to 1995 620- 960 1,080-1,600 1,700-2,560 their fuel cycles. Generating utilities need to be assured that adequate suitable fuel 2000 850- 1,400 1,600-2,550 2,450-3,950 will be available for the lifetime of plant which they may install. This is discussed The total installed capacity of nuclear power plant over the next decade or so in greater detail in later chapters. is expected now to be somewhat lower than previously predicted by the USAEC The prospects for nuclear power in 14 developing countries were examined for both the USA and on a world-wide basis. This is attributable to the continuing by the International Atomic Energy Agency and the results published in August delays and extended project schedules mentioned in previous Australian Atomic 1973. At that time, nuclear units in the 200-400 MW* range were found to be Energy Commission Annual Reports. However, the problems with which the nuclear generally uneconomical when compared with oil-fired plants on the basis of January power industry has had to contend are being slowly resolved and, from the later
f * MW = megawatts electrical throughout this Report, unless otherwise stated. • Nuclear Power Growth 1974-2000. WASH-1139(74). USAEC, February 1974.
12 13 1980s, the total installed capacity of nuclear plant in both the USA and the rest of RECENT DEVELOPMENTS the world is expected to be much the same as previously estimated. This implies an A further acceleration has been announced in France's nuclear power program. increase in the rate of ordering and construction over previous estimates. Construction of about 50 units ranging in size from 950 to 1,300 MW is planned Table 2 presents information on the number and capacity of nuclear power to start over the next six years (i.e. to 1980) with an additional 13 units over the units in operation, under construction and on order in various countries as at following five-year period. Orders have been placed already for 12 PWRs (with an 30 June 1974. Detailed information included in previous Commission Reports under option for four more to supply power for a uranium enrichment plant), and for one nuclear reactor type, name and country, has been omitted here owing 10 the exten- BWR. sive and growing nature of the list. Such information will be published from time to In addition to the expanded Canadian programs in Ontario and Quebec, as time in other Commission reports. mentioned in the Commission's last Report, New Brunswick is planning to build a two-unit station of 1,200 MW, the first unit coming into operation in 1979. Canada forecasts that 130,000 MW of nuclear plant will be operating in the country TABLE 2 within 30 years. Because of uncertainties in the future cost and availability of enriched uranium NUCLEAR POWER UNITS IN OPERATION. UNDER CONSTRUCTION OR and because of the successful operation of the Pickering Station, numerous countries ON ORDER IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES are displaying new interest in the natural uranium Canadian reactor concept. The UK Government announced that the Steam Generating Heavy-Water As at 30 June 1974 Reactor (SGHWR) had been selected for the next phase of its nuclear power program. Initially the program would be limited to orders for not more than 4,000 Iunue T |-\ f\ (^ r•- MW spread over the next four years. An order for the first 2 x 660 MW station is In Operation Construction On Order TOTAL Country expected to be placed in 1975. Taiwan is planning to build three more twin-unit nuclear plants in addition to No. MW No. MW No. MW No. MW the one already under construction. These are scheduled for completion by 1985, _ bringing the total installed capacity to 7,740 MW. Argentina 1 319 1 600 2 919 As part of a trade agreement concerning oil supplies, Iran has agreed to — Austria 1 700 — — 1 700 purchase nuclear power stations from France totalling some 5,000 MW capacity. Belgium 2 40—1 2 1,260 4 1,661 — — — This is the first stage of a proposed 20,000 MW program covering the next 20 years. Brazil — 1 626 — 1 626 Bulgaria 1 405 1 405 2 81—0 4 1,620 An agreement was also signed between France and Libya covering the exchange of Canada 7 2,536 5 3,600 13 8,600 25 14,736 French technology, including nuclear power, for Libyan oil. Czechoslovakia 1 112 2 853 2 880 5 1,845 Pakistan recently announced a new major nuclear power program. Construction . — of the first station under this program is planned to start in 1975. Finland — 3 1,500 — 3 1,500 France 11 2,95—0 6 5,490 10 9,390 27 17,830 Korea ordered its second station, a 600 MW CANDU type. Mexico also order- East Germany 2 510 1 440 6 4,400 9 5,350 ed its second station, a 600 MW BWR. Egypt, Israel, the Philippines and Thailand We.v: Germany 7 3,293 9 7,604 7 8,457 23 19,354 have indicated that they will place orders for their first nuclear stations in the near Hungary — 2 880 2 880 future. India 3 58—2 4 841 —1 23—5 8 1,658 Italy 3 547 2 835 2 2,000 7 3,382 DELAYS IN COMMISSIONING PLANT Japan 9 3,741 15 11,411 — 24 15,152 Korea — — 1 564 1 60—0 2 1,164 In the USA, delays in nuclear plant schedules range at present from five months Mexico — 2 1,308 2 1,308 to five years, with an average delay of about two years per unit. As a result, the total — — — — —. — Netherlands 2 502 — 2 502 amount of nuclear plant commissioned during the year was less than in the previous Pakistan 1 125 — . — 1 125 year. — — — 440 Poland — — — 1 1 440 More than one-third of the delay is attributed to licensing and regulatory Spain 3 1,093 6 5,440 1 902 10 7,435 changes in criteria and standards relating to safety matters, constructional details Sweden 2 1,200 8 6,149 10 7,349 Switzerland 3 1,006 2 1,795 —2 1,99—0 7 4,791 and environmental control. In many cases these changes have been imposed retro- — spectively after the granting of a construction permit. Utilities have been required Taiwan — 2 1,208 2 1,800 4 3,008 UK 29 5,590 10 6,250 39 11,840 to back-fit equipment and even redesign to meet the new conditions. The remainder USA 47 29,149 60 57,013 10—4 115,67—9 211 201,841 of the delay is attributed to shortages of experienced labour and engineering and USSR 14 2,549 12 8,240 26 10,789 technical support, late deliveries of components and inadequate quality control. Yugoslavia — — —1 60—0 1 600 Lead times in the USA from selection of a tender to commissioning now range from about nine to ten years. The problems of plant delays are not so prominent in other countries but arc TOTALS 148 56,610 158 125,012 155 156,783 461 338,405 important nevertheless. For example, in West Germany, there is a delay of some 12
14 15 months in obtaining a construction permit for a nuclear installation because of licensing requirements. It is clear that there is a need for all countries building nuclear power stations to prepare adequate safety and environmental criteria and to streamline licensing procedures before becoming involved in a large construction program. REGULATION AND SAbETY OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
REGULATORY STUDIES The collaborative study with the State Electricity Commission of Victoria on Ihc technical requirements for the licensing and regulation of nuclear power in Australia continued during the year. A report is now in preparation and should be completed in 1974. The report will contain a description of a licensing and regulatory procedure suitable for Australia, together with a detailed discussion of the studies and technical information which a utility or operator would need to provide in support of a licence application. So far the study has not dealt with the structure and organisation of a possible Above: Following irrmliation in HIFAR future Australian licensing and regulatory authority, neither has it dealt with specific reactor, zirconium alloy specimens are transferred to a remote handling cell for questions of nuclear plant safety standards and criteria. These aspects will be the examination to determine creep be- subject of further Commission studies. haviour. The present study was undertaken to provide a planning document to assist in the formulation of policy and the drafting of legislation. It was also intended to provide a guide which could be used by utilities and other organisations for planning Right: Close-up of equipment, shown through cell window in lop picture, which purposes pending introduction of appropriate licensing legislation. measures the induced strain in the speci- Since the construction period for large commercial nuclear installations is of men after irradiation. This manipulator- the order of five or six years, the planning of licensing and regulatory requirements operated in-cell microscope and coupled should begin at least ten years ahead of commissioning dates to enable sufficient time closed circuit television camera magnifies and displays lines etched on the specimen for government policy to be determined and for the drafting of appropriate surface. The distances between the etched legislation. lines are compared wii!> pre-inadiation The Commission established within its own organisation a Licensing and measurements. Regulatory Bureau consisting of a small group of engineers and scientists. In addition to carrying out planning studies, the group will undertake independent Below: Experimental rig used to irradiate safety reviews of the Commission's own activities. This will enable the group to a zirconium specimen under load in the support its studies by practical experience in regulatory procedures. reactor.
SAFETY RESEARCH The Commission attaches great importance to the need for the highest standards of safety in the nuclear energy field in both its own operations and for any future commercial nuclear energy program. A substantial fraction of its research program is therefore oriented to important safety issues. Although modest by world standards, these studies cover a wide area of interest in nuclear safety covering such areas as analysis of reactor power transients and loss of coolant accidents. Studies of some materials corrosion phenomena relevant to water-cooled reactor safety include stress-corrosion cracking of structural steels, the effect of irradiation on the corrosion of zirconium alloys in pressurised water, and the effect of deformation on the high temperature Zircaloy-steam reaction. Studies of the effect of neutron irradiation on the strength and toughness of steels, and on the creep and fatigue behaviour of zirconium alloys, are being made to characterise the reliability of such materials for use in pressure vessels and pressure tubes for water-cooled reactors.
16 17 capture an appreciable share of the market from about 1980 onwards. It may also provide a source of process heat (around 800' C) in the chemical and steel-making industries — even after FBR systems take over for electricity generation.
HIGH TEMPERATURE GAS-COOLED REACTORS At present, it is difficult to forecast with any confidence the extent to which the HTGR will penetrate commercially. In 1973, Gulf Oil Corporation and the Royal Dutch Shell Group established the General Atomic Company (GA) as a joint partnership to handle interest in HTGR systems. The 330 MW prototype HTGR at Fort St Vrain, built by Gulf Oil in association with certain power utilities and the USAEC, has received its full-power operating licence and is being commissioned. The new company, General Atomic, has signed an agreement with the American Power Company for a collaborative study of a standardised line of 1,500 MW HTGR plant. The higher efficiency of the HTGR system will provide this generating capacity without exceeding the size limit of 3,800 MW thermal imposed by the USAEC. GA is undertaking a further program to develop an HTGR closed-cycle gas turbine system.
FAST BREEDER REACTORS Developments in the fast reactor field were highlighted by the commissioning of the French 250 MW prototype FBR, "Phenix". Coupling to the electricity grid An ellipso/neter used by the Chemical Technology Division in corrosion studies to measure took place in December 1973 and full-power operation in March 1974. Criticality the thickness ami nature of thin films on metal surfaces. was achieved in the UK 250 MW prototype, PFR, in March 1974. A team from French, German and Italian electricity utilities is considering the construction of a commercial-sized 1,200 MW station ("Super-Phenix") after one year's full operation of "Phenix". In the USA, an FBR research and development program has been in progress OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENTS for many years based on co-operation between the USAEC and industry. Experi- The Commission maintains a continuing survey on developments overseas in mental test facilities are under construction or in operation to provide design and the field of licensing and regulation. safety information under operating conditions. The US scene remained essentially as reported in the previous Annual Report, A contract for a 350 MW demonstration fast breeder reactor station, Clinch although some further progress was made in the promulgation of design criteria for River, was formerly signed in November 1973, but its construction was opposed. emergency core cooling systems in LWRs. Following legal proceedings under tne National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), Greater public involvement in the licensing of nuclear power plants is now the USAEC was required to provide an environmental impact study of the whole evident in Japan. Public hearings are now part of the licensing procedure and more FBR program. However, the research and development part of ihe FBR program effort is being made to explain safety issues and reassure the public on the extent of is continuing during the interim period of the NEPA review. the precautions taken. If present progress in Europe and the USA continues and operating experience In the United Kingdom the Inspectorate of Nuclear Installations has been is satisfactory, construction of commercial stations with capacities in excess of 1,000 closely involved in the debate over the selection of the types of reactor system for MW may begin in the late 1980s. Nevertheless, any growing FBR program may the nuclear power program. The inherent safety characteristics of light-water reactors have a limitation set by the. availability of pluUv.iium for FBR fuel from the thermal has been questioned in some quarters. However, the Licensing Authority has not reactor program. committed itself on this issue, noting that two years' safety assessment would be necessary for it to form a judgment on these systems. CONTROLLED THERMONUCLEAR FUSION Research programs by various countries into controlled thermonuclear fusion FUTURE NUCLEAR POWER SYSTEMS have been directed mainly to establish the feasibility of achieving a net power output from the fusion reaction. To do so experimentally requires three conditions It is generally assumed LWR systems will provide most of the new nuclear to be satisfied simultaneously: attainment of very high temperatures (in the order capacity installed during the period 1980 to the end of the Century. Although fast of 100 million °C), stable confinement of a plasma (or high density gas of charged breeder reactors (FBR) are seen as the ultimate route to the efficient use of the particles) made up of deuterium and tritium ions (around 1015 particles per cm3), world's uranium resources, it is still not clear when they will come into fi M com- and a confinement time of adequate length (more than one second). mercial operation. The high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR), is exp ;cted to 19 18 Attention has been focused more recently on two experimental systems: the Tokomak device which confines the plasma in a torus with a rising magnetic field, and laser-induced fusion. Experiments in the USSR, Europe and the USA with Tokomak devices have given encouraging results in the past two years, and promising predictions have also been made for lasers. Several large Tokomaks (costing about $10 million each) arc now at the design and construction stage in those countries and will be used to demonstrate Tokomak scaling laws (e.g., changes in plasma temperature, density and confinement time effected by changes in the torus radius and the magnetic field). Experiments with 3 these new devices are scheduled to begin in 1976. By this time much larger devices, costing about $100 million each and capable of demonstrating the feasibility of achieving a net power output, should be at an advanced planning stage. The USAEC has set a program date of 1980-82 for experiments on such a device. URANIUM Although scientific issues arc still of prime importance, the encouraging results of the Tokomak program have resulted in some attention being given to the engineer- ing design of conceptual fusion reactors. Some effort is being devoted to technolog- ical problems such as superconducting magnets, energy storage systems and the properties of structural materials under the extreme conditions of a fusion reactor. There is, of course, no guarantee of the engineering or commercial success of the systems even though the concept is scientifically feasible. WORLD DEMAND AND SUPPLY POSITION In the laser fusion field, one prime reason for optimism is the theoretical Demand for Uranium prediction that lasers may be capable of producing very high compression in the target material, and thus high temperatures, thereby reducing markedly the energy The effects of the changes in energy use outlined in Chapter 2 are unlikely to demanded from the laser. Laser outputs have not been sufficient to date to produce be reflected in major changes in the requirements for uranium before the mid-1980s measurable compressions, but high energy output is expected from lasers now under because of the long lead times involved in power station construction. Moreover, construction in the USA and USSR and due for completion in 1974-75. these changes are dependent upon the continuation of economic growth and the availability of resources (including industrial capacity and trained manpower) to Fusion reactors presently in concept form appear likely to produce significantly sustain this growth. less radioactive material (perhaps by more than one order of magnitude) than fission In these circumstances, estimates of the long-term growth rale of nuclear reactors. However, a large amount of tritium must be handled and the high energy power and the requirements for uranium are necessarily uncertain. In addition, neutrons from the fusion reaction will produce radioactivity in the structural the requirements can be varied significantly by technical factors such as the materials, coolant and radiation shield around the reactor. characteristics of the reactors installed, the conditions of operation of enrichment plants (notably the choice of tails assay), the extent of piutonium recycle and Although fusion research, until now, has been carried out on a national basis, progress with the introduction of fast breeder reactors. the requirement for large-scale machines has produced international collaboration Recognising these limitations, Table 1 sets out estimates of uranium require- as in the case of the Joint European Tokomak (JET). It sctrns probable that such ments to ilie year 2000, based on estimated growth of nuclear power (Chapter 2). international collaboration will increase as the cost, size and complexity of the machines and programs grow. Within Australian universities, there is an active program of basic research TABLE 1 on various aspects of controlled thermonuclear fusion. The Commission supports and maintains close contact with this program through the Australian Institute for ESTIMATED URANIUM REQUIREMENTS IN THE WESTERN WORLD Nuclear Science and Engineering (AINSE) and also devotes a small effort itself to (1,000 tonne U)* work on intense neutron sources using plasma technology. The Australian studies arc recognised internationally and the Commission 1973 1975 1980 1985 1990 2000 arranges for Australia to be represented by a senior university research worker each Annual requirement 17 25 60 115 185 285 year at the International Fusion Research Council. The latest meeting was held in Vienna on 16-17 May. The Council was established by the International Atomic Cumulative requirement from 1973 17 60 295 760 1,520 4,085 Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1970 to co-ordinate international research and to advise in the field of thermonuclear physics. * Throughout this Report, metric units are used for quantities of uranium including resources and concentrate production data. The conversion is tonne U x 1.3 = short tons U.CX. 20 21 Supply a Against these requirements, the currently estimated Western World resources s 0 of uranium recoverable up to US$15 per pound U:,OS* are given in Table 2. The *-*3 (*} demand and supply positions are compared in Figure 1. o o o c3 O O O O O C C C =1 O O 0 C3 O O O O O 0 O 3 ~ U q 11 o o o c3 O O O O O o yj i) — ^ The present reasonably assured reserves, recoverable at less than US$10 per -V 3 — ' -no OO ON 10 if i o o o — r^ QJ V5 m — 01 — Ol ^t ro -^f •* pound U:)OS, are sufficient to meet requirements until about 1986 and if estimated 01 Ol — M ** sc "n su c. additional resources are included, this time is extended to 1991. If the price range i/> _Ej « u <_," is extended to US$15 per pound U:!OS, the total resources might satisfy require- I ^^ ments to the late 1990s. Within these overall estimates, it is recognised that many o y fjn of the major consuming countries have no proved resources of uranium, and others 811 1 will deplete their resources on a somewhat different timcscale from that indicated rt» T3 in Figure 1. In particular, the USA, which accounts for about 50% of the total ^^ ^J Western World demand, might experience pressure on its low-cost resources before es w is Ctf 2~v o o o O O O O O o 1985 and is moving to allow an increasing amount of foreign uranium to be 0 O O O 0 O O 0 o : 3 -s = o ^ g o o o o^ o^ o^ o o o imported beyond 1977 (see under "National Programs"). a" 3§ oo" of o" o" of o" — ' \d W c« m 01 01 o ~~ 01 — I! Market for Uranium as Developments in energy policy and resource management are influencing both 1 the short- and long-term markets for uranium. US buyers are having some difficulties in obtaining quotations and commitments from suppliers, particularly for long-term "3 a ~ B contracts at firm prices. Contracts entered into recently reflect sharp increases in u S prices over those prevailing a year ago. 2S tf .3 o o o c3 O O O O o . 2 B X" "° ** O O O C3 O O O 0 Factors which might be contributing to this situation are: o g o o o c3 O O IOO to 3 3 -a o •T o otT ' oo 01 0, j) U « o» 5 5 § 01 " Ol ro iri CO 1. Stockpiles of uranium, particularly in Canada, South Africa and France, & a *"" ^ I/-) oo have now been committed for delivery or retained as long-term domestic aU §a 0 .| reserves. S- "^ w °'§-g .« M 2. The US stockpile of 38,500 tonn 22 23 Prices The base price of uranium (as yellowcake) decreased in the USA from about US$8 per pound U:,OK in 1966-68 to US$5.50 per pound in 1970-71; prices on 5,000.000 non-US contracts were possibly up to 20% lower in the period 1968-72. In 1972-73, the base price of contracts in the USA showed an upward trend 4,000.000 _ which appears to be continuing in 1974. Medium- to long-term contracts in the USA in 1974 are now unlikely to be written at a base price of less than US$10 per pound U:!O,s, with provision for escalation of this price through to the time 3,000.000 of delivery. ESTIMATED ADDITIONAL RESOURCES US $10-15/lb U308 Non-US prices might remain slightly below these levels in the short-term, but the relaxation of the US import embargo and increasing demand could bring the US and non-US prices in line by 1980. REASONABLY ASSURED RESOURCES US $10-15/lb U308 2,000,000 A number of recent non-US contracts have included provision to negotiate the price between buyer and seller at a date close to delivery, and based on world prices at that time. ESTIMATED ADDITIONAL RESOURCES < US $10/lb U308 In considering these increases in the price of uranium, it should be emphasised that the cost of nuclear power is relatively insensitive to changes in the price of uranium feed. Typically, uranium (at US$10 per pound U;1OS) only 1,000,000 contributes about 7.5%* to the cost of nuclear power. 2 NATIONAL PROGRAMS LU z z United States of America O 500.000 Uranium exploration in the USA increased slightly during 1973 with drilling REASONABLY ASSURED RESOURCES totalling 5 million metres compared with 4.7 million metres in 1972. A recent survey indicates a further increase during 1974. < US $10/lb U308 Domestic uranium reserves, in the category less than US$10 per pound U:AS, were estimated at the end of 1973 at 260,000 tonne U. An additional 70,000 tonne U might be recoverable through to the year 2000, as a by-product of phosphoric acid production and from copper leach solutions. The rate of discovery of new resources during the year matched consumption with little increase in the resource available. CUMULATIVE REQUIREMENTS ARE To the end of 1973, forward commitments by the industry to US buyers BASED ON 1973 ESTIMATES BY THE USAEC, NEA/IAEA AND AAEC. amounted to 92,000 tonne U extending to 1994; in addition, some 920 tonne U were committed to foreign buyers. Production capacity at US mines and mills was 28,550 tons of ore per day in 1973, equivalent to about 13,850 tonne U per year. Deliveries in 1973 totalled about 10,000 tonne U. 100.000 The USAEC recently proposed to lift progressively, beginning in 1977, the embargo on the importation of foreign uranium for use in US reactors, and to allow 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 unrestricted access from 1984. The move will allow US utilities access to sources YEAR of uranium outside the USA. Under this proposal, foreign exports to the USA might amount to 6,900 tonne U in 1980. If accepted, the lifting of the embargo Figure I: World uranium resources and cumulative requirements. could be an important consideration in setting the level of future Australian sales. * This does not include other costs in the nuclear fuel cycle (e.g., enrichment). The total fuel cycle cost is typically 25% of total power generating cost. 24 25 Canada further exploration is desirable to allow for the development and bringing into production of new resources. Exploration for uranium increased during 1973. A number of promising finds were made during the year, but no new commercial orcbodics were reported. Any Australian requirement for uranium is unlikely before 1985. Beyond 1985, Exploration was particularly active in Saskatchewan. to the year 2000, Australia might consume about 30,000 tonne U in a nuclear power program. A further 45,000 tonne U would need to be available at that time Domestic uranium reserves in the category less than US$10 per pound U:iOs were estimated at the end of 1973 at 185,000 tonne U and there are prospects for to fuel installed nuclear reactors over their economic lifetime. It will be necessary, therefore, to maintain resources at a fairly high level in anticipation of this commit- a substantial increase as exploration proceeds. ment, and to ensure that these include a proportion of low-cost reserves. The main- Canadian uranium production in 1973 was 3,710 tonne U from three plants. Development of the Rabbit Lake Project, operated by Gulf Minerals Canada Ltd in tenance of these reserves will require a continuing exploration, program and a association with Uranerz Canada Ltd, continued on schedule. Both the open-pit balance between exploration and production for both domestic and export mine and mill are expected to commence production in early 1975. requirements. Canadian producers during the year entered into contracts for delivery of Export contracts held by Australian companies total 8.863 tonne U for delivery 15,400 tonne U to Japan (Tokyo Electric Power Co.) over the period 1984-93, and between 1974-86. Development plans announced by companies are discussed under for 7,700 tonne U to British Nuclear Fuels Ltd over the period 1981-91. Smaller "Company Activities". contracts were also negotiated. Producers have warned that they do not have sufficient production capacity to meet all current requests for supply. South Africa EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA Reasonably assured reserves in the category less than US$10 per pound U;iOs BUREAU OF MINERAL RESOURCES are estimated at 202,000 tonne U, including those in South-West Africa (Namibia). Uranium production during 1973 was maintained at about the same level as The geological survey of the Alligator Rivers area continued in 1973 and for the preceding year (3,000 tonne U); production is expected to expand to some involved field mapping, a rotary-percussion drilling program and geochronological 5,000 tonne U per year in 1975 when the Rossing Project begins production. work. Detailed traverses were made by vehicle and on foot in the Myra Falls Inlier. and helicopter traverses were made in the Goomadeer, Howship, Gilruth and Jim France Jim areas. The host rocks at Koongarra, Ranger 1, Jabiluka, Jabiluka East, and Nabarlek Domestic reserves in the category less than US$10 per pound U:!OS are estimated at about 37,000 tonne U. In addition, France participated in the develop- lie within a series of rocks, which is informally referred to as "Koolpin Equivalent". ment of deposits in African States (see below). Production of uranium concentrates This series of rocks, thought to be time and facies equivalents of Koolpin Formation, from French domestic resources during 1973 was 1,515 tonne U. has been mapped as a poorly-exposed continuous belt stretching from the east Hank of Mount Partridge Range northeast to Cooper Creek. The rocks comprise siltstone, Other Countries carbonaceous siltstone, carbonate rock and quartzite, which have been meta- morphosed to upper greenschist and lower amphibolite facies north of Jim Jim Significant low-cost uranium reserves are located in Gabon (20,000 tonne U) Creek and are retrogressively metamorphosed in the vicinity of the uranium deposits. and Niger (40,000 tonne U). Exploration continued at about the same level as last Noith of Mount Basedow, these rocks have been partially migmatised to form year. Gabon produced some 420 tonne U as a pre-concentrate and Niger about part of the Nanambu and Nimbuwah migmatite complexes. Between the South and 1,100 tonne U as uranium concentrate. East Alligator Rivers, the Koolpin Equivalent onlaps onto Archaean leucogneiss and granite (dated as 2,520 million years) and is migmatised with the Archaean base- ment material to form the Nanambu Complex at 1,800 million years. East of the AUSTRALIAN SITUATION East Alligator River, the Koolpin Equivalent is extensively migmatised with other Australian uranium reserves are shown in Table 2. At 130,000 tonne U, rocks to form the Nimbuwah Complex, also at 1,800 million years. The presence of the estimated reasonably assured resources in the price range to US$10 per pound an Archaean core in the Nimbuwah Complex has not been reflected by geochrono- logical work so far. The mixed nature of many of the rocks sampled suggests that U;1O8 show an increase of 22,300 tonne U since 30 June J 973. Of the estimated reasonably assured resources recoverable below US$10 per they were formed from sediments, rather than from relatively homogeneous granitic pound UnOs available to the Western World, about 14% is located in Australia. basement rocks. These uranium deposits are generally of a grade and type which should allow The uranium is believed to be syngenetic in origin, being concentrated in recovery by established processes at relatively low costs. On this basis, Australia is carbonaceous horizons within the Koolpin Equivalent during sedimentation. Sub- potentially a major exporter of uranium, either as yellowcake or in upgraded forms sequent concentration and mobilisation — at 1,800 million years during migmatisa- such as uranium hexafluoride or enriched uranium. tion, and at several times since then by water of relatively low temperature — have Low-cost Australian reserves would satisfy a substantial export marketing concentrated the uranium in open fracture systems along or adjacent to fault program until the late 1980s. While this is a satisfactory position in the short-term, structures to form economic ore deposits. 26 27 COMPANY ACTIVITIES Noranda Australia Ltd Queensland The company continued its exploration program in the Alligator Rivers Uranium Field. Work was carried out to define and extend the Koongarra deposit Mary Kathleen Uranium Ltd and to test a number of other anomalies in the company's exploration areas. No firm Proved reserves at Mary Kathleen are about 7,700 tonne U; no further explora- estimates of tonnage and grade have been given by the company, but an average tion was carried out during the year. The company holds sales contracts for the grade of more than 0.35% U;jOx has been indicated. delivery of 3,840 tonne U between 1974 and 1982. Results to date indicate that the ore zone has a strike length of about 650 metres and a width of between 30 and 75 metres. Mineralisation has been found at Queensland Mines Ltd depths in excess of 120 metres. No exploration was carried out in either the Mt Isa or Westmoreland areas Engineering and metallurgical investigations were undertaken in connection during 1973. with the exploitation of the Koongarra deposit, but no firm plans have been announced for development. The deposit lies within the proposed Kakadu National Northern Territory Park. Exploration in the Northern Territory continued at a high level during the year, The company continued to explore in the South Alligator-Pandanus Creek including development drilling on previously-defined deposits. Total low-cost proved region during the year on behalf of a joint-venture group comprising Utah Develop- reserves in the Alligator Rivers Uranium Field increased from 78,000 tonne U to ment Company, Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia Ltd, Pcko Mines N.L. 100,200 tonne U. and Newmont Pty Ltd. Low-grade mineralisation was reported at depth on Anomaly 25 in the South Alligator area and three anomalies were selected for drilling at Queensland Mines Ltd Pandanus Creek. Work was confined in 1973 to regional surface exploration, including geochemical and geological investigations. Radiometric anomalies outlined by Pancontinental Mining Ltd previous airborne surveys were evaluated following ground inspection and, in the Pancontinental Mining Ltd continued its joint exploration program with Getty northernmost areas, a number of drilling targets were outlined. At the Caramel Oil Company to evaluate the Jabiluka deposit in the East Alligator River area. prospect, 40 km south of Nabarlek, diamond drilling was carried out to test the In January 1973, the company announced resources of 2,960 tonne U at its possible extension of mineralisation to the northeast, below the Kombolgie Anomaly 7E deposit (Jabiluka 1). Sandstone. The company announced, in September 1973, the discovery of another uranium The deposit at Nabarlek is stated to contain 8,000 tonne U at an average grade deposit (Jabiluka 2) 480 metres east of Jabiluka 1. The new deposit is estimated by of 2.35% U:)O,s. The company holds contracts for the delivery of 2,485 tonne U the company to contain 15,500 tonne U at an average grade of 0.4% U;!OS. A between 1977 and 1986. percussion drilling program is planned to define the orebody further. In addition, Peko Mines N.L./Electrolytic Zinc the company has undertaken follow-up work on a number of other anomalies in the area. The companies continued their joint exploration program over the Jabiru and Pancontinental continued to participate in a number of farm-in exploration Jacana orebodies. Drilling on the Jacana orebody has outlined additional resources, ventures in the Northern Territory. and the Ranger 1 resource is currently stated as follows: Orebody Contained Uranium Central Pacific Minerals N.L. (tonne U) Tiie company continued its exploration program to test a number of carnotilc Jabiru 46,550 occurrences over a widespread area in the Ngalia Basin, northwest of Alice Springs. Jacana 40,600 Other areas 4,600 Further work is planned to evaluate mineralisation encountered in the No. 2, South Australia No. 4 and No. 5 anomalies of Ranger 1. Uranium exploration in South Australia continued during the year at a reduced The partnership holds sales contracts for the export of 2,540 tonne U between level compared with the previous period. The main area of activity was the Lake 1977 and 1985. Construction of a mine and mill is proposed by the companies to Frame Basin. produce 2,500 tonne U per year commencing late 1977. However, commitment to the project is stated to be conditional upon obtaining further sales contracts. Petromin N.L. The companies continued engineering and metallurgical studies for the pro- The Petromin N.L./Transoil N.L./Oilmin N.L. group (PTO) continued its posed development of Jabiru and prepared reports on the possible environmental joint-venture exploration program for sedimentary uranium deposits in the Lake effects of the development. Frome area. The partnership is participating also in joint uranium ventures in other areas Western Uranium Ltd (Phelps Dodge Corporation), a joint-venture partner in in the Northern Territory and Queensland. the project, completed an initial drilling program on the Beverley prospect. Infill 28 29 drilling began in February to delineate the eastern extension of the deposit and to ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES IN THE determine the limits of economic mineralisation. Three separate ore deposits were NORTHERN TERRITORY outlined during the year. Total contained uranium was announced as 13,460 tonne U. Metallurgical and engineering studies are in progress on exploitation of the The Commission studies which formed part of the joint Government-Industry deposits. Fact-Finding Studies in the Alligator Rivers area were completed. The results were The PTO-Afmeco joint venture continued drilling in two areas southeast of the reported in four separate papers and were circulated to interested parties. Sufficient Bevcrley prospect. Uranium values of up to 1% U:tOs have been located in the work was carried out so that conservative discharge authorisations can be formulated south-western part of the licence area, but mineralisation found to date is scattered for all known economic uranium deposits when production plans become available. and of limited extent. The study concentrated on the Magela catchment as typical of a Hood plain The Minad-Tclon group completed a limited diamond drilling program during situation, because major uranium deposits arc already known in this catchment, the year on an area north of the Beverley prospect. No results have been announced. and because it was judged as being the most restrictive of the drainage systems in the area in terms of capacity for wastes. Sedimentary Uranium N.L. The company continued its exploration program at Yarramba, 450 km north- east of Adelaide. Thin bands of uranium mineralisation have been indicated in several holes but no continuous orebody has been identified. Western Australia Western Mining Corporation Ltd The level of exploration at Yeelirrie was reduced in 1973. Since the initial discovery, the comp?ny has carried out an extensive auger and rotary drilling program to test a zone of strong mineralisation approximately 10 km long. The main ore zone is 6,000 metres long and 500 metres wide. Uranium occurs as carnotite in calcrete in a flat-iying body up to 8 metres thick and about 8 metres below surface. Resources at the Yeelirrie deposit are of an average grade of 0.15% U^Os and have been estimated by the company at 39,000 tonne U. Evaluation and mining feasibility studies for the Yeelirrie deposit continued during the period. ASARCO (Australia) Pty Ltd The company continued its exploration program to test a zone of uranium mineralisation in the Lake Maitland area, about 100 km southeast of Wiluna. HEALTH AND SAFETY IN MINING AND MILLING A member of the Commission's Environment and Public Health Division taking water samples from ilia East Finniss River following the first rain of the 1973-74 wet season, as pan of an RADIOACTIVE ORES environmental study in the Rum Jungle area, Northern Territory. In addition to the occupational hazards of conventional mining, the mining of radioactive ores poses problems of radiation exposure. Radon and its decay products Sampling programs at Rum Jungle, subsequent to the cessation of mining and arc released into the mine atmosphere and, if inhaled, can be deposited in the processing operations, have shown the presence of heavy metal ions and radicals in respiratory system and increase the risk of lung cancer. the East Finniss River at concentrations exceeding tolerable levels for some fish The need to protect uranium miners from the effects of radon decay products species. is a local problem confined to the mine and associated plant. Normal dust control A study is under way to define the sources of the ions and the underlying measures must be observed rigidly, and adequate routine monitoring is essential. biological, chemical and physical processes producing them. The aim is to evaluate Both the Commission and the Australian Radiauon Laboratory are developing and cost the range of possible abatement and rehabilitation solutions with respect instruments for use as personal dosemeters. Field trials will be undertaken later in to present and potential land use. To this end, the biological diversity of the main 1974. Finniss River and the fate of heavy metals on the flood plain are being evaluated. A draft Code of Practice for the mining and milling of radioactive ores is nearing completion. Its purpose is to ensure the continued safety of workers in the uranium industry and will serve as a guide to Australian authorities and companies. 30 31 T POWER FULL FABRICATION I REDUCTION (U02) i NUCLEAR REACTOR I DEPLETED URANIUM X (fission) | (to storage) \ I ENRICHMENT URANIUM FUEL CYCLE REPROCESS FUEL I I POWER f i, * PLUTONIUM (to recycle) CONVERSION (UF ) FISSION PRODUCTS 6 (to storage) INTRODUCTION TO THE FUEL CYCLE Figure I: Nuclear fuel cycle. Physical and chemical treatment processes are needed to convert uranium ores Burn-up of fissile material and the build-up of neutron-absorbing fission pro- into fuel element assemblies for nuclear reactors, and to dispose of fission products ducts require the periodic replacement of fuel assemblies. The discharged assemblies contained in fuel discharged after burn-up in the reactor. These processes are termed 235 the uranium fuel cycle. A schematic outline of the cycle is shown in Figure 1. are reprocessed to separate and recover uranium containing residual U, plutonium bred during the nuclear reaction, and the fission product waste material. A portion Uranium is mined typically as a low-grade ore, generally containing less than of the 235U may be recovered by the enrichment process and re-used in fuel manu- 1 % uranium. Processing at the mine site is carried out to produce the facture. Plutonium may be recycled with uranium as fuel for LWRs, or stockpiled uranium in an economically transportable form. Commercial uranium ore concen- for future use in a fast 'breeder reactor. Fission products can be concentrated and trates, called yellowcake, consist of over 90% by weight of an oxide of uranium, immobilised for storage in a stable form. 235 UaOs. Naturally-occurring uranium contains only 0.71% of the isotope U, which Major developments overseas and Commission work in the nuclear fuel cycle is capable of generating energy through thermal nuclear fission, the remaining are reviewed below. percentage being the non-fissile isotope 238U. The use of natural uranium as a fuel places some restrictions on the reactor designer in the choice of constructional materials, moderator and coolant; uranium URANIUM HEXAFLUORTDE enriched in the 235U isotope permits flexibility in design and results in lower capital 235 Enrichment plants in the Western World are supplied with UFG from five costs. Light-water reactors (LWRs) require fuel enriched to about 2-3% in U. manufacturers: Allied Chemical Corporation (USA), Kerr-McGee Corporation A typical LWR of 1,000 MW capacity has, over its lifetime, an average annual (USA), Eldorado Nuclear Ltd (Canada), COMURHEX (France), and British fuel requirement of about 25 tonne of 3%-enriched uranium, derived from about Nuclear Fuels Ltd (UK). These have an aggregate annual capacity for conversion 150 tonne of natural uranium in the form of yellowcake. into UF(! of about 31,000 tonne uranium contained in ore concentrates. Enrichment processes require the uranium to be in the form of a gas. The crude The program in the Western World for installation of nuclear reactors indicates yellowcake is converted into pure uranium hexafiuoride (UPn), a compound of an annual demand for UF(i increasing from about 25,000 tonne to about 100,000 uranium readily vaporised by heating. The uranium isotopes in the UF(i vapour are tonne U over the decade 1975-85. Producers plan to meet the increasing demand separated in an enrichment plant, typically into a product stream containing about by extending existing plant capacity or with new plant. Capacity in France is planned 3% 235U, and a reject tails stream depleted to about 0.2-0.3% 235U. to reach 6,000 tonne U per year in 1974, with a subsequent major increase to about 15,000 tonne per year by 1981-82, to supply the four-nation EURODIF enrichment The next step in the fuel cycle — fuel fabrication — involves processing of the plant. Canadian capacity has been increased to 2,900 tonne U per year, with plans enriched UF into a ceramic oxide (UOo), which is pressed and sintered into fuel (! to reach 9,000 ionne U per year by 1978-80. New units in the United Kingdom pellets. The pellets are loaded and sealed into metallic tubes (fuel elements), which will increase present capability from 5,000 to 8,000 tonne U per year. The Kerr- are grouped in a precise mechanical array to form a fuel assembly ready for loading McGee Corporation proposes to double its present 4,500 tonne U per year capacity into the reactor. in the near future. 32 33 Background Studies There arc indications that natural uranium may be marketed internationally in the form of UF,<. in addition to the traditional mine concentrates. Assuming a value of USS10 per pound U:1(X, upgrading of uranium to UF(1 for export would increase the value by about \2%. Export as hexafluoridc could simplify contractual problems and-reduce overall transport and inventory charges in some cases. Technical, design and economic studies by the Commission have indicated that financing, construction and operation of a UF(1 conversion plant could be feasible and profitable in Australia. Furthermore, domestic manufacturing of UF,, would be essential to the establishment of a major Australian enrichment industry. Research relevant to the conversion of yellowcake to UF,; continued in the Commission's Chemical Technology Division. An experimental plant to produce fluorine by electrolysis of hydrofluoric acid in an electrolyte of KF.2HF has operated successfully on a continuous shift basis for more than three months, generating approximately 2.5 tonne of fluorine. Valuable experience was obtained in the large- scale handling of .fluorine and hydrofluoric acid. Laboratory studies continued on an improved process to produce UF(! based on the catalysed oxidation of uranium tetrafluoride (UF,). An experimental plant to investigate and demonstrate this process at a throughput of about 0.1 tonne U per day was designed and is being built. Chemical studies were carried out on fluorides of uranium and on metallic fluorides arising from impurities in ore concentrates and from corrosion of process plant. Laboratory-scale studies continued on a process to produce UF., of nuclear- grade purity at an ore processing plant. Substitution of a chemical reduction stage for expensive electrolytic reduction appears feasible, but would involve stringent measures to assure product purity. Above: Sampling ofj-gMe.\ from (in experimental plant at Luca\ Heights to produce fluorine by URANIUM ENRICHMENT electrolysis of hydrofluoric acid. Uranium enrichment is one of the most important parts of the nuclear fuel cycle because enriched uranium is used in the majority of the existing and committed power reactors in the world. International developments and Commission studies arc reviewed in Chapter 5. NUCLEAR REACTOR FUELS An understanding of the fabrication, structure, properties and performance of nuclear fuel is essential to evaluate and assess the safety, reliability and performance of nuclear power plant. The Commission's work on reactor fuels was reduced in view of the probable late timescale for a nuclear power program in Australia. Materials Division and Engineering Research Division concentrated on the assessment of safety and reliability of present-day fuels used in overseas reactor systems. Fabrication studies on UO2 and zirconium alloy tubing continued, at a relatively low level, in support of the above objectives. Planning continued for the irradiation, in the HIFAR reactor in-pile test loop, of fuel pins fabricated at Lucas Heights. This work will assist in the development of a fuel performance assessment capability. REPROCESSING AND RECYCLING POWER REACTOR FUEL Substantial amounts of fissile uranium (235U) and plutonium may be recovered Right: Initial anembly of a by chemical reprocessing of irradiated fuel. The monetary value of the recovered fluidified bed reactor before instal- 235 lation in an experimental plant for uranium depends on its U content, and the economics of recycling are linked to studies in the production of the availability and price of natural uranium and separative work. Recycling of uranium liexafluoride. 34 35 uranium recovered from all LWR fuel could reduce the demand for fresh natural engineered repository. Though technically sound, this method of management for uranium by about 20%, depending on the nitio of the reactor types (BWRs and extended periods relies on sustained surveillance of the store. Its acceptability relies PWRs), and on the level adopted for enrichment plant tails. Recycle of all plutonium on a stable and responsible society. This procedure provides an interim solution until in LWRs could reduce the fresh uranium demand by a further 10%. a number of technically feasible and publicly acceptable techniques for ultimate The capacity of Western World reprocessing plants is being extended and new disposal of the wastes have been evaluated fully. A variety of methods under reprocessing centres arc under construction in anticipation of increased demand to international examination include disposal of the wastes into deep, geologically stable meet the nuclear power program. The capacity for reprocessing UO2 fuel at the structures, discharge into space, and conversion into non-radioactive isotopes. Windscalc (UK) plant is to be increased from its existing level of 400 tonne U per Radioactive waste management in Australia to the present time has been year. The French reprocessing plant at La Hague is being modified to reprocess 800 confined to waste contaminated with minor quantities of radioactivity. This waste tonne of oxide fuel per year. In the USA, the capacity of the plant owned by has arisen during uranium mining and ore treatment, through the operation of a Nuclear Fuel Services Incorporated, West Valley. N.Y., is being increased from 270 nuclear research establishment at Lucas Heights, and from the industrial and to about 800 tonne U per year. A General Electric plant of 300 tonne U per year, medical application of radioisotopes. at Morris. Illinois, though due for commissioning is experiencing difficulties. A plant Since reactor fuel reprocessing is unlikely to be carried out in Australia for to process 1,500 tonne U per year is being built at Barnwell, South Carolina, by some time, advantage can be taken in the interim to study overseas practices and Allied-Gulf Nuclear Services. The first commercial Japanese reprocessing plant, of problems, and will enable long-term planning of a co-ordinated national approach about 210 tonne U capacity per year, is scheduled for operation in 1975 and a to waste management. The Commission's objective is to assess economic, technical subsequent plant of larger capacity is planned for the late 1970s. and environmental data required for the formulation of safeguards and procedures Reprocessing facilities involve a high capital cost, due to the shielding and for the long-term control of radioactive wastes throughout the fuel cycle. containment necessary to ensure radiological safety from the intense radioactivity present in the used fuel. Consequently, unit costs for fuel reprocessing depend heavily Background Studies on the scale of operation and the extent of plant utilisation. It is unlikely that an Australian domestic nuclear power program could support The Commission's Chemical Technology Division continued its investigation a reprocessing plant of economic size before the late 1990s. into treatment processes for wastes arising from uranium mining and ore processing. The major potential pollutants include radium, other heavy metals, free acid and Background Studies organic reagents. This research complements the Commission's environmental studies in the Northern Territory, discussed in Chapter 3. Commission research on fuel reprocessing has been limited to background studies of the separation of transuranium elements (plutonium, americium, and Wide variation in the composition of uranium ores and the alternate processing curium) from fission products. methods available require that effluent from each mining and refining venture should be investigated thoroughly to ensure that adequate removal of potential pollutants Design and costing studies investigated concepts which appeared to offer will be achieved. significant potential for reduction of the capital cost of reprocessing plants. These studies explored the potential effect on capital cost of improvements in the design Experimental work was carried out on tailings from ore samples obtained from and layout of a chemical reprocessing plant using existing technology and changes the former Rum Jungle plant and from other locations in the Northern Territory. in approach to shielding and maintenance. Capital saving in the region of 30% Neutralisation with lime is a simple and effective means for removal of copper, lead compared with a conventional reprocessing plant is indicated in these studies. and zinc, but additional treatment appears necessary to remove radium. Co- precipitation of radium sulphate by addition of barium chloride solution was found effective; adsorption of radium on barytes was shown to be promising also for removal of radium from water from the open-cut and tailings storage areas. TREATMENT, STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OF Tests simulating likely conditions in a tailings storage area indicated there was no long-term tendency for amine to be released from precipitated solids. The RADIOACTIVE WASTES presence of amine did not affect the rate of evaporation. Management of radioactive wastes is involved in all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle. Chemical wastes contaminated with radioactivity are produced in uranium mining and ore treatment, and also in the upgrading processes of hexafluoride con- version, enrichment, and fuel element manufacture. The radioactive content of these wastes is relatively small and no serious problems are foreseen from these operations. In contrast, wastes from reprocessing irradiated fuel and from plutonium recycle operations require management of large-scale arisings of fission products and transuranic elements involving intense radioactivity and high toxicity. Technically satisfactory methods are available now for the management and interim storage of these so-called "high-level" wastes. The most generally favoured method is to convert the wastes as early as practicable into a solid form resistant to leaching of fission product activity, and to store them in a retrievable form in an 36 37 which reduce the uncertainty of these medium to long-term estimates. For example, the majority of base-load power stations installed in the developed countries after 1985 will be nuclear, as alternative power sources will be relatively more costly. Part of the reason for this particular trend will be the increasingly stringent pollution controls likely to be imposed on fossil-fuelled stations, the growing scarcity of low-sulphur coal in many industrial areas, and the desire to ictain hydrocarbons for petrochemical production. A large proportion of the nuclear power stations to be installed in the world over the next 20 years is expected to be light-water reactors (LWRs), which require 5 fuel containing between 2% and 3% 235U. There will be a small percentage of high temperature, gas-cooled reactors (HTRs) in use after 1985; these will require some enriched uranium. The impact of the introduction of fast breeder reactors (FBRs) on the demand for enriched uranium is unlikely to be felt before the late URANIUM ENRICHMENT 1990s. Enrichment requirements which are generally accepted by national and inter- national bodies arc illustrated in Figure 1. In regional terms, the major requirements occur in the USA, Western Europe and Japan. PRESENT SUPPLY OF ENRICHMENT The problem of providing new facilities for the production of enriched uranium continues to demand attention from countries which are heavily committed to The only large supplier of enrichment services up to the present has been the nuclear power and from those (including Australia) which are attracted to process- United States Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC) from its three diffusion plants ing their uranium resources. Developments in the past year have partly removed at Oak Ridge, Portsmouth and Paducah. These plants have a combined design the prospect of a grave world shortage of enrichment capacity in the early 1980s, capacity of about 17 million separative work units* (SWU) per year. In order to but the longer term supply problems remain. stockpile material, the plants are now operating beyond their customer commit- Customers for the output of an enrichment plant are anxious to ensure adequate ments. They will not, however, operate at full output until 1976-77. The plants supplies over the lifetime of their nuclear power stations, and to minimise as far will then have their capacities increased to a combined maximum of 28 million as possible the risks associated with dependence on foreign suppliers of enrichment. SWU per year by 1984 through the application of Cascade Improvement and Investors in the plaiit, similarly, will be anxious to ensure supplies of uranium. Cascade Uprating Programs. Future investment in enrichment facilities in the developed countries is In addition to domestic customers, the USAEC has long-term commitments to expected to be from 2 to 4% of the total investment in nuclear power up to the supply utilities in Western Europe and Japan, as well as small quantities elsewhere. year 2000. The full capacity of the uprated plants is expected to be committed to firm orders The market for enrichment, however, could pass its peak after the year 2000 by the end of 1974. if new types of nuclear reactors, and possibly other energy sources, lead to a decline There are small diffusion plants at Capenhurst (UK) and at Pierrelatte (France). in the rate of installation of enriched uranium reactors. They are believed to have supplied small quantities of low-enriched uranium to the civil nuclear industries in their respective countries. WORLD REQUIREMENTS FOR ENRICHMENT Enrichment plants also exist in the Soviet Union and probably in China, although no details as to capacities are available. The Soviet Union recently entered Estimates of the requirements for enriched uranium by the developed countries the enrichment market by making some sales in Western Europe and is are published at intervals by several national and international bodies. These pre- negotiating with Japan. dictions are based on the projected growth of demand for electrical energy and on the estimated fraction of this demand which will be derived from nuclear power. The estimates can be divided conveniently into two categories — up to 1985 FUTURE SUPPLY and after 1985. The requirements to about 1985 depend on nuclear power plants Planned growth in enrichment capacity, taking into account programs in already committed by the various utilities, and which in many cases are already Europe, the USA and Japan, is discussed overpage, and is illustrated in Figure 2. under construction. With due allowance for building delays, it follows that require- ments until about 1985 are relatively well-defined. * A separative work unit is a measure of the effort needed to separate a quantity of uranium Requirements after 1985 are more speculative, and depend on types of reactor feed into two components, one having a higher percentage of the isotope 235U than the feed, to be installed and projection of a range of socio-economic variables, such as and the other a lower percentage. Separative work is commonly expressed as SWU (kilogram population growth rate and gross national product. There are, however, some factors units). 39 38 Europe A decision to build a new diffusion plant at Tricastin in southern France was made late in 1973 by the French Government in association with its EURODIF partners (Spain, Italy and Belgium). The plant, of nine million SWU per year, is planned to start production in 1979 and to reach full output in 1981. Agreement has been reached to supply one million SWU per year to Japan. The remaining output will be available to the partners. 22O The troika partnership, consisting of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and the Federal German Republic, is developing an alternative enrichment process using the gas centrifuge. Three small, national, pilot plants are expected to attain 200 a total capacity of 59,000 SWU per year late in 1974, and these will be followed A — 0.2% TA1LS-WITHOUT Pu RECYCLE by two developmental plants each of 200,000 SWU per year to be located at 3 0.3% TAILS-WITH Pu RECYCLE Capenhurst in the UK and Almclo in the Netherlands respectively. The latter plants arc scheduled for completion in 1976. The operating company, URENCO- 180 CENTEC, then plans to install plants of one million SWU per year at each of the two sites, to reach full output in 1980. Orders have been taken by URENCO-CENTEC for a large fraction of the two 16O million SWU per year from these first commercial centrifuge plants. Customers are the Central Electricity Generating Board in the UK and a number of West German utilities. Discussions are proceeding with other groups with a view tc additional orders. URENCO-CENTEC also plans to construct additional capacity to a total 14O tr of ten million SWU per year in 1985. Some of this total may be installed at the < same two sites. u The extent to which the Soviet Union can commit its enrichment facilities to in 120 foreign buyers in the future is not known. 0. USA w At the present time, no firm decisions have been announced by any US z 100 organisation on new enrichment capacity in the USA. Two industrial groups have o been assessing the potential of diffusion and centrifuge technologies. Uranium En- richment Associates (UEA), consisting of Westinghousc, Union Carbide and Bechtel, with participation from the Enrichment Survey Committee of Japan, appear to be putting greater emphasis on a diffusion plant, while the General Electric-Exxon grocp appears to be more interested in a plant based on centrifuge technology. Both group;; were expected to announce their findings by the end of June 1974. Japan Japanese policy has been to seel: participation in two or three enrichment enterprises in which plants would be constructed outside Japan. Hence the association with UEA mentioned above represents one of the potential sources of supply. Japan also plans to satisfy its incremental requirements after 1985 by building centrifuge plants in Japan. No specific plans have been revealed yet. WORLD SUPPLY-DEMAND BALANCE A comparison of the data in Figures 1 and 2 reveals a shortfall in enrichment capacity from the mid-1980s onwards, allowance being made for preliminary 1970 72 74 76 78 8O 82 84 86 9O 92 94 96 96 200O production and stockpiling in the later 1970s. Large additional capacity will need to be brought into production after 1985 to meet the shortfall. On a regional basis, account must be taken not only of local production, but Figure 1: Annual enrichment requirements showing A, upper limits based on 0.2% tails without also of commitments to export and import enrichment. Plutonium recycle and B, lower limit based on 0.3% tails with pliitonium recycle, for Japan, Western Europe, USA and World totals. 40 41 In Western Europe, EUROD1F has contracted to export to Japan, while im- ports are expected to come from the USA and small quantities from the Soviet Union. URENCO-CENTEC expects to achieve some sales to Japan. The USA has long-term export commitments. Present US policy is to maintain the full ability to supply its domestic market and also to provide up to 60% of Western European and Japanese requirements. 220 COMPETITIVE TECHNOLOGIES — CURRENT STATUS Diffusion Technology 2OO O.2% TAILS-WITHOUT Pu RECYCLE , The diffusion process for enrichment has been in operation on a large scale 0.3% TAILS—WITH Pu RECYCLE for many years and must be regarded as a well-proven technology. The USAEC has published some information on the costs and economics of its existing and future 18O plants, although the present-day cost of capital and commercial profitability factors might not have been fully included. The USAEC has continued its development of diffusion technology. Significant increases in the efficiency of barriers and com- pressors are projected, together with power recovery schemes which would markedly 16O improve overall power utilisation efficiency. Power charges can represent upwards of 60% of plant operating costs. France has successfully operated its own diffusion technology on a small scale 14O at Pierrelatte. Although built more recently than the USAEC plants, the operational oc principles arc similar. Work has proceeded in recent years to develop components < for the EURODIF plant. cc U) The method of operation of diffusion plants enables both scheduled and un- 0- 120 scheduled maintenance to be performed on all components, or for components to be replaced when necessary. Maintenance costs represent about 5% of the total SHORTFALL SHORTFALL IN THIS PERIOD cost of operation. z o 100 SATISFIED BY US STOCKPILE Centrifuge Technology AND SPOT AND MEDIUM TERM SALES BY USSR Large sums of money are being spent in the USA, Western Europe and Japan on development of the gas centrifuge. No comprehensive figures have been pub- lished, but it is estimated that up to $25 million per year is being provided in each of the above countries or regions. The design philosophy which apparently has been adopted by the tripartite operating company, URENCO-CENTEC, is to use centrifuges with individual capacities in the range 1 to 10 SWU per year. Thus a one million SWU per year plant would contain from 100,000 to one million centrifuges. It follows that the construction, installation and operating costs of individual centrifuges must be kept at a low level, that reliability and centrifuge lifetime are important factors, and that EURODIF! o IWIILLIO'N S\JVU/YEAR). the maintenance of individual machines is to be avoided if possible. The design of cascades, in which numbers of centrifuges are grouped, must allow for a number of units to go out of operation without requiring the whole cascade to be taken out of use. URENCO-CENTEC has not published any data on the success or USEC (27.7 MILLI otherwise of its design philosophy, although it claims that no major difficulties are expected in the operation of these large numbers of centrifuges. USAEC centrifuge design apparently is based on much larger units, perhaps as large as 100 SWU per year per machine; a one million SWU per year plant would 197O 72 74 76 78 8O 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 2OOO thus require only 10,000 machines. Machine and plant design may be oriented towards a similar maintenance policy to that employed in the diffusion plants, so YEAR that necessary work may be carried out on individual machines and machines re- placed when necessary. Construction cost per machine is likely to be high. Figure 2: World enrichment supply and demand position. The shortlall refers to tlie difference between requirements and the presently planned supply (shaded area). 42 43 Comparison The comparative position of the two technologies may be summarised as AUSTRALIAN CENTRIFUGE ENRICHMENT follows: DEVELOPMENT • Diffusion technology is proven and has operated successfully on a commercial The Commission continued research and development of the centrifuge method scale for many years. Cost data are based on actual operating experience, and of enrichment which it began in 1965. The work is progressing along two main some development potential remains. lines —• the development, testing and detailed investigation of the behaviour of single • Centrifuge technology is at the beginning of its development and considerable centrifuges, and the design, construction and operation of experimental cascades scope remains for improvements in machine design. Commercial operation has based on modular concepts. not yet been demonstrated. Cost data is of a preliminary nature, since unsus- The studies on single machines are aimed at obtaining higher performance, pected manufacturing or technical problems cannot be ruled out. greater ease of operation, longer life, lower cost, and developing suitable com- ponents for ultimate production. The work includes computer interfacing of Other Processes experimental assemblies and detailed theoretical analyses of the effects of the many The use of lasers to effect the separation of uianium isotopes by photochemical design and operating variables on performance under equilibrium and transient reactions has attracted attention in a number of countries, including the USA. It conditions. Studies of experimental and simulated cascades using various computa- is claimed in the specifications of recent patents that scientific feasibility has been tional models greatly extended capability to study a range of operating conditions. demonstrated. The process is thought to offer very high separation factors. Work continued in collaboration with Australian industry on the production Work continued in West Germany on the Becker nozzle process which achieves of machines and on development of methods and equipment for optimisation of isotope separation by high-speed gas flows through shaped orifices. Developmental machine designs. This will be necessary if future centrifuge plants are to operate results suggest that specific power consumption is compp^ble to, if not greater economically in competition with gaseous diffusion plants. Preliminary cost data on than, that of the diffusion process. Until a full-scale pilot pi ••' provides better data, machines and prototype plants were obtained in collaboration with industry and the potential of the process cannot be assessed accurately. consultants and more detailed assessments are under way. The South African Government has stated that it has under construction a pilot enrichment plant using a new and as yet undisclosed process. Published papers claim better stage separation factors than those applicable to the diffusion process and specific power consumption of similar magnitude to that for diffusion. These OTHER ENRICHMENT METHODS papers also claim that a large-scale plant using this process, and built in South Africa, would be able to produce separative work at a lower cost than that of US The Commission continued to review possible alternative methods of enrich- ment and to assess information published in the scientific and patent literature. An diffusion plants. assessment of the flow of gas through nozzles, utilising the latest experimental data AUSTRALIAN DOMESTIC REQUIREMENTS FOR available, indicated that the nozzle process had no economic advantage with respect to both capital and operating costs over the more-developed enrichment processes. ENRICHMENT Experimental, theoretical and assessment studies of the use of lasers and Australia is unlikely to consume more than 30,000 tonnes of uranium in a photochemical processes for the enrichment of uranium continued with the aim of nuclear power program by the year 2000, nor would it require more than J 7 million demonstrating feasibility on a laboratory scale and of assessing recent claims made SWU of enrichment services by that date. These are small quantities on an inter- in the literature. Experimental work has been in three main parts — the preparation national scale. of a range of uranium compounds with suitable spectroscopic and other properties; the design, construction and operation of high-resolution spectrometers interfaced ASSOCIATION FOR CENTRIFUGE ENRICHMENT with computer output systems, and the optimisation of tunable lasers as spectroscopic sources. The Commission became a member of the Association for Centrifuge Enrich- ment (ACE) at its inception in June 1973, and participated in meetings of its Board of Directors and of its Working Group and Economics Sub-group. An assessment study was undertaken involving the release of unclassified information on URENCO-CENTEC centrifuge technology and economics, together with some data on plans for centrifuge plants. A significant part of the work was concerned with a financial and economic analysis of a one million SWU per year centrifuge plant based on technology projected from current research and develop- ment by URENCO-CENTEC. The first phase of the study will be completed during 1974 with the compilation of a comprehensive report for use by ACE members. Future involvement with ACE, or more directly with URENCO-CENTEC, will depend on Govcrnment-to-Government agreement for the release of classified information. 44 45 will be collected from an underground mine face and brought to the analyser for determination of copper concentration. The technique can be applied also to grade control in open-cut mining, either by logging the blast holes with a resonance scatter borehole probe or by analysing samples of drill chippings. The latter method is simpler and gives average mineral content over the length of the blast hole, the main parameter of interest. Field trials for analysis of ores on conveyor belts will be undertaken in 1975. An instrument to measure gamma-ray resonance scattering will be placed under the belt to give continuous determination of the average copper or nickel con- 6 centration of the ore on the belt. This information is required for metallurgical accounting and will enable the sorting of ore into storage bins. Sorting would allow RADI01SOTOPES AND RADIATION control of head grade to the mineral concentrators. Analysis for Elements of High Atomic Number Research is being undertaken to determine high atomic number elements such as lead, tungsten, bismuth and uranium using K shell X-ray fluorescence and low energy gamma-ray backscatter techniques. Advantages are good sensitivity of analysis with simple equipment and that rapid analysis is possible. Preliminary field tests were undertaken to determine tungsten in situ in boreholes at the King Island Scheelite Ltd mine in Tasmania. The Commission continued to meet the increasing demand in Australia for radioisotopes, particularly for nuclear medicine. The use of diagnostic radioactive Pharmaceuticals is a rapidly expanding field of medicine, and Commission research On-stream Analysis of Mineral Slurries made significant contributions to the development of radiophannaceuticals with The radioisotope systems for on-stream analysis of mineral slurries in pro- new or improved functions. Other research was applied successfully to widening cessing plants which have resulted from some years of Commission research and the range of radioisotope and radiation applications in industry. development are now becoming well established in the Australian industry and overseas interest is developing. The equipment is manufactured under licence in Australia for local and overseas markets by Philips Scientific and Industrial RADIOISOTOPE APPLICATIONS Equipment Ltd. The concept, as produced commercially by Philips, gained the 1973 Prince Philip Prize for Australian Design awarded by the Industrial Design Council MINERAL INDUSTRY of Australia. Radioisotope techniques for element analysis have been proved already to A small amount of new development work was carried out during the year. have considerable value in the mineral industry and still have development potential. This included investigation of techniques for analysis of iron in high-grade iron Analysis of Bulk Materials ores, nickel in various ore products, and silver in silver-lead-zinc ores. A joint Techniques using penetrating radiation can be used to obtain average con- plant trial was undertaken with the The Zinc Corporation Ltd to test techniques centrations of elements over large volumes of rock or mineral product. The most for determination of lead and zinc in lead concentrates. promising areas of application for bulk analysis techniques are grade control at Methods for control of mineral concentrators were studied based on continuous the mine face, analysis of ores on conveyor belts, and in situ borehole analysis. analysis of information from radioisotope probes. Analysis for Copper and Nickel HYDROLOGY A gamma-ray resonance scattering technique was developed to determine Nuclear techniques are being applied to a wide range of ground water and copper and nickel in bulk samples. This technique depends on the full-energy surface water studies and are being developed for investigations of sediment trans- scattering of gamma radiation when it is in exact resonance with the nucleus of the port and erosion. element of interest. The method is highly specific to copper and nickel, and has the advantage that element concentration is averaged over large samples of ore (50 kg). Ground Water Studies Determination of 1.0% by weight copper or nickel to an accuracy of ±0.05% by weight can be performed in less than one minute. Patents are held in the USA, The aims of most ground water investigations are to determine the sources of Canada, the UK and other countries for the gamma-ray resonance scattering recharge to aquifer systems and the patterns of ground water flow. In a normal technique of analysis. flowing aquifer, the residence time or "age" of the ground water increases as it Discussions with Australian mineral companies indicated that the most im- moves away from defined recharge areas. The residence time can be determined portant application of the resonance analyser would be for grade control at the by radioactive dating methods. Water samples arc taken over the extent of the mine face. Field trials of a prototype analyser are planned for late 1974; samples aquifer, and the levels of activity of the naturally occurring radioisotopcs tritium 46 47 Left: The lion. Kep Knderhy, M.P., Minister for (hydrogen 3) and carbon 14 arc determined. Residence times of up to 50 years Manufacturing Industry, presented Award Cent- can be estimated from tritium decay and of up to 40,000 years from carbon 14 ftcates to organisations associated with the development of a radioisotope oil-stream analysis decay. From the pattern of residence times, the rate and direction of How can also system, in Adelaide, December 1973. This svstein, be measured. at a previous ceremony had received the 1973 Prince Philip Prize lor Australian Design. Photo- In complex aquifer systems, it is often necessary to determine the extent to graphed here are (L. to R.) Mr Enderhy, Mr li. which ground water is derived from different sources. Estimates can be made from Thoman. Philips Scientific and Industrial Equip- surveys of stable isotope ratios of the hydrogen and oxygen of the water. These ment, and Mr J. S. Wall. Head, A A EC Radioisotope Applications Research Section. Mr Walt headed depend on the temperature of precipitation and the distance from the sea and the Commission team which conceived and therefore normally differ from one recharge area to another. Intermediate values developed the basic analysing techniques. normally indicate mixing. Hydrogen isotope ratios (D/H) arc measured directly from water samples using a commercial mass spectrometer, and high throughput techniques developed by the Commission. It is planned to begin oxygen isotope ratio (18O/16O) measurements in the coming year. A high resolution alpha spectrometer is being built to measure 234U to 238U isotopic ratios in the minute trace of uranium occurring in ground waters. Jn all undisturbed uranium deposits these isotopes occur in a fixed equilibrium ratio. However, 234U is frequently in a chemical form which is more readily dissolved in ground water. The isotope ratio in this water is therefore enhanced in favour of the 234U. The departure of the ratio from equilibrium is readily determined by alpha-ray measurements and can be used to characterise and trace water of a particular origin moving in an aquifer. Furthermore, by radioactive decay of the Right: Trials being wider taken at The Zinc 234 Corporation Ltd, Broken Hill, plant to U over hundreds of thousands of years, the normal equilibrium tends to be prove radioisoiope X-ray techniques far re-established. This may facilitate the dating of very old ground water samples in determining lead and zinc in lead concentrate favourable circumstances. shinies. One radioisotope probe (shown be- hind operator) ix immersed in a tank through A number of ground water systems are being investigated. The Commission which the concentrate is flowing- A number of probes feed signals to the electronic is participating in the Burdekin Artificial Ground Water Recharge Study which equipment, here being adjusted by a member is co-ordinated by the Australian Water Resources Council. An extensive survey of the A A EC Radioisotope Applications of tritium and carbon 14 levels in samples from the Queensland Irrigation and Research Section. Wn'er Supply Commission (IWSC) bores in the Burdekin Delta has confirmed that the principal source of recharge is from the river. By collating the results of a survey of the natural gamma-ray logs of over 50 bores with the standing water levels measured regularly by the IWSC, it was shown that, contrary to previous belief, a large area of the aquifer both north and south of the river was confined or partly confined. Collaboration continued with the Water Conservation and Irrigation Com- mission of NSW in a study of the ground water hydrology of the Namoi Valley. Work in conjunction with the State Electricity Commission of Victoria in the Latrobe Valley was extended; an extensive survey of carbon f 4 levels will be made in an endeavour to trace the sources of recharge to the two principal aquifers underlying the brown coal deposits. Joint work with the Water Resources Branch of the Department of the Northern Territory has commenced to determine sources of recharge to the ground water of the Ayers Rock National Park area. Preparations began for a comprehensive study of the hydrology of the Great Artesian Basin using isotopic methods. The work will be done in association with the Bureau of Mineral Resources. In the first instance, the carbon 14 levels and the 18O/16O and D/H ratios will be surveyed in samples from flowing artesian bores Sampling a mineral slurry from the classifier overflow stream at the New Broken Hill tapping the principal aquifer in the Charleville-Tambo region and in the associated Consolidated Ltd plant. Broken Hill, N.S.W. The two radioisotope probes immersed in the stream provide continuous- analysis for slurry density and lead content. recharge areas. 48 49 Surface Water and Sediment Movement Right: Equipment used to measure Radioisotopc dilution techniques are being applied to river flow measurements gas flow at the Australian Gas in the Parramatta River, Duck River and Homebush Bay areas, Sydney. The work Light Company's gas works at Mortlake, N.S.W. This absolute is being done in collaboration with members of the Chemical Engineering Depart- method for measurement of gax ment of Sydney University who are developing a mathematical model of the upper flow wax developed by the Com- reaches of the Parramatta River. Non-stcady-state techniques are being developed mission and is heing used by A.C.I. to obviate the need to assume complete mixing of the isotope. Measurements will Technical Centre Pty Ltd under thus be possible over small stretches of the river. licence. The Commission developed techniques for labelling colloidal clays and river sediments with dyestuff tracers such as methylene blue and with indium. Applica- tion to sediment transport studies and erosion problems is envisaged. Below: Equipment to detect termite RAD10ISOTOPES IN INDUSTRY damage in railway sleepers is cali- brated at Lucas Heights before Research into industrial applications of radioisotopes has led to a highly being shipped to Western Australia accurate method for the determination of mass gas flow and to a new concept for for field trials. The method of tracing termites. detection was developed by the Commission for the Mt Newman Min'tng Co. Pty Ltd. Gas Flow Measurement The absolute method for measurement of gas flow developed by the Commission is being used now by Australian industry for calibrating continuous measurement instruments on gas pipelines. A.C.I. Technical Centre Pty Ltd is undertaking industrial tests on a consulting basis and under licence to the Commission. A.C.I. scientists were trained by the Commission during the year, and the two organisations jointly developed equipment suitable for routine use. The equipment was used to measure gas flow in a pipeline at the gas works of the Australian Gas Light Company, Mortlake, N.S.W. The Commission intends to prove the method further with the aim of gaining acceptance as a national standard of gas flow measurement. Termite Studies A Commission-developed method for tracing termite activity introduces a new concept into the tracing of social insects and has potential for extension to economic eradication. The insects are fed baits containing an insoluble radioactive compound which is rapidly excreted. As termites use excreta in making the walls of their underground nests, the location of the nests can be determined using a portable radiation detector even though the termites may be up to one metre underground. In collaborative field trials with the Forest Research Institute in the Northern Territory, 36 nesting sites of termites over an area 60m x 54m were found by using the radioisotope method. This was a particularly dramatic result since previous attempts to trace nesting systems by excavation have been only partly successful and very time-consuming. Termites are causing considerable damage to railway sleepers between Ml Newman and Port Hedland, Western Australia, and it is important that attacked sleepers be located quickly to avoid possible interruption of rail traffic. Termite damage is frequently not visible by external inspection. A radiation scatter technique to detect damaged sleepers from a vehicle moving along the track was 50 51 developed by the Commission. The equipment is in the final stages of laboratory elements silicon and germanium. However, these elemental detectors suffer from testing before being used in field trials in Western Australia. After damaged several operational disadvantages. They must be used at near-liquid-nitrogen sleepers are located by this equipment, the termite tracing technique described temperature and, therefore, must be housed in cryostats, which is a serious practical above will be used to find the nesting systems. inconvenience. In addition, these detectors are not very efficient detectors of gamma radiation. RADIATION RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS The problem of poor gamma-ray efficiency and the requirement for cooling may be overcome by the use of certain compound semiconductor materials, and RADIATION STERILISATION considerable effort has been devoted to developing procedures for growing ultra- The use of radiation to sterilise products, principally disposable medical pure, single crystal layers of the material gallium arsenide (GaAs). The potential equipment and some foodstuffs, is a world-wide, multi-million-dollar industry which application of GaAs was demonstrated for the first time in Commission work is continuing to expand. Three large commercial irradiators are now in operation during 1970. in Australia. Two of these arc exclusively concerned with sterilisation of medical Thin layer specimens of GaAs were produced recently with improved electrical and other products. characteristics when manufactured into small prototype nuclear detectors. In view of the increasing importance and growth of radiation sterilisation Although the detectors were very thin (around 200 micrometres), they showed methods, the Commission continued its own research and maintained a watching good energy resolution when measuring ionising radiations. Refinements in the brief on world developments. Commission work on the effect of hydrostatic pressure in reducing radiation dose progressed with the determination of optimum condi- method of crystal growth of this compound have led to improvements in material quality. tions of temperature and pressure for several species of aerobic bacterial spores. With milk as the test system, work is being extended to anaerobic bacterial spores High quality, single crystals of germanium are now grown routinely as part such as Clostridium botulimim. The latter research is important for the method of a Commission program to develop ultra-pure material for radiation detectors. to achieve acceptance for processing foodstuffs. Progress rests on improving the purity of the feed material to the crystal puller. A zone refiner was designed and bulk and is operating satisfactorily. RADIATION MEASUREMENT Measurement and identification of the residual impurities in germanium have Radiation Dosimetry proved extremely difficult since the threshold sensitivities of most analytical techniques lie considerably above the impurity concentration (one impurity atom Effective and efficient commercial use of radiation depends on the ability to per 1012 germanium atoms). measure radiation dose accurately. In Australia, a dose of 2.5 megarads is accepted While detectors made from ultra-pure germanium must still be operated at officially as the minimum required for effective sterilisation for a particular product liquid-nitrogen temperature, they are storable at ordinary temperatures without in the absence of contrary evidence. The Commission developed and patented an deterioration of their detection properties, as occurs in the present conventional instrument which greatly facilitates the routine measurement of dose at megarad detectors. This could lead to increasing application outside the laboratory. levels under production conditions. It is based on an improved form of the widely recognised cerous-ceric chemical dosemeter and converts the degree of chemical change produced by radiation in a capsule of cerous-ceric solution to a direct digital display of megarad dose. Radioactivity Standards The method has been used successfully, over a period of several years, in The principal aim of the Radioisotope Standards Group is to establish and a routine dosimetry calibration service provided by the Commission to two com- improve measurement procedures for radioactivity standardisations of all radio- mercial irradiator companies in Australia. Negotiations began during the year to nuclides for which absolute reference is likely to be required. This is an extensive allow one of the leading world suppliers of industrial and experimental irradiation and many-sided undertaking since no two radionuclides can be standardised by equipment to make a commercial evaluation of the instrument with a view to exactly the same procedure. rr arketing under licence. The radiation treatment of cancer is another use of radiation where the dose Specific ionisation couits have been recorded which were obtained with cali- must be monitored closely. In this instance, the dose is usually of the sub-kilorad brated solutions placed in a standard 4iry ionisation chamber. Monitoring pro- order. There is need for a simple, reliable dosemeter in this dose range. The ferrous cedures have been developed which ensure that subsequent reference measurements sulphate chemical dosemeter is one of the most widely used, however its lower of this library of radionuclides can be carried out to an accuracy of 0.15% at the dose limit for reliable measurement is about four kilorads. This is too high for 99% confidence level. During the past year, refinements in methods of producing convenient use in radiation teletherapy. Research is being directed towards modify- extremely low mass, highly reproducible counting sources from the radioactive ing the ferrous sulphate system chemically to extend its lower dose range. material to be standardised, and in identifying and correcting for small errors in the electronic counting procedures, further improved the accuracy of the results. Radiation Detectors An encouraging verification of the accuracy achieved is the first result of an inteK-omparison of 4fiSc activity organised by the International Atomic Energy Radiation detectors capable of giving precise measurement of the energy of Agency as part of an international intercomparison scheme where agreement was ionising radiations can be made from very pure single crystals of the semiconductor achieved within the stated accuracy of 0.11%. 52 53 more-subtle changes in wool under irradiation. These arc important in determining the effect of chemical treatments involving radiation. RADIOB1OLOGY OF HUMAN CANCER A project begun jointly last year with the Department of Radiotherapy, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, was continued. The project is seeking ways to improve the clinical efficiency of radiotherapy by studying the individual responses of tumour cells, taken from patients or from animals with experimental tumours, and deter- mining how these may be modified by changes in the mode of irradiation. Progress was slow with cultures from fragments of human tumours because the success rate for culture is low. Methods of growing animal tumour cell in suspension cultures, in such a way that they aggregate into tumourlcls, arc more promising and are being investigated. In this way, model tumours were produced which arc large enough to show differential rates of cell oxygcnation and division across the structure, a point of importance to satisfactory radiotherapy. RADLOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND SERVICES PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION Net sales of radioactive materials produced by the Commission between 1 April 1973 and 31 March 1974 totalled $626,300. The number of shipments increased Calonicx oj melanoma cells growing in soft agai us i>uil u\ a juini suidy by ihc by approximately 2%. Sales of small radiation sources for industrial applications, Commission and the Department oj Radiotherapy, Prince oj Wales Hospital, Sydney. The study is aimed at improving the clinical efficiency of radiotherapy. mainly radiography and gauge sources, increased overall by 7%. The smaller increase in sales as compared with previous years was due mainly to a decline in the number of cobalt 60 teletherapy sources sold — down from five Standards for Radiation Dosimetry in 1973 valued at $90,000, to three in 1974 valued at $32,600. The demand for Satisfactory standards for radiation dosimctry arc required for radiation pro- teletherapy cobalt 60 has always fluctuated considerably due to the relatively tection and for irradiation facilities and services. The Commission is meeting these small numbers of teletherapy units in the Australasian area. These units require requirements by a joint development program with the Australian Radiation source replacement every three or four years. Laboratory, Melbourne, concentrating on measurements of absorbed dose. The Apart from these sources, the total sales of all other products increased from aluminium calorimeter referred to in the Commission's previous Annual Report approximately $530,000 in 1972-73 to $570,000 during the past year, of which has been used to calibrate a thimble ionisation chamber which can be used to medical products formed the major proportion, increasing from about $455,000 measure absorbed dose rate in aluminium and water. Verification with ferrous to $505,000 (see Graphs on page 56 and Tables 1 and 2). sulphate dosimctry has established satisfactory accuracy. The stability of the In addition to Commission-produced materials, a total of 1,622 shipments calorimeter has remained within the detectable limits (±0.2%). Work continued of non-medical materials was approved by the Commission for importation into on constructing a standard graphite calorimeter, a graphite ion chamber and a Australia during the period. graphite phantom which will constitute the final standards. The supply of Commission-produced solid and liquid radioactive products for scientific and specialised mcdica! applications and the production of medical im- plants was interrupted by the shutdown of H1FAR reactor for maintenance between RADIATION POLYMERISATION June and mid-September 1973. During this period, the supply of most essential Emphasis in radiation polymerisation research is moving towards emulsion radioactive products was maintained by the importation of radioactive bulk material polymerisation which has several advantages in industrial-scale operations, including for processing at the Research Establishment. This involved critical timing of more efficient heat removal and more effective control of the reaction. Gamma-ray transport and supply operations between the West Coast of the USA und the initiation of the reactions is a significant factor in better control and Commission Commission's Research Establishment at Lucas Heights. The operation was research is investigating ways in which gamma-radiation can be used more efficiently possible only because one of the few world suppliers of such materials is in San in this type of process. Francisco and this city has direct air transport connection with Sydney. Radiation initiated polymerisation can be used also to graft a particular poly- Following development by the Commission of an improved bone-scanning mer on to another synthetic or naturally-occurring polymer substrate to alter its agent, technetium 99m polyphosphate ("Skeltec"), production of fluorine was dis- physical or chemical properties. In association with the CSIRO Division of Textile continued in 1972. In addition to being superior in medical function, the new Physics, work continued on the possibility of changing wool properties by small, product is more economic to produce and is available in substantial quantities. low-dose additions of grafted polymers. Effort concentrated mainly on evaluating the Demand for "Skeltec" has increased rapidly since its introduction, approximately 54 55 SUPPLY OF RADIOISOTOPES FROM ISOTOPE DIVISION 1973-74 (For the period 1 April 1973 to 31 March 1974) USE AND TYPE SHIPMENTS ACTIVITY VALUE $ ANNUAL SALES VALUE OF RADIOISOTOPES WITHIN AUSTRALIA Industrial. MANUFACTURED BY AAEC Radiography sources 240 4,873 Ci 37,400 Sealed sources 83 5,044 mCi 6,200 Miscellaneous 36 16,691 mCi 1,200 Total for industrial use 359 44,800 (NOTE• VALUES EXCLUDE LARGE COBALT 60 Non-Medical Research IRRAD/A TION AND TELETHERAPY SOURCES) Cobalt 60 irradiation sources 4 28,300 Ci 23,500 Neutron irradiations 115 3,700 Solutions, etc. 621 5,771 mCi 10,200 Total for research use 740 37,400 Medical Radioisotope implants 37 4,563 mCi 1,800 Miscellaneous solutions 824 4,520 mCi 10,100 Lyophilised reagents 56 2,800 Iodine 131 263 48,886 mCi 19,800 Technetium 99m solutions for diagnosis 16,627 803,400 mCi 416,400 Molybdenum 99 solutions and generators 468 226,393 mCi 52,800 Cobalt 60 teletherapy sources 1 3,956 Ci 10,700 $100,000 i Total for medical use 18,276 514,400 S50000 EXPORT S25.000 Radiography sources 17 652 Ci 5,600 Miscellaneous for research 8 2,002 mCi 800 1969 \ 1970 Solutions and implants for TOTAL SALES VALUE —o-o-o-o— RESEARCH medical use 26 1,730 mCi 1,400 TOTAL NON-MEDICAL »=*=~=~=-==«= TOTAL MEDICAL (including exports) Cobalt 60 teletherapy sources 2 7,272 Ci 21,900 INDUSTRIAL -"—>< »< "- TOTAL EXPORTS (including medical) Total for export 53 29,700 20,000 , - — 1 Total AAEC production 19,428 626,300 31 MARCH 31 MARCH I 15,000 ANNUAL SHIPMENTS OF AAEC TABLE 2 PRODUCED RADIOISOTOPES TOTAL SALES VALUE OF AAEC PRODUCED RADIOISOTOPES 10,000 SINCE 1961 Cobalt 60 for Cobalt 60 for Total of all Grand Total Radiotherapy Industrial and Other Products Scientific 5.000 Irradiation $ $ $ $ Total to 31 March 1973 527,000 121,000 1,736,100 2,384,100 1974 Total for 1973-1974 32,600 23,500 570,200 626,300 Total to 31 March 1974 559,600 144,500 2,306,300 3,010,400 56 57 66,000 mCi being supplied by the Commission during the past year, valued at $42,000, compared with 3,200 mCi of fluorine 18 ($44,000) supplied in 1972-73. Medical demand for technetium 99m continued to rise during the past year. The supply of ready-to-injcct solutions showed an increase of 38% in activity and 24% in monetary value. The supply figures for technetium 99m generators and molybdenum 99 solutions increased by 44% in activity and 60% in value. Molyb- denum 99 solution is supplied mainly to the Australian Radiation Laboratory, Department of Health, t\ • bulk processing and dispensing in Melbourne. The large increase in the supply of tcchnctium 99m generators and molybdenum 99 solutions reflects the beginning of a new mode of radiopharmaceutical supply by the Commission. This consists of the supply of Commission-produced freeze - dried (lyophiliscd) reagents, with long shelf lives, which may be reconstituted as scanning agents at the place of application by adding technetium 99m (extracted from technetium 99m generators or from molybdenum 99 solution). Wherever practicable, the Commission has encouraged this method of supply as it permits a reduction of wastage due to radioactive decay. In addition, the A hove: Freeze-drying machine at Philips-Dnphar Ply Ltd, supply of frceze-dried reagents by the Commission is a highly practical proposition Sydney, being used to prepare lyophilised reagent!,. for export to New Zealand and other countries in the Pacific area. Following this process the reagent can he used later to The routine use of Lyophiliscd Renal Reagent (for kidney studies) and prepare a .specific radiopharmacentical hy the addition of Lyophilised Pcntastan Reagent (for brain scanning) is now well established in teclinetiiini 99m as perlec/inetate. Australian hospitals, with regular monthly orders of 160 and 80 patient doses Left: Whole-body scan following injection of a lyophilised respectively. Lyophilised Renal Reagent was sold to a Canadian hospital. stannons pyrophosphale complex for skeletal imaging. The The field of nuclear medicine is still expanding rapidly in terms of techniques scan shows areas oj increased reagent tip-lake indicating hone abnormalities. (Scan: Department of Nuclear available and demand for them. A restraining factor appearing on the Australian Medicine, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney.) scene is the rate at which approved clinics can be supplied with the increasingly sophisticated electronic and scanning equipment needed and the limited availability Lyophilised Reagents of medical specialists and technicians. Lt is expected that these limitations will A lyophilised stannous pyrophosphatc complex for bone scanning has been substantially disappear in several years with the now established plans to equip subjected to an extensive human pilot study. Results show this reagent to be clinics and to train staff. superior to the previously used "Skeltec" made from sodium tripolyphospruitc. Considerable emphasis is being placed on quality testing methods and When the new compound is accepted by the Department of Health for general facilities, product safety and efficacy assessments for pharmaceutical products sup- use, the output of the present production unit will be increased. plied by the Commission. An independent group has been established to cover the A pilot study on a lyophiliscd liver-scanning reagent has begun and results chemical, physical and biological aspects of quality assurance and testing. obtained to date indicate that this reagent may prove satisfactory for clinical use. A. 24,000 Ci cobalt 60 gamma-radiation source produced by the Commission was installed in a gamma sterilisation plant at Lucas Heights to enable routine New Radiopharmaceuticals production of frecze-dried pharmaceuticals. A technetium 99m-labelled antibiotic, tetracycline, has shown a strong tendency to localise in tumours in animal experiments. Extensive trials with animals Extension to the Radiopharmaceutical Laboratories bearing transplanted tumours have provided the data required to seek permission A new wing to the radiopharmaceutical laboratories is Hearing completion. for a limited pilot study on humans. A submission for this is under consideration The extension will provide adequate space for increased production of technetium at present by the Department of Health. Preliminary experiments indicate that this 99m-based radiopharmaccuticals and for separate quality control laboratories. product may also be supplied in a lyophilised form. Additional laboratories will be available for research and development. 6-Mercaptopurine has been labelled with technetium 99m and tested in animals as a potential agent for visualising the gall bladder and bile ducts. These animal experiments have shown that the compound provides excellent indications of gall bladder and bile duct morphology as well as an assessment of hepatic RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT function. Data is being collected to determine the toxicity and pharmacology of Continued co-operation with teaching hospitals and related organisations led this preparation in order to seek approval for a human pilot study. to further advances in the development of lyophilised (frecze-dricd) reagents. Technetium 99m Generators Improvements in technetitim 99m generator yields have been achieved; new methods The problem of elution efficiency of technetium 99m generators decreasing were also developed for more-accurate assessment of radiation close in radio- after a few days has been solved by the discovery that efficiency may be maintained pharmaceutical use. at a uniformly high level by the addition of 0.5 parts per million of potassium 58 59 Right: .Y'-Hiy showing the use oj dichroniiitc to the saline used for clution. This dichromate is completely adsorbed radioactive gold 19S grains in the on the alumina of the column and no chromium in any chemical form has been treatment of a malignant tumour on clctccljcl in the cluatc. the neck. The accurate placing of ihf grains was achieved hy the use Radiation Dose from Radiopharmaceuticals of tin after-loading technii/ne in which the string.', of gold grains The need to provide users and authorities responsible for approvals with were inserted in prepositioned complete information on the safety of radiopharmaccuticals, has initiated a study catheters. (A'-ray: Department of of the methods of determining internal radiation doses to the patient from these Radiotherapy. Prince of \l'ules products. Hospital. Sydney.) Using activity distributions and biological behaviour determined during clinical trials, supplemented where necessary by animal studies, doses have been determined for the technetium 99m compounds sodium pertechnetate, "Skeltec", and the gluconate complex for renal scanning. In co-operation with the Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, biological data required for the dosimctry of a recently developed, Below: Ytterbium 169 radiograph lyophiliscd, bone-scanning agent is being collected and interpreted. An assessment of portion of the nose cowl of ti of the expected radiation dose has been made for caesium 134m. This nuclide is Boeing 747 jet engine. The purpose being investigated as a possible heart muscle scanning agent. of the inspection was to ensure that Dose assessments are generally made using physical data published by the maintenance procedures had been satisfactorily completed. Internal Medical Internal Radiation Dose Committee (MIRD) in the USA. This data and details, including the honeycomb the MIRD procedure for dose determinations have been incorporated into a sound absorbing panel, are shown. FORTRAN program (DOSE) for the IBM360 computer. This permits rapid calcula- (Radiograph: Qantas Airways tion of the dose to all organs of the body for a given activity distribution and removal Limited, Sydney.) pattern. To overcome a number of gaps and lack of accuracy in some of the published data, more-fundamental studies arc now in progress of the tissue absorption of radiation emitted from internally deposited nuclides. RADIATION SOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Sealed Sources for Therapy There are indications from medical sources that the use of reactor-produced radioisotopes will increase in the near future in place ol the conventional radium and radon. The most likely material will be radioactive gold 198 in the form of platinum-sheathed wire suitable for use with conventional implantation needles. The production of this material in comparatively large quantities is being investigated. Flexible plastic strings containing gold 198 or indium 192 grains were originally developed by the Commission for use in a simple at'terloading implantation system. These strings are being used also to treat surface tumours. In the latter technique, a number of strings containing an appropriate radioactivity distribution are positioned in a suitable pattern in a surface mould which is placed over the treatment area. As treatment is usually given over an extended period, long-lived iridium 192 is the preferred radioisotope. The accompanying X-ray shows the use of gold 198 grains in the treatment of a large tumour on the neck. Ytterbium 169 Industrial Radiography Sources The development of ytterbium 169 as a source of relatively soft radiation for particular industrial radiography applications was outlined in previous Commission Annual Reports. Sources have been supplied to indust^al radiographers and test laboratories for assessment purposes. Encouraging repou., have been received. The Garden Island Naval Dockyard Laboratory, Sydney, has used ytterbium 169 successfully for the radiography of boiler tube banks. This work is difficult with 60 61 conventional X-ray equipment. The widely used radioisotope iridiiim 192 is not suitable because of the thin tube walls involved. The laboratory has indicated that ytterbium 169 can be used in a technique, at present being evaluated, for the quantitative estimate of pit depth in boiler tubes. Ytterbium 169 has been used by Qantas Airways Ltd in the post-maintenance inspection of a Boeing 747 engine nose cowl. The internal details of this part of the aircraft are seen clearly in the accompanying radiograph. The economics of using ytterbium 169 on a routine basis are being assessed at the present time. Ytterbium's relatively short half-life (31 days), with the consequent need for frequent source replacement, is the main disadvantage and demands a high utilisation factor for economic application. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7 In the development of radiopharmaceuticals and radiation sources, the Com- mission wishes to acknowledge the co-operation and participation of the following organisations. GENERAL NUCLEAR SCIENCE Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney Department of Nuclear Medicine Development of tcchnetium 99m-labelled tetracycline, technetium 99m-labelled 6-mercaptopurine and caesium 134m cardiac scanning agent. This chapter gives an account of general nuclear science activities at Lucas Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney Heights, including examples of work which have contributed to nuclear science and Development of lyophilised pyrophosphate Department of Nuclear Medicine the development of specialised techniques. In addition, the chapter contains reports reagent for skeletal imaging, lyophilised on the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering and the Australian colloid reagent for iiver scanning, and School of Nuclear Technology, both of which are based at Lucas Heights. lyophilised tru.croaggregated ferrous hydroxide reagent (MAFH) for lung A brief description of Commission reseaich programs in progress at 30 June scanning. 1974 at the Research Establishment is given in Appendix D. Department of Radiotherapy Development of afterloading and plaque products consisting of multiple small radiation sources. NUCLEAR SCIENCE Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth Department of Nuclear Medicine CHEMISTRY OF THE ACTINIDES Institute of Medical and Veterinary Improvement of design and performance Science, A delaide of chromatographic technetium 99m Although commercial processes are well-established for the extraction and Department of Nuclear Medicine generators. purification of uranium, the production of uranium hexafluoride and the separation Queensland Radium Institute, Brisbane of plutonium from used reactor fuels, there are still many gaps in the knowledge of. Department of Nuclear Medicine the basic chemistry of the actinide elements. The Commission has a small program in this area which is designed to provide basic information on aspects where Philips-Duphar Pty Ltd, Sydney Development of freeze-drying techniques. published information is either not available or contradictory. The program includes investigations into structural chemistry, the properties of plutonium ions in solution, National Biological Standards Labora-"\ Deve'^'tient of design criteria for phar- the mechanisms of oxidation-reduction reactions in aqueous media, and the rates tory, Canberra }• IT. u:euii' al laboratories. of various gas-solid reactions. NSW Health Commission, Sydney Earlier work on structural chemistry was done by X-ray diffraction methods which, as distinct from neutron diffraction methods, are limited in their ability to Qantas Airways Ltd locate light halogen atoms co-ordinated to heavy actinide atoms. As advanced Department of Defence, Naval Dock- Evaluation of ytterbium 169 radiation neutron diffraction techniques are available at Lucas Heights, the Commission has yard, Sydney sources applied to industrial radiography. maintained a program on the structural and preparative chemistry of actinidc halides Engineering Testing and Research and allied compounds. Some of the compounds studied recently are UF,;, UO-.F.., Services Pty Ltd, Sydney ] UOF4, UO»Clo, UC1:,, UC1,, UC1,.,, UBr:t, UBr,, UBr,, Ul,, UOC1, and UO,C1. 62 63 The mechanisms of the oxidation-reduction reactions of the actinide ions are being studied by stopped-flow methods which permit measurement of reactions normally requiring only a few milliseconds for completion. The apparatus is linked to a computerised data acquisition system. The use of this equipment has provided new insight into reactions such as the disproportionation of U(V) ions. Investigations into the rates of gas-solid reactions have led to the observation that certain metals are highly effective catalysts for reactions such as the oxidation of uranium tetrafluoride, and the reduction of uranyl fluoride and uranium oxides. This, in turn, led to the development of a potential commercial process for the production of uranium hexafluoride which does not require the use of elemental fluorine at any stage. Patent applications based on these studies were lodged in Australia and overseas. RADIATION CYTOGENETICS Radiation workers are required to wear dosemeters when working in areas where exposure to radiation is possible. Nevertheless, it sometimes happens that dosemeter readings are ambiguous or lacking, or that accidents or procedural errors lead to unanticipated radiation exposure which is not recorded. In these circum- stances some biological measure of an exposure would be invaluable. A number of biochemical indicators have been suggested but none has been found to be of Set of chromosomes from a hitman hlood lymphocyte. Arrow points to an abnormal chromosome rarely seen in tlie blood cells of normal individuals practical use. hut found in increasing numbers in persons exposed to whole-body penetrat- It has been known for some time that radiation can produce microscopically ing ionising radiation. Enumeration of such chromosomes can he used as a visible chromosome aberrations in populations of dividing ceiis. Following the biological dosemeter of radiation exposure, useful in cases where the authen- development of a cytogenetic technique which simplified the observation of chromo- ticity of a film badge exposure is in doubt or in over-exposures where no film badge is worn. somes in lymphocytes of the peripheral blood, a number of laboratories concerned with radiobiology began to study this effect as a potential measure of radiation dose. The Commission's Research Establishment was among these and has maintained OXIDATION OF URANIUM DIOXIDE FUEL PELLETS an interest in cytogenetics, not only for biological dosimetry but as a valuable DURING HYDROGEN SINTERING radiobiological research tool. During pilot-scale studies of the preparation of uranium dioxide fuel pellets Work has been carried out to establish a relationship which can be used to by cold-pressing and sintering, the surfaces of sintered pellets sometimes were estimate the dose received if blood from an exposed person is examined with care- extensively crazed. This problem was solved by catalytic purification of the hydrogen fully standardised techniques. One limitation is that the lower limit of sensitivity of sintering atmosphere. the test is JO to 20 rem of whole-body irradiation. This is not as low as desirable, A basic study on the mechanism of crazing was undertaken and yielded but quite low enough to be of use. No case of unexpected radiation exposure of this unexpected results. Metallographic and X-ray diffraction results from the surfaces magnitude has occurred at Lucas Heights, but the test facilities are available to of crazed pellets indicated that crazing was the result of surface oxidation at a external authorities and have proved useful either to confirm over-exposure or to temperature of 800°C or higher. However, when UO^ pellets were heated in a show that none has been incurred. In one instance, two radiographers employed in small laboratory furnace at 900-1,000°C, no crazing occurred with an atmosphere industry were found to have received accidental doses of about 29 rem. With one a of hydrogen containing the same amount of oxygen impurity as in the pilot-scale film badge reading of 22 rem was available, but the other's overdose had not been work. Crazing did occur, however, when the pellets were heated in helium contain- recorded and it was not known whether there had been one. No other method ing traces of oxygen. A study was carried out of the rate of reaction between of verification was available. hydrogen and oxygen in furnace environments at temperatures up to 90CTC. The The presence of chromosome aberrations also can provide a useful marker for rate of this reaction increases rapidly with increasing temperature, but occurs the production of cell injury when established cell cultures are irradiated in vitro. primarily at the walls of the furnace. In a large furnace the rate of diffusion of the Studies at Lucas Heights, carried out in conjunction with the Department of Zoology, hydrogen and oxygen molecules to the furnace walls can be rate-controlling. This University of Tasmania, have used cultured cell lines from a marsupial, the potoroo, means that hydrogen and oxygen can co-exist for significant times at higher temp- for this purpose. This animal's cells, like those of most marsupials, have a low eratures in a large furnace than in a small furnace. In fact oxygen can be retained in chromosome number which facilitates identification of particular chromosomes. hydrogen gas for long enough at temperatures up to 900°C to oxidise the surfaces Research of this sort helps in understanding the mechanism of the action of radiation of UCX pellets. This was established by sampling gas from the appropriate tempera- in producing biological effects. ture region of a large furnace. 64 65 NEUTRON EMISSION FROM INDIVIDUAL FISSION a variety of radiation counting techniques. The distinctive advantages of NAA FRAGMENTS include its accuracy for single elements at very low concentrations (microgram/ gram to nanogram/gram), the ability to provide information on many elements in a Over the past four years, the Commission has carried out measurements of the single analysis, the possibility of non-destructive analysis and the use of very small neutron emission from individual fission fragments as a ('unction of the mass, charge samples (fractions of a milligram). NAA is being used by the Commission in a wide and total kinetic energy of the fragments. As well as providing microscopic fission variety of applications ranging from identification of micro-constituents of minerals, data, the experiments contributed to the fundamental understanding of the nature of determination of mercury in fish and pesticide residues in wheat, dating of old the deformed fragments with regard to their nuclear structure and their de-excitation 235 master paintings, to forensic science. General emphasis has been on joint projects mechanisms. The thermal neutron fission of U and the spontaneous fission of with other national laboratories and organisations. 252Cf have been studied so far. The use of NAA techniques to determine rare earth elements, particularly the FISSION PRODUCT YIELD ANALYSIS heavy rare earths, at low trace element levels (nanogram/gram) is being investigated Optimisation of the performance of nuclear reactors requires an accurate with the CS1RO Division of Mineralogy as part of a study of methods for locating knowledge of the relative yields of approximately 1,000 individual fission products, nickel orebodies. In association with Prince Henry Hospital, Sydney, lung biopsy even though most of them are produced only in small quantities. Theoretical samples have been analysed for tungsten as part of an investigation into the effect of predictions from the known physics of the fission process are in poor agreement hard welding materials on the human lung. with observed measurements of yields of the products. NAA was selected as a reference method for determination of chlorine and As part of the Commission's contribution to international nuclear data projects, bromine in wheat for comparison with an in-the-field method developed by the the state of the art in this field was reviewed for an International Atomic Energy CSIRO Division of Entomology as part of its program on pest control by fumiga- Agency panel meeting. This led to an empirical approach from which it was found tion. NAA was selected in preference to alternative methods which involved ashing, that any measured mass yield curve could be described well by the sum of from thus introducing the possibility of loss of halides by volatilisation. The chlorine and three to five distinct normal probability curves. This means that the complicated bromine concentrations were in the ranges of 700 to 1,000 and <1 to 3 microgram/ task of predicting the dependence of the yields on both atomic mass and number is gram, respectively. separated into two (simpler) problems — one of understanding the systematics of the A sample of paint weighing a fraction of a milligram was taken from a normal distribution parameters which describe the mass yield curves, and one of possible old master painting and analysed by NAA techniques. By comparing the describing the charge dependence of the yields for a given mass number. This second concentrations of copper and zinc in the sample with these reported for authentic problem is being studied at present. paintings, it was established that the painting was of pre-1850 origin and possibly a Titian. NEUTRON CAPTURE The Australian National University Department of Prehistory is being assisted One set of data required tor fast reactors is knowledge of the absorption in the characterisation of various obsidian sources and then matching artefacts to probability of neutrons in the reactor materials and fission fragments. Direct these sources. Samples from Melanesia, New Zealand, Fergusson and Banks Islands measurements on unstable fission fragments are not practical so calculations of were characterised by comparing the ratios of various minor elements to iron. capture probabilities and resultant gamma-ray spectra are made from trends derived Two officers of the Commonwealth Police Force are attached to the Research from systematic measurements on stable nuclei. The calculations require a Establishment to use the NAA and radiochemical facilities for forensic analysis, knowledge of the relative contributions of the two types of neutron interaction. A new technique has been developed to measure the p-wavc interaction probability. URANIUM ANALYSIS It makes use of the measur/d variation of the intensities of a number of gamma-rays 235 emitted from a natural cadmium sample as the neutron energy is varied. These Detection of delayed neutrons following thermal fission of U provides a gamma-rays have emission probabilities which are high for p-wave interactions and cheap, reliable and sensitive method for the analysis of natural uranium (approxim- 238 235 low for s-wave interactions. Extension of the process to other nuclei will enable ately 99.3% U and 0.7% U) in ore samples. The method is non-destructive, systematic behaviour to be studied. insensitive to the physical format of the sample, repeatable and highly specific. Following development work, the Commission in December 1973 introduced a service for the mineral industry for assay of such ores. A maximum of 50 samples DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUES can be measured per hour. A 1 millilitre sample containing 2 ppm can be measured with an accuracy of ±2%. As part of the Commission's research program, some work is applied to the Since the service to industry began, five commercial companies and five govern- development of techniques. These techniques may be needed for the Commission's mental or university organisations have used the facilities. More than 2,000 samples program or to provide a service to other organisations. Some examples are given were assayed. Work is continuing to extend the method to analysis of environmental below. water samples. NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS PROMPT NUCLEAR ANALYSIS Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is a sensitive analytical technique in which samples are irradiated in a high-flux nuclear reactor for a selected period, ranging Prompt nuclear analysis is a technique which uses the radiation emitted during from a few seconds to a month, and the resultant radioactive species identified by a nuclear reaction to determine the amount of specific nuclides present in a sample. 66 67 Proton Capture — Determination of Light Nuclides When protons strike a sample at energies up to 3 MeV they penetrate a thin layer and cause nuclear reactions, particularly in any light nuclide. Gamma-rays from these reactions can be used to determine the type and amount of such nuclides present. The method was applied successfully to a study of the surface contamination of zirconium alloys. It was shown that fluorine from the etching process was retained in the surface oxide film even after prolonged corrosion of the metal in pressurised water at 290°C. Retained fluorine is detrimental to subsequent corrosion behaviour. Encapsulated ore samples for In addition to its high sensitivity for trace amounts of fluorine — less than 0.01 uranium assay heinx loaded into microgram per square centimetre is detectable — the reaction was used to analyse the "Moata" research reactor's de- layed neutron activation analysis the fluorine distribution in depth within a limited range of a few micrometres by varying the energy of the proton beam. RADIOGRAPHY Radiography with Radioisotopes Radioisotope sources enable relatively cheap, portable and sturdy equipment to be used for industrial radiography. The Commission produces and supplies to industry radioactive cobalt 60, caesium 137 and iridium 192 sources and has carried out development work for many years to establish the optimum exposure conditions. These sources are suitable for the majority of industrial applications. •ast to activation analysis which employs radiation from radioactive I in a sample after exposure to neutrons or other nuclear particles. m's 3 MeV accelerator and the reactor "Moata" were used to develop : prompt nuclear analysis of various nuclides. Because of the number ctions that can be used for analysis purposes and the fragmentary •mation on these techniques, a special summary was prepared of rs and applications of prompt nuclear analysis. pture drifted germanium detector is used for precision measurements of the :nsity of gamma-rays produced by capture of thermal neutrons in a different gamma-rays are usually observed and computer-assisted to attribute them to specific nuclides in the sample and to derive with a high probability for neutron capture and which give off ong gamma-rays are most easily detected by this method. These ic, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, Neutron radiograph print of coaxial X-radiograph print of the same coaxial cable connector taken by the indium cable connector. The Teflon com- copper, zinc, gold and mercury. Tests showed that 100 ppm of foil transfer technique in a 100 kW ponent within the metal case is not ) gram sample of wheat can be detected with a measurement time of thermal neutron (1 x I07 neutrons/ resolved. Radiograph taken at ISO kV :tion of various metals in ores was tested also. cm'/sec) beam. Exposure to indium on £>7 X--ray film at 50 mA sec. Soil 15 min and one hour to £)7 68 X-ray film. 69 Investigations are proceeding to develop other radioisotope sources for specific tasks. One example ytterbium 169 yields radiographs of thin sections with acceptable sensitivity. It provides an alternative to X-radiography for steel less than 13 mm thick and for aluminium less than 50 mm thick, and extends the lower limit of material thickness which can be radiographed using gamma-rays (see Chapter 6, Lejt: (A) Neutron radiograph page 62). prim of an automobile fuel in- jector taken by tin- indium foil Neutron Radiography transfer technique. Thermal Neutron radiography is a non-destructive testing technique which is comple- neutron beam I x JO1 neutrons/ mentary to X- and gamma-radiographic examination methods. Its advantages are cm'/xec. Foil exposure time 15 that it can be used to differentiate between certain elements whose atomic numbers nun. with foil exposure to D7 X-ray film for one how. The are close together (e.g., boron and aluminium), or alternatively to locate light, neutron radiograph reveals the hydrogenous materials within or behind thick sections of heavier materials, such nylon holding hush of the jet as steel. adjusting screw and the nylon At present, neutron radiography is available only in association with a nuclear filter at the ban' of the fuel injector. reactor. It has particular application in nuclear research for radiograohy of radio- active materials which would fog the film if conventional X-radiography was used. Left: (B) X-ratliograpli print of The capabilities of neutron radiography are being investigated using a beam the same injector. The jet adjust- of neutrons from "Moata" reactor. The neutron beam diameter is approximately ing screw is clearly visible, hut 40 mm at the target position and this limits the size of objects which can be the nylon components are not examined. Development has included determination of the energy of the neutron readily resolved. The radiograph taken at 200 kV on D7 film at beam, standardisation of the exposure and film development times for the specific 50 mA sec. method used, and examination of objects suitable for testing by neutron radiography. The method is now established as a readily available non-destructive testing service. ANODIC STRIPPING VOLTAMMETRY Recent emphasis on the health hazards of heavy metals has created a need for the development of sensitive, accurate methods for their determination at very low concentrations. It is important that threshold levels of heavy metals in natural waters and other environmental samples be determined so that any increases in such levels in the future can be detected and the source of pollution identified. Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) is now established as a most important technique for the analysis of trace metals in environmental samples. Since the technique involves preconcentration of the heavy metal by electrolysis at a mercury electrode, it is best suited to determination of metals forming revers- ible amalgams with mercury such as zinc, cadmium, thallium, indium, lead, tin, copper, antimony, bismuth and silver. For these metals, the sensitivity of the anodic stripping voltammetric determination is, in most instances, at least one order of magnitude greater than that of the best alternative method of analysis. Right: An aluminium-backed 0.1 mm indium transfer foil being positioned Commission studies resulted in the development of new methods for the over the object to be radiographed, determination of tin, antimony, bismuth, indium and thallium, resulting in the an automobile fuel injector (shown publication of more-accurate determinations of these elements in natural waters, above), prior to exposure to a neutron marine organisms and other environmental samples. In sea water, for example, beam from the Commission's 100 kW the concentrations of tin and antimony were found to be as low as 0.58 and 0.10 "Moata" research reactor. The irradi- ated foil with the latent image of the microgram per litre respectively. The methods in most cases combine simple rapid fuel injector later is placed on an separation procedures with the anodic stripping determination. X-ray or photographic film within a light-tight cassette and the film is ex- posed for up to one hour before being ACOUSTIC EMISSION developed in the conventional manner. The monitoring of acoustic emission (or stress wave emission) is developing into a powerful non-destructive inspection technique for evaluating the integrity of engineering structures. Much of the impetus for this development has come from 70 71 the nuclear industry where integrity of critical components throughout their life, i-; mandatory. The technique relies on the fact that elastic stress waves (usually out- side the range of audibility) are emitted during deformation and fracture processes in materials. These emissions can be detected by piezoelectric crystals and analysed with, the assistance of modem electronic noise-analysis equipment. Commission work is aimed at developing a better understanding of how the emissions should be interpreted, in addition to applying the technique in service. Encouraging progress was made in discriminating emissions from different source events by a statistical analysis of the frequency and amplitude components of the signals. If successful, this work will improve the prospects of distinguishing the emissions from different phenomena occurring simultaneously in a material or a structure under test. The usual data collection methods do not do this. Also, acoustic emission data are being obtained from several reactor materials and cor- related with their metallurgical condition and mechanical behaviour, since the nature of the emissions is strongly affected by the physical characteristics and in- ternal structure of the material. The nature of this dependence must be better established for the full inspection potential of acoustic emission monitoring to be realised. To develop experience in the use of acoustic emission monitoring for the non- destructive inspection of components and structures in soviet:, experimental monitoring, of a pressure vessel and a series of girder structures was carried out while they were being proof tested by other organisations. Further work involving the testing to destruction of a cracked steam receiver began in co-operation with several organisations under the sponsorship of the Australian Welding Research Association. Acoustic emission is being used to Above: Anodic stripping voltammetric monitor the growth of cracks and to complement information obtained from other determination of traces of heavy metals in waters 'it concentrations ax inspection techniques. low rtv 5 .v JO-1 inicrogram per litre. In this work, sources of emission are located by electronically measuring the relative arrival times of stress waves at an array of sensors and applying simple triangulation techniques. The "active" sites located are those where deformation is occurring or cracks are extending and they are thus discriminated from innocuous flaws; other inspection techniques are non-selective in this respect. Other advantages of acoustic emission monitoring are that it can be applied remote from the site of interest and without the need to surface-scan the whole structure. Right: Hanging mercury drop elec- trode in cell jor anodic .v/nppiiitf voltanunetry. ASV is now established ax an important technique jor the SPARK SOURCE MASS SPECTROMETRY analysis of trace metals in environ- The Commission recently installed a spark source mass spectrometer for mental samples. simultaneous semi-quantitative analysis for most metals at very low concentrations (microgram/gram to nanogram/gram). The spectrometer is being used initially in environmental impact and baseline studies (where the ability to assess all elements simultaneously is of great value), in forensic analysis in co-operation with the Commonwealth Police Force, and for identification and estimation of ultra-trace impurities in "super-pure" materials such as those used in the construction of solid state radiation detectors. 72 73 PATENTS AND EXPLOITATION The Commission has appointed a Manager, Commercial Applications, to be responsible for identifying products of Commission research having commercial prospects, guiding progressive development through to protection by patenting and to exploitation in Australia and overseas. Close involvement of these functions with research will ensure early appreciation and exploitation of developments l:' EXTRAMURAL RESEARCH During the year, the Commission placed seven new research contracts and provided additional funds to extend a previous contract. These contracts are for research projects directly relevant to the Commission's program and as such are an extension of the Commission's research effort. Details are given in Appendix E. The total sum granted was $40,050. AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF NUCLEAR SCIENCE V'/ie University of N.S.W. School of Nuclear Engineering's /iw.st', \-ihration and control AND ENGINEERING equipment in the HIFAR reactor containment building, Lucax Heights. The data processing computer is being interfaced with HIFAR and will provide otr-line dynamic information on The Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering (AINSE) was every aspect of reactor operation. The project is sponsored by the Australian Institute of Nuclear established jointly in 1958 by the Commission and the Australian universities to Science and Engineering and the University of N.S.W. assist research and training in areas related to nuclear science and engineering. Through the Institute, academic organisations have access to the reactors, accelera- tors and other specialised facilities at the Commission's Research Establishment, Lucas Heights. Membership during the past year consisted of the Commission and 15 Australian universities. The AINSE Council, consisting of four Commission representatives and one representative from each member university, was responsible for determining the Institute's policies and for planning future development. Sir Ernest Titterton was President of AINSE through the year. The Executive Officer (Mr E. A. Palmer) was assisted by a staff of nine (two scientists, four technicians and three administrators). The Institute's finances are arranged by calendar year. Figures for 1973 show that total costs incurred, $361,829, exceeded total income of $328,755 by $33,074. Main income consisted of $256,500 received from the Commission and a total of $70,000 contributed by member universities. The overcommitment of funds for 1973 was anticipated, and arose from a decision to maintain AINSE operations at near their previous level until part of the increased contributions icquested in 1972 became available from the Commission. In January 1974, the Commission increased its total contribution to $320,000 per c'nnum, together with a retrospective payment of $13,500 for 1973. Despite these and other additional funds, the Institute's income for the 1973-75 triennium will be about $50,000 short of that required to maintain the planned level of activity, and Spark source mass spectrometer used for simultaneous semi-quantitative analysis of metals at the continuing increase in costs has forced the Council to plan reductions in several very low concentrations in environmental samples. activities for 1974-75. 74 75 AINSE Conferences of different types using neutron beams from HIFAR. Developments in 1973-74 included the completion of a second computer-controlled single-crystal instrument, Two AINSE conferences took place during 1973-74. They were attended by and additional facilities for investigations using polarised neutrons and for work at scientists from the Commission, the universities and other organisations. very low temperatures (—269~C). Joint projects with university groups involved The 4th AINSE Radiation Biology Conference, 15-16 October 1973, Lucas investigation of the molecular structure of some important biological materials and Heights; 82 participants, 24 presented papers. the magnetic structures of metals and alloys. The 5th AINSE Nuclear Physics Conference, 12-14 February 1974, Australian Visiting academic stall and research students continued to make considerable National University; 143 participants, 85 presented papers. use of the Commission's 3 MeV accelerator and the reactor "Moata". By the end of 1973, the cumulative AINSE investment in equipment for use in this area at AINSE Studentships and Fellowships Lucas Heights approached $130,000, mainly for items such as high resolution radiation detectors, counting equipment and additional apparatus to develop beam A total of six persons held AINSE Post-Graduate Research Studentships lines from the accelerator. during 1973-74, for studies at five different universities in Australia, leading to- During 1973-74, the Institute proceeded with further development of facilities wards Ph.D. degrees. The projects required the students to spend at least one- at Lucas Heights for research in radiation chemistry, particularly the study of very- quarter of their time working in the laboratories at Lucas Heights. Only one new short-lived compounds produced by ionising radiation. The ancillary equipment Studentship was awarded for 1974 due to financial considerations. and instrumentation on the Institute's pulsed electron accelerator (Febetron 706) The first Senior Fellowship awarded by the Institute was held by Dr A. M. was improved and extended. Additions were made also to AINSE equipment used Lane (Theoretical Nuclear Physics, AERE, Harwell, UK) for six months from with the Commission's 1.3 MeV accelerator for radiation damage studies, and to November 1973 to April 1974 inclusive. Based at the Australian National Uni- apparatus for university work in radiation biology. versity, Dr Lane made extended visits to Lucas Heights and universities in Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney, where he gave lectures and took part in dis- cussions of current problems in nuclear physics. Of the nine AINSE Research Fellowships held during the year, three were AUSTRALIAN SCHOOL OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY completed and one new award began. Eight of the Fellows held their awards with member universities and one worked full-time at Lucas Heights. Their fields of The Australian School of Nuclear Technology is a joint enterprise of the Com- research included nuclear physics, neutron diffraction (both magnetic structure mission and the University of New South Wales. It was established to provide and molecular structure), metallurgy, and radiation chemistry. courses in nuclear science and technology. Located at Lucas Heights, the School is able to use Research Establishment facilities. Lectures are given mainly by Com- AINSE Grants mission staff, some by staff members of the University of New South Wales and The Institute awarded 95 AINSE grants for 1974 and these are listed in staff of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, and a few lectures on specialised topics Appendix F. The projects were in the fields of radiation chemistry, radiation biology, are given by visiting lecturers from other universities and industrial establishments. nuclear physics, plasma physics, nuclear materials, neutron diffraction and various Radioisotope Courses for Graduates were held from 12 November to 7 branches of engineering. Except for plasma physics (relating to power from nuclear December 1973 and 4 March to 29 March 1974. Each course involved approxi- fusion) most projects involved the use of facilities at Lucas Heights and co-operation mately 45 hours of lectures and tutorials and 60 hours of practical work. with Commission staff. Radioisotope Courses for Non-Graduates were held from 20 August to 7 September 1973 and 4 February to 22 February 1974. These courses each involved Attachments to Lucas Heights approximately 30 hours of lectuics and tutorials and 60 hours of practical work. A course on Radiomu ' ,cs in Medicine and Biology was held from 25 June During 1973, the Institute arranged attachments to Lucas Heights for approxi- to 20 July 1973. The course contributes to the Royal Australasian College of mately 400 scientists and engineers from universities and other organisations. Physicians' syllabus for vocational training in nuclear medicine and includes Individuals were attached for periods varying from one day to several months, the approximately 45 hours of lectures and tutorials and 60 hours of practical work. total amounting to approximately 4,400 man-days (excluding AINSE staff). The Ninth Nuclear Technology Course began on 22 April 1974 and will con- tinue until 9 August 1974. The course comprises approximately 234 hou^s of AINSE Groups and Equipment lectures and tutorials and 70 hours of practical work. To assist research workers from universities and other organisations in making Total number of participants for the year was 80. These included 22 Colombo the most effective use of certain facilities, the Institute maintained two specialised Plan Fellows and two persons sponsored by AINSE. In addition to those from staff groups at Lucas Heights — the AINSE Neutron Diffraction Group and the Australia, participants came from Burma, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, the AINSE Nuclear Physics Group. These groups continued to develop research equip- Philippines, Singapore, South Vietnam and Indonesia. ment and to co-operate with visiting scientists in the conduct of experiments. By the end of 1973, the Institute's total investment in neutron diffraction equipment at Lucas Heights was approximately $188.000. This equipment has provided Australian scientists with advanced facilities for research which otherwise could not be done in this country. The Institute has seven neutron diffractometers 76 77 As a result of a 1972 safety study, many modifications are in progress. The major projects are to upgrade the containment building sealing system, the emergency reactor cooling system, the reactor shutdown system, the irradiated fuel element storage facility and the effectiveness of the emergency control room. These modifications, together with a number of other safety-related projects, will require a significant commitment of resources. Some of these projects are being supported by experimental work on full-sized equipment in the Engineering Research 8 Division. WASTE MANAGEMENT RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT Liquid effluent discharged into the Woronora River during the year contained only minor quantities of radioactivity. These levels were less than those agreed with the New South Wales State authorities and set down in discharge authorisations. OPERATIONS AND SERVICES All solid radioactive waste produced at the Research Establishment continued to be stored on the site. Dangerous non-radioactive chemicals such as pickling bath acids, fluorine compounds and unwanted toxic laboratory reagents were neutralised in an alkaline solution, and the products disposed of through a State Government approved in- SITE MANAGEMENT dustrial waste collection contractor. The reorganisation of the Commission in February 1974 included the creation of a new position of Site Manager, Research Establishment. The Site Manager is ENGINEERING SERVICES responsible for all service functions in support of the research program, including safety services, site administration, site operations, engineering services, site medical, Design and Manufacturing Services site information services and scientific services. He is also responsible for the day-to- A group of engineers, draftsmen, technicians and tradesmen provides a service day management of the site and for co-ordinating the scientific services provided by which allows the design, development, manufacture and commissioning of experi- research divisions to satisfy both internal and external requirements. mental equipment required by the research divisions. This equipment normally cannot be purchased either in Australia or overseas. The service includes modifica- tions of existing plant, such as the reactor H1FAR and other major installations, REACTOR OPERATIONS assessment of tenders, contract co-ordination and procurement of plant and equip- ment. HIFAR, the Commission's main research reactor, is used for the production Work requiring a significant design and development effort is handled by of radioisotopes and for nuclear research in metallurgy, solid state physics and project teams who are responsible for the project from the conceptional design to chemistry. HIFAR is moderated and cooled by heavy water and is designed to the finally-tested installation. Major projects during the year included: produce a maximum thermal flux of 10'4 neutrons per square centimetre per second at a heat output of 10 megawatts. The reactor, which is in its fifteenth year of Pilot plant for producing uranium hexafluoride. operation, runs continuously except for regular refuelling and maintenance. Emergency core cooling system for HIFAR. Major shutdowns of HIFAR are planned every three years for maintenance and overhaul which cannot be achieved during normal operation. A major shutdown, High pressure, high temperature, in-pile water loop. which began at the end of May 1973, was completed at the beginning of September, Remote handling facilities for radiochemical production. when the reactor was returned to routine operation. During this shutdown, flow straighteners were fitted to the fuel element nozzles, virtually eliminating vibration Pneumatic transfer systems for reactor access from remote laboratories. problems that had caused structural failure to some experimental rigs and fuel Collaborative creep program in conjunction with the United Kingdom Atomic elements. Stress measurements were taken while the primary circuit was being re- Energy Authority. assembled to ensure only minimum stresses existed in the pipework. An examination of the inner surface of the aluminium reactor tank was made and its condition was Extensions to radiochemical handling cells and caves. found to be satisfactory. To improve irradiation services for the Isotope Production Section and to Fluorine cell. minimise inconvenience to other reactor users, some isotope production rigs are Apprentice training continues to be a major function of Engineering Services. now unloaded with the reactor at full power. This eliminates short shutdowns during At present, 34 apprentices are at the Research Establishment; of these 18 are operating periods. employed on behalf of the Department of Labor and Immigration. Training 78 79 apprentices for the Department of Labor and Immigration is a contribution by the Commission to help overcome the long-standing shortage of skilled tradesmen in Australia. Capital Construction Work during the year included design, modification and construction of build- ings and services at the Research Establishment. Expenditure totalled $426,764. Major items designed during the year are listed below. A contract was let for extensions to the Library. Extensions to the Library. Isotope Applications Building for Isotope Division. Building extensions for the Radioisotope Production Section. Modifications to the Animal House for the Public Health and Environment Division. SAFETY There were no significant changes in either the site or public safety aspects of operations at the Research Establishment during the year and satisfactory control of radiological and non-radiological hazards was maintained. Releases of radioactive material to the environment were within limits agreed with the New South Wales State authorities. Measurements of environmental radioactivity associated with such releases continued as in previous years. Procedures at the Research Establishment for the safe handling of toxic or potentially-toxic chemical materials, e.g., epoxy resins and chlorinated cleaning agents, were reviewed during the year. Specific recommendations were made re- lating to the need for an increased awareness of the possible hazards arising from work with such materials. In this context, a member of Safety Section was attached for two months to the Division of Occupational Health and Pollution Control, Health Commission of New South Wales, to obtain additional experience in assess- ment and control of such hazards. Changes were made in the safety organisation aimed at encouraging a greater awareness of the in-line responsibility for safety and to provide a more-direct safety review system. ADMINISTRATION Personnel and Industrial Matters During the year, the Research Establishment investigated its trade structure and the bases used to grade tradesmen, leading hands and foremen. Representatives of trade unions were involved in the investigation and all staff were given the opportunity to present their views. Subsequently, the Commission introduced a new trade structure and a revised basis for grading tradesmen. The new structure should lead to greater efficiency of operation and better promotional opportunities for tradesmen. The scanning transmission electron microscope, JSEM-200, recently installed in the Materials Major Contracts Division's metallography laboratories at Lucas Heights, has a maximum accelerating voltage of 200 kV. It can operate as a conventional transmission electron microscope or ax a scanning A contract was arranged for extensions to the Research Establishment Library transmission microscope. As well as providing a service to the Commission's own research building, the contract value being approximately $211,000. This building should program, the Division's expertise and specialised metallogniphic equipment have been used to be completed in 1975. investigate materials behaviour problems for industry. 80 81 A spark source mass spectrometer, costing approximately $95,000, and a 200 keV electron microscope, costing approximately $100,000, were purchased and delivered during the period. The instruments were required by Chemical Technology Division and Materials Division respectively. LIBRARY SERVICES The main library at Lucas Heights contains the most important collection of nuclear science literature in Australia. Smaller libraries are maintained at the Com- mission's Head Office and at the Mascot Office. Through several agreements, the Library receives the reports of major nuclear research bodies throughout the world. It transmits Australian information on nuclear science and allied subjects to two international bibliographic services, the United States Atomic Energy Commission's Nuclear Science Abstracts, and the growing International Nuclear Information System (1N1S). The Library receives output from INIS in several forms, including tapes which constitute a nuclear data base for machine searching using the Commission's central computer. MEDICAL SERVICE The general state of the staff's health, as revealed by thorough medical ex- Above: Scanning electron micrograph of eight micrometres diameter carbon fibres on the aminations (physical and laboratory), continued to be satisfactory. During the year fracture face of an experimental carbon fibre/Aralditc composite. a computerised medical data recall system was commissioned. The system allows scrutiny of the records of any individual or of any chosen groupings. Below: Transmission electron micrograph of imirradiated vanadium. This material was recrystal- Clinical and experimental studies were concentrated on the mechanics of toxi- lised at a low temperature to give a small grain site. Variation in grain orientation produces cology of chemical sensitisation of an acute type (eczema, upper respiratory different amounts of electron diffraction and hence contrast (magnification 20,000x). irritations), and on a small number of chronic illnesses occurring in particular work areas. COMPUTER SERVICES The Commission's computing facilities consist of a central computer installa- tion based on an IBM360/50 system with 1024K additional bytes of AMPEX core storage. Small minicomputers, lying within a kilometre radius of the central computer, are used to control experiments and to support computer terminals in different laboratories. The majoi use of computers at Lucas Heights is to study nuclear reactor systems by simulating the behaviour of a reactor over a period of iimc. The Com- mission has developed a novel computer network, connecting a number of mini- computers to the central computer system. This network allows research scientists and engineers access from individual laboratories to the power of the central computer, and enables them to control and interact with computations being done in the central computer. Seven minicomputers are now connected to the central computer. These include the Digital Equipment PDF and the Data General NOVA ranges of computers. Computer software developments within the Commission have been made available to a number of outside computer installations, both government and private. 82 83 The Commission's central computer installation now operates on three shifts, SCIENTIFIC SERVICES five days a week. Over 5,000 jobs arc processed each month, with an average turnaround time of 33 minutes per job. Analytical Chemistry Chemical Technology Division provides a comprehensive central analytical Dataway Terminal Communication System chemistry service for all projects at the Research Establishment. Increased analytical A new Dataway Terminal Communication System (DATERCOM) has been effort was required over the past year because of the large number of samples developed to allow any terminal or network computer to make use of the Com- originating from environmental surveys. Research continued into new and improved mission's ACL-NOVA system or to interact with programs running in the IBM360 analytical techniques with the aim of providing more-sensitive and quicker methods. computer. The DATF.RCOM system also allows IBM360 disk storage to be used New methods and techniques developed include: for ACL program storage and retrieval and this, in itself, has significantly extended the power of the ACL-NOVA system. • A new type of carbon tube analyser for use with atomic absorption spcctro- 1BM360 programs developed to interact with the DATERCOM system allow photometers which leads to greatly improved sensitivity, and requires only plotter output to be viewed at the Tektronix display terminal, IBM360 programs very small samples. to be prepared at any terminal and submitted to the IBM360 computer for execu- • A mass spectrometric technique for the precise determination of deuterium in tion, the contents of IBM360 data sets to be examined at any terminal, and IBM360 natural waters which is required for hydrology studies. disk storage to be used for ACL program storage and retrieval. Terminals supported by the DATERCOM system include those connected • An anodic stripping voltammetric method for the determination of indium in directly to the NOVA computer, terminals attached to the NOVA computer via the sea water and other natural waters at concentrations as low as 5 X 10~* Serial Multiple User Terminal System (SMUT), terminals attached to the NOVA microgram indium per litre. via Remote Teleprinter Interfaces on the Dataway, and others directly connected • Improvements in the fiuorimetric method for determination of traces of to Dataway computers that communicate with the NOVA computer using Dataway uranium which increase sensitivity and range of application. sequences to simulate the actions of Remote Teleprinter Interfaces. Gamma Irradiation Disk Utility Program Demand from commercial organisations and research institutions increased The Applied Mathematics and Computing Section has developed an IBM360/ for gamma irradiation services. Indications are that this demand will continue to 370 computer utility program for housekeeping information on direct-access grow. storage. This utility uses a highly efficient technique for driving direct-access de- The total number of irradiation orders during the period was 1,719, of which vices, as well as a set of useful management functions, resulting in the ability to 828 were for Commission projects and 891 for external clients. Irradiation services reallocate stored information and eliminate fiagmeniaiion of the available space. for commercial organisations, hospitals and medical institutions are mostly for A saving of hardware costs or, alternatively, an increase in the effective use sterilising disposable medical items and pharmaceuticals of comparatively large of a given amount of direct-access storage of the order of 30-40% is achievable volume. On the other hand, services provided for research institutions are generally under typical conditions. The program's speed of operation is its major attribute for material of small volume requiring a very large radiation dose. and this makes it useful for major file manipulations which normally are not under- There is a large and increasing demand for sterilisation of food to maintain taken with standard programs. The program, called Aemove, is being offered for germ-free and specific pathogen-free animals for the Commission's biological sale or hire to 1BM360 and IBM370 installations. research program. Some lyophilised reagents prepared by the Commission in small unit bottles for Hybrid Computer radiopharmaceutical production are sterilised by gamma radiation. About 10,000 The hybrid computer system in Instrumentation and Control Division has been separate bottles of reagents were sterilised during the year and demand is increasing. extended by the addition of a PDP1 1 computer. A link between the PDF 11 and Saline solutions for kidney transplants and components of heart pacemakers, the exiling EA1640 digital computer was developed jointly by the Commission and including silicone grease, are processed regularly. CSIRO (Division of Chemical Engineering), and is now in use. Software developed by Commission staff provides the EAI640 computer with an operating system which Electron Beam Irradiation greatly reduces the development time of hybrid programs, and makes available up 'Demand by Commission staff and university research workers for steady to 750,000 words of bulk storage for programs with large data requirements. The electron beam irradiation from the 1.3 MeV Van de Graaff accelerator continued data is accessible to either processor. Further developments are in progress to make at a high level for sterilisation and for metal damage and semi-conductor solid state all the peripherals of the PDP11 available to the EAT640, and to allovvlhe operators studies. Other groups used Ihe pulsed electron beam facility to produce transient at both computer consoles to use the PDP11 facilities, on a time-shared basis. species in aqueous and liquid organic solutions and to identify and characterise Other hybrid computer extensions inc'-'de a link to a second PDP11 in an their properties. adjoining laboratory to permit data transfers and pooling of bulk storage, and The AINSE Febetron, which delivers a three nanosecond electron pulse and is further additions to the EAT680 analogue computer, which is now approximately particularly useful for gas phase studies, now has auxiliary equipment to make such one-third fully expanded. a short timescale accessible. 84 85 Instrumentation Substantial demand continued for specialised measurement and control equip- ment, including small, special-purpose computers and associated software. Typical examples of small-scale equipment developed by the Commission are low-noise, field-effect transistor amplifiers for X-ray and gamma-ray spectroscopy, highly stable power supplies for various instruments, and portable instri'vnents with laboratory standards of accuracy and stability for radiation detection and measure- ment in the field. The fluorine pilot plant and fluidised bed experimental facility and the 9 UKAEA-AAEC collaborative creep program are representative of projects which required extensive installations. In both cases, instrumentation systems were developed to provide automatic control, to enable adequate measurement for plant supervision and interpretation of results, and to ensure the safety of personnel and INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS equipment. A number of interface systems for PDF 11 computers were developed. These include a PDP11-EA1640 link, four pulse height analysis stations, and a fission AND SAFEGUARDS neutron data collection system. A system using a PDP8E was used to control a four-circle diffractometer. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY Mr R. W. Bcswell, Chairman of the Commission, was elected President of the 17tn General Conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) held in Vienna in September 1973. One of the most significant decisions of the Con- ference was to approve an amendment to Article VI of the IAEA Statute whereby the composition of the Agency's Board of Governors was changed. The number of representatives on the Board was increased from 25 to 34 to take into account recent advancx . in nuclear technology throughout the world and to provide increased representation for developing countries. Australia remains a designated member of the Board as the most advanced country in nuclear technology in South-East Asia and the Pacific. Meetings of the Board of Governors were held in Vienna in September 1973 and in February and June 1974. Mr Boswell, as Governor for Australia, led the Australian delegation to the September 1973 and June 1974 meetings. Over the past year, the Board has been concerned primarily with difficulties associated with financing the Agency's Technical Assistance Program, which is financed from a fund of voluntary contributions from member States. Predicted world energy shortages have led the Board to reorientate the Agency's program towards assisting in the rapid development of nuclear power as an alter- native to fossil fuels. This is a many-faceted problem involving an extension of activities in the safety and environmental areas in addition to nuclear technology. The Agency invited Australia to become party to a Regional Co-operation Agreement under which the Commission (and possibly other Australian instru- mentalities) would participate in a co-ordinated and co-operative research program on various atomic energy subjects. Should Australia become party to the Agreement, the; Commission could provide assistance and advice to developing countries near Australia concerning their scientific programs under the auspices of this Agreement. The Agreement also would provide a convenient framework for existing programs being undertaken in the region. 86 87 The Commission participated in Agency conferences, symposia and specialist panel meetings. The Head of the Commission's Regulatory and External Relations Branch, Dr A. R. W. Wilson, participated in a Panel on Systems of Accounting and Control of Nuclear Material, held in Tokyo, and in a Working Group in Vienna on procedures for the Agency to follow in responding to requests for assistance on projects involving the use of peacefu* nuclear explosives. Mr D. R. Griffiths, Chief, Nuclear Studies Group, lectured at the Agency's Regional Survey and Briefing Course on the Technical and Economic Aspects of Nuclear Power Development, held in Bangkok, Thailand, 3-18 December 1973, and participated in seminar discussions. Mr W. Gemmell, Acting Chief, Physics Division, attended the 6th Annual Meeting in Vienna of the International Nuclear Data Committee. Mr A. Musgrove and Mr B. J. Allen, Physics Division, attended other Agency meetings in the nuclear physics field. Australian participation in the International Nuclear Information System continued to expand and Mr M. R. Middleton, Acting Librarian, attended a liaison officers' meeting in Vienna. Australia has taken up an IAEA project in Indonesia on reactor radiation measurements. Negotiations are in progress for the provision of experts, fellowships and scientific equipment. As IAEA-sponsored aid, Australia also donated some materials and equipment to Indonesia for use in radiation research. Three members of the Commission's service are now working for the Agency. They are Mr J. Bardsley (Division of Operations, Department of Safeguards and Inspection), Mr P. A. Bonhote (Division of Nuclear Safety and Environmental Protection) and Mr A. J. Moulding (Division of Budget and Finance). Above: Mr Bakri Arhie, Reactor Supervisor, Bandung Reactor Centre, Indonesia, working with the Australian School of Nuclear Technology's sub-critical nuclear reactor. Mr Arhie, it OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY Colombo Plan Fellow, attended the School's Ninth Nuclear Technology Course at Lucas Heigltts and has commenced a training period with the Commission. Australia became a member of the Nuclear Energy Agency* of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD-NEA) on 1 Below: Colombo Plan Fellow, Mr Supamli, of the National Atomic Energy Agency, Jakarta, October 1973, having previously joined OECD in June 1971. The Commission is Indonesia, operating an atomic absorption spectropltotometer in the Chemical Technology now participating in NEA activities in co-operation with the Department of Foreign Division. Affairs. Through membership of the NEA, information will be available to Australia concerning the development of nuclear energy by the technologically advanced member countries of the NEA. For example, Australian participation in the Committee on Radiation Protection and Public Health is expected to be of assistance in developing Australian radiation exposure standards, in determining radioactive waste management policies, and in assessing particular nuclear applications from a risk-benefit viewpoint. Participation in the Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations is expected to provide a wide range of information on reactor safety matters and on regulatory and licensing aspects of nuclear installations. The NEA also has regular meetings of a Group of Government Experts on Third Party Liability which has had considerable experience in the development of nuclear third party liability legislation. Information obtained from this Group could be of assistance in making recommendations to the Australian Government on appropriate liability arrangements to apply in Australia. Mr R. M, Fry, Director of the Environmental and Public Health Unit, attended a meeting of the Committee on Radiation Protection and Public Health in Paris, March 1974. * The present membership of the NEA is Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg. Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom. Canada and the United States are associate members. 88 89 The OECD has initiated a global assessment of longer-term energy trends and practical application of NPT safeguards to nuclear material in Australia. Proposals problems, which has taken on added significance following the recent Middle East were also prepared, as required under the Agreement, for an Australian national oil embargo. The nuclear energy section of this study is being undertaken by the system of nuclear material accounting and control to guard against the unauthorised NEA's Study Group on the Long Term Role of Nuclear Energy. The Commission diversion of nuclear material under Australian jurisdiction. The office administering participated in this study. the Australian system of nuclear material accounting and control will also be Two NEA activities require a separate decision for membership and a separate responsible for matters such as the timely despatch to the Agency of documentation, subscription. These are the Computer Program Library (CPL), at Ispra in Italy, and arranging Agency inspections. and the Neutron Data Compilation Centre (CCDN), at Saclay in France. The NEA In some respects, NPT safeguards will differ significantly from the Agency sent the Head of its Nuclear Information Division (Mr J. A. G. Rosen) to Aus- safeguards which so far have been applicable to certain nuclear material in tralia to discuss membership of CPL and the CCDN. The advantages of membership Australia. In particular, NPT safeguards procedures will embrace source and of these two activities are under consideration at present, together with proposals special fissionable material under Australian jurisdiction, independent of their origin, that Australia join the NEA Committees on Reactor Physics and Nuclear Data. but will exclude ores and concentrates. To minimise cost and intrusivcncss, NPT In April 1974, a Commission officer, Mr R. E. Crawford, joined the staff safeguards will take into account the technical effectiveness of the Australian national of NEA. He is the first Australian so appointed. Mr Crawford will work in the system of safeguards. Radiation Protection and Waste Disposal Division. In recognition of the increasing obligations falling to it under the NPT, both in terms of preliminary negotiations and in respect of the nuclear material which it holds, the Commission established a Safeguards Office within its organisation. INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS FOR Responsibility includes overall supervision of nuclear material accounting and CO-OPERATION control within the Commission, review of safeguards operations and their efficiency, As recorded in past Annual Reports, Australia has Government-to-Government research and development into safeguards techniques, and future liaison with the agreements for co-operation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy with the USA, Australian national system of nuclear material accounting and control. Canada and Japan. The AAEC has similar agreements with the national atomic energy authorities of the UK and France. An agreement on scientific and technical co-operation has since been negotiated between the Australian Government and the USSR. This Agreement, when it enters into force, will enable co-operation in science and technology including the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. COLOMBO PLAN During the year, ten Colombo Plan Fellows from Indonesia and Malaysia received practical experience and training at Lucas Heights. Fields of interest were radioisotope production, radiation applications, analytical chemistry, reactor physics, and health physics and radiation protection. SAFEGUARDS Following Australia's ratification of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in January 1973, Australia negotiated the required Agreement with the IAEA to enable the Agency to apply safeguards to verify that Australia is fulfilling its Treaty obligations. The Commission, together with other interested government departments, assisted in the negotiation of the Agreement which was approved by the Agency's Board of Governors at its February 1974 meeting. The NPT will be brought into operation in Australia following signature of the Agreement by Australia and the Agency. Concurrently with negotiation of the Agreement, arrangements were made with the USA and the Agency to suspend existing Agency safeguards on US-supplied nuclear material in Australia after the NPT comes into force and NPT safeguards apply. The Commission played an important role in these arrangements, particularly with regard to technical aspects. In consultation with other Australian government departments, the Commission prepared proposals for Subsidiary Arrangements to the Agreement which detail the 90 91 Dr P. Smith, formerly Acting Deputy Director of the Research Establishment, and Program Manager, Nuclear Science and Applications, was appointed Director, External Relations Office, in May 1974. STAFF NUMBERS The total staff employed by the Commission at 30 June 1974 was 1,241. Head 10 Office staff (including liaison officers overseas) accounted for 92. Staff at the Research Establishment totalled 1,125. A further 24 officers of the Licensing and Regulatory Bureau were located at the Commission's Mascot office. The disposition of staff according to groups was as follows: GENERAL At 30.6.73 At 30.6.74 Executive and Senior Staff Research Grades 127 127 Experimental Grades 137 130 Other Professional Grades 80 78 Technical Grades 416 422 Trade Grades 141 126 LEGISLATION Administrative and Clerical 176 184 On 13 November 1973, the Governor-General assented to an Act, No. 131 Support Staff (Storemen, Drivers, etc.) 150 166 of 1973, to amend the Atomic Energy Act 1953-1966. This amendment deleted reference to the full-time office of Executive Member and created an additional 1,235 1,241 office of part-time Commissioner. Minor drafting amendments to the principal Act were made by the Statute Law Revision Act, No. 216 of 1973. The citation of the principal Act is now — Atomic Energy Act 1953-1973. During the year, two Statutory Rules under the Atomic Energy Act were prescribed: INFORMATION SERVICES A 24-minute colour film, "Nuclear Medicine", was completed in May 1974. 1974 No. 39, relating to the prohibition of the working of certain minerals. Subtitled "The Production and Diagnostic Use of Radioactive Pharmaceuticals in 1974 No. 48, relating to the limit of the Commission's powers to make Australia", the film outlines the important role of diagnostic nuclear medicine in appointments, promotions and transfers without Ministerial Australia and the development by the Commission of a unique production and approval. delivery service of ready-to-use, short-lived radiopharmaceuticals based on the reactor-produced radionuclide technetium 99m. SENIOR STAFF CHANGES Nuclear reactor and radiopharmaceutical production sequences were filmed at the Commission's Research Establishment at Lucas Heights. Sequences In consequence of the re-organisation of the Commission, which came into demonstrating the use of radioactive materials in medical diagnosis were shot at effect in February 1974, the positions and titles of many senior members of the the Prince of Wales Hospital and Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, the Royal staff were changed. Details of the positions held at 30 June in the revised organisa- Adelaide Hospital, and at the Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth. tion structure are set out in Appendix C. This film is believed to be the most up-to-date available at the present time Other senior changes during the year are listed below: on the general subject of nuclear medicine. It is designed to appeal to a wide Mr P. V. Crooks, formerly Atomic Energy Attache in Washington, resigned audience, ranging from the general public to medical practitioners. Prints will be from the Commission's service in August 1973. placed for lending in a number of centres in Australia and other countries. Dr D. G. Walker, Chief of Materials Division, was appointed Counsellor More than 120 titles are now held in the Commission's film lending library at (Atomic Energy) in the Australian Embassy, Washington, in January 1974. Head Office, Coogee, New South Wales. The films cover a range of subjects related Mr J. J. Humphreys was appointed First Secretary (Atomic Energy) in the to nuclear energy. Appropriate overseas-produced films are added to the library as Australian Embassy, Tokyo, in November 1973. they become available. The number of borrowings more than doubled during the Mr M. S. Farrell, Director, External Relations Office, resigned from the year, indicating increasing public interest in nuclear energy and a further trend to Commission's service in May 1974 to take up an appointment in the Department audio-visual methods of education. Requests for loans came from all Australian of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Canberra. Mr Farrell served with the States and from Papua-New Guinea. Some of the more popular films are already Commission for 17 years. booked solidly.for nine months ahead. 92 93 The Information Centre at Lucas Heights continued to attract public attention including training, operational procedures and assessments, with particular reference and, for the second consecutive year, more than 15,000 visitors inspected the to the prevention of accidents and the identification and correction of causes when permanent nuclear energy exhibition. The Centre is open to the public seven days accidents occur. Safety Section will maintain a continuing safety review of all a week, except on Christmas Day and Good Friday. The exhibition is updated operational and research projects. The Controller, Safety Section, will provide a periodically. A large illuminated display showing the production, distribution and quarterly report to the Safety Review Committee on all aspects of safety. use of radiopharmaceuticals was completed during the period and is being installed. During future visits to Lucas Heights, the Safety Review Committee will meet A back projection unit now screens films at the Centre at weekends and on request Research Establishment representatives of appropriate unions. to the attending officer. A group tour of the Research Establishment, including inspection of some MEDICAL-HEALTH SURVEY research laboratories, can be arranged for normal working days by contacting the Research Establishment public relations officer in advance of the visit. During the At the end of 1973, Unions representing staff at the Research Establishment past year, more than 3,000 visitors received guided tours of the site and laboratories. sought an independent medical survey at Lucas Heights. Concern was expressed More than half the visitors were fifth and sixth form high school students. Of the for staff working in radioactive areas, and working with uranium compounds and remainder, about 400 came from tertiary education bodies, 300 from industry and toxic chemicals. professional associations, 300 from government departments and defence services, Following meetings and discussions between representatives of the Labor and 250 hospital staff interested in nuclear medicine. Council of New South Wales and the unions involved, Commission officers and Environmental studies associated with uranium mining and processing formed members of the Safety Review Committee, arrangements are proceeding for an the main subject of the Commission exhibit at the 1973 ANZAAS Congress in independent medical-health survey to be carried out under the control of a panel of Perth and at the CETIA Congress in Sydney. A panel-mounted, photographic experts recommended by the Australian Department of Health. exhibit on environmental aspects of nuclear energy and uranium mining was The Commission regards the safety of staff as being of paramount importance designed and loaned to the Bendigo Institute of Technology for its Centenary and, while it has every confidence in its current practices, has agreed to support a celebrations. This exhibit is now available for use at schools, libraries, banks, and survey along the lines indicated above. other organisations. An exhibit on the production and use of radiopharmaceuticals was used at OVERSEAS VISITS the annual general meeting of the Royal Australasian College of Radiologists in Sydney. In addition to visits to attend meetings connected with the IAEA and the Now in its seventeenth year of publication, the Commission's quarterly journal, OECD-NEA, visits by Commissioners and Commission officers included the "Atomic Energy in Australia", is widely accepted as an authoritative source of following: information on Australian nuclear research and the application of nuclear energy. Mr R. W. Boswell, Chairman of the Commission, visited Indonesia, Malaysia Substantial numbers of other Commission publications were distributed during the and Singapore in September 1973. Mr K. F. Alder, Commissioner and Head, period through the Information Centre, exhibitions, and by bulk supply or direct Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, attended two Board Meetings of ACE mailing to individuals, schools, and other educational organisations. (Association for Centrifuge Enrichment) at Eton, UK, in October 1973 and March Two surveys were conducted among Australian universities, research 1974. He also visited the USA on each occasion, on the second visit attending a institutions and industry and results published in the Commission's journal as meeting of the US Atomic Industrial Forum on uranium and the nuclear fuel cycle. "Nuclear Science and Engineering Post-Graduate Training in Australia" (January Visits to assess overseas developments in particular areas included the follow- 1974) and "Atomic Energy Organisations in Australia" (April 1974). ing: Mr G. W. K. Ford, Chief, Engineering Research Division — experimental engineering aspects of research on reactor safety; Dr J. K. Parry, Chief, Instrumen- tation and Control Division — nuclear instrumentation; Dr D. G. Walker, then SAFETY REVIEW COMMITTEE Chief, Materials Division — reactor materials research; Dr G. M. Watson, Chief, Environmental and Public Health Division — radiological safety and related The Safety Review Committee held four meetings during the year to review research; Mr F. L. Bett, Director, Safeguards Office — technical aspects of the Commission safety procedures. The dates were 2 August 1973, 16 August 1973, application of nuclear safeguards; Dr D. H. Bradhurst, Materials Division — 4 to 6 February 1974 and 25 March 1974. The Committee met at Lucas Heights corrosion of reactor materials; Dr J. V. Evans, Head, Applied Chemistry Section and at Head Office, Coogee. — Bovver plant water chemistry; Dr H. J. Hurst, Chemical Technology Division — In addition, the Safety Review Committee had a meeting on 15 February 1974 high resolution spectroscopy and laser technology; Mr S. T. Quaass, Nuclear Plant with representatives of the Commission and representatives of the New South Wales Safety Unit — inspection, standards and licensing requirements for nuclear pressure Lat-or Council and affiliated Unions. This meeting is also referred to in the following plant; Dr B. D. Sowerby, Isotope Division — analysis of minerals in situ in bore- f sec ion. holes; Mr H. Woodward, Mechanical Development Section — mass spectrometry. Following recommendations of the Safety Review Committee, the Commission Mr D. W. Crancher, Director, Nuclear Plant Safety Unit, attended a USAEC re-organised the safety structure at Lucas Heights. Under the revised structure, the training workshop on nuclear energy regulation in Washington, D.C. Mr G. K. Safety Section is responsible to and reports directly to the Site Manager. The Greenslade, Nuclear Plant Safety Unit, attended a UKAEA course on reactor Section also has immediate responsibility for all matters pertaining to safety, safety. 94 95 Implementation of various salary awards and determinations during the year ATTACHMENTS caused a 13.8% increase in the Salaries and Wages bill. Although General Expenses Overseas Attachments were reduced, a net increase in total Administrative Expenditure of 7% on the In October 1973, Mr G. Durance completed a two-year attachment to the previous year was incurred. laboratories of the Gesellschat't t'iir Kernforschung at Karlsruhe, Federal Republic Total Research Expenditure was $13,975,183, an increase of $1,632,811 of Germany. Mr D. I. Macnab, in May 1974, completed a one-year attachment (13.2%) on the previous year. The cost of Research Salaries and Wages increased to the General Atomic Company, San Diego, California, and commenced an by $1,581,667 (18.8%). This increased cost relates directly to implementation of attachment for one year to the US nuclear licensing and regulatory body. In award variations and determinations. Expenditure on Stores and Materials increased February 1974, Mr C. B. Mason transferred from Harwell to the Culham Labora- by $175,154 (11.8%) on the previous year while expenditure on Power, Water tories of the UKAEA, to be followed by a transfer in August 1974 to the University and Reactor Supplies ($422,252) was reduced by $98,537 due to delays in supply of Colorado, USA, for six months before returning to Australia. Mr Mason is of fuel elements for the reactor HIFAR. Throughout the year the Commission gaining experience in computer software. continued its policy of contributing to external research and training. Expenditure Attachment to the Commission in this area amounted to $386,000, including $333,500 to the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering. General Administrative expenditure covering At the Commission's request, the attachment of Mr O. Horiki, a reactor travelling, postages, telephones, transport, etc., accounted for $472,189 of engineer from the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, was extended for six incidental expenses, while the remainder comprised Computer Hire ($397,125), months to August 1974. Building and Grounds maintenance ($147,625) and Service Agreements, Period Contracts and Outside Consultants ($488,579). DISTINGUISHED VISITORS TO THE COMMISSION Revenue for the year was $692,089 and, in terms of actual receipts, represents Mr P. Emery, Parliamentary Under Secretary of State in the Department of a reduction compared to the previous year ($738,775) and the estimate ($778,000). Trade and Industry, UK, visited the Commission in August 1973. Also in August, Mail disruptions and delays during June contributed largely to this reduction. Dr P. H. Netto, Superintendent Director, and Mr H. A. Amorim, Industrial Director, Radioisotope sales totalled $625,281 as against $648,752 for the previous year. Companhia Brasiliera de Tecnologia Nuclear; Dr K. Teer, Executive Director, Building Construction expenditure amounted to $427,315 compared to Philips Research Laboratories, Eindhoven, Holland; and Professor C. F. Hollander, $416,777 for the previous period. Extensions to minor buildings at Head Office Director, Institute for Experimental Gerontology, Central Organisation for Applied accounted for $550 while $426,765 was expended on research buildings and site Scientific Research in the Netherlands, visited the Commission. services. Expenditure on Research Plant and Equipment increased by $41,675 over Visitors in October 1973 included Mr J. W. Simpson, President, American the previous year to $853,572 due to escalation in prices. Nuclear Society; and Mr J. E. Grandy, Deputy Minister, Department of Industry, Trade and Commerce, Canada, with members of a Canadian Trade Mission. US Congressman Craig Hosmcr, a member of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, accompanied by Mr J. B. Graham, Assistant Director of the JCAE staff, visited the Commission in January 1974. In February 1974, Mr J. A. Waddams and Mr W. Williamson of British Nuclear Fuels Ltd, and Dr L. Hobbs of the Rutherford Laboratories of the Science Research Council, UK, visited the Commission. Mr J. A. G. Rosen, Head, Nuclear Information Division, OFCD-NEA, and Professor R. A. Gross, Columbia University, New York, visited the Commission in March and April 1974 respectively. Mr R. Faulkner, a representative of Kerr-McGee Corporation, visited the Commission in June 1974 during a visit to Australia to investigate the uranium marketing situation. It was part of a world-wide tour. FINANCE As required by Section 31 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1953-1973, financial accounts for the year ended 30 June 1974 are annexed as Appendix B and the Report of the Auditor-General is included as Appendix A. Funds amounting to $14,345,997 (estimate $14,349,000) were required from Parliamentary Appropriation to meet Net Operating Expenditure for the year. In addition to Parliamentary Appropriation, Cash Receipts totalled $692,089 (estimate $778,000), permitting a Gross Operational Expenditure of $15,038,086 (estimate $15,127,000). Expenditure on Capital Works and Services was $1,280,887 (estimate $1,388,000). 96 97 Appendix A — Auditor-General's Report, Commonwealth of Australia COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Auditor-General's Office Canberra, A.C.T. 23 August 1974 The Honourable the Minister for Minerals and Energy. Parliament House, CANBERRA, A.C.T. 2600 Dear Sir, AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION In compliance with section 31 (2.) of the Atomic Energy Act 1953-1973, the Commission has submitted the following financial statements for my report — Statement of Net Expenditure for the year ended 30 June 1974; and Statement of Capital Assets as at 30 June 1974. The statements are in the form approved by the Treasurer under section 31 (1.) of the Act. Copies arc attached for your information. I now report that, in my opinion — (a) the accompanying financial statements are based on proper accounts and records; (b) the statements are in agreement with the accounts and records and show fairly the financial operations of the Commission for the year ended 30 June 1974; and (c) the receipt, expenditure and investment of moneys and the acquisition and disposal of assets by the Commission during the year have been in accordance with the Act. Yours faithfully, (D. R. STEELE CRAIK) AUDITOR-GENERAL 99 Appendix B-—Financial Accounts AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION Comparative Figures STATEMENT OF NET EXPENDITURE 1973-74 1972-73 FOR THE YEAR ENDED 30 JUNE 1974 $ Capital Expenditure: Administrative Buildings and Equipment 550 8,521 Comparative Research Sites and Establishments . . . 426,765 408,256 Figures Research Plant and Equipment . . 853,572 811,897 1973-74 1972 - 73 1,280,887 1,228,674 Net Operating and Capital Expenditure 15,626,884 13,835,214 Administrative Expenditure: Salaries and payments in the nature of salary 782,253 687,212 General Expenses 233,591 262,157 1,015,844 949,369 STATEMENT OF CAPITAL ASSETS AS AT 30 JUNE 1974 1974 1973 Research: Salaries and payments in the nature of salary 10,003,398 8,421,731 Administrative Buildings and Equipment 488,393 489,442 Stores and Materials ... . 1,658,015 1,482,861 Research Sites and Establishments 21,769,801 21,345,479 Power, Water and Supplies . 422,252 520,789 Reactor HIFAR 2,991,699 2,989,256 Grants in aid of Research 386,000 315,331 Scientific Plant and Equipment 12,078,367 11,304,211 Incidental Expenses 1,505,518 1,601,660 37,328,260 36,128,388 13,975,183 12,342,372 Less Proceeds of Sales 692,089 738,775 13,283,094 11,603,597 Information Services: Exhibitions, Publications and Publicity .. 47,059 47,059 53,574 R. W. BOSWELL, R. C. COLES, Net Operating Expenditure 14,345,997 12,606,540 Chairman, Acting Director of Finance, Australian Atomic Energy Commission. Australian Atomic Energy Commission. 100 101 Appendix C — Organisation of Commission at 30 June 1974 Program Manager, Uranium Fuel Cycle: • ' C. J. Hardy, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.I.C. Assessment and Planning Unit: HEAD OFFICE J. M. Costello, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., C.Eng., F.I.Chem.E., A.R.I.C. F.I.Chem.E., A.R.I.C. ADMINISTRATION BRANCH A. P. Marks, B.Sc.(Hons.), F.Inst.P.. M.A.I.P. Secretary and Head of Branch: W. B. Lynch, B.A. Chemical Technology Division Actini> Director, Information Services: E. A. Lane. Acting Chief of Division: Acting Director of Finance: R. C. Coles, A.A.S.A. P. G. Alfredson, B.Sc.App.(Hons.), B.E.(Hons.), M.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., F.I.Chem.E. Leader, Applied Chemistry Section: REGULATORY AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS BRANCH J. V. Evans, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., A.R.I.C. Head of Branch: A. R. W. Wilson. M.Sc.. Ph.D. Acting Leader, Chemical Engineering Section: D. Royston, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., C.Eng., M.T.Chem.E. Director, External Relations Office: R. Smith, B.Met.E.fHons.), M.Eng.Sc., Ph.D. Leader, Chemical Physics Section: J. W. Kelly, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.A.I.P. Director, Safeguards Office: Leader, Inorganic Chemistry Section: T. M. Florence, M.Sc., A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.l. F. L. Belt, B.Met.E.(Hons.), M.Eng.Sc.(Hons.). F.A.I.W., M.Aus.T.M.M Leader, Materials Chemistry Section: W. 1. Stuart, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., D.I.C. Director, Nuclear Plant Safety Unit: D. W. Crancher, M.Sc., M.LMech.E. Leader, Spectrometry Section: R. N. Whittem, B.Sc.(Hons.), A.R.A.C.l. Director, Environment and Public Health Unit: R. M. Fry, B.Sc.(Hons.). Engineering Research Division Overseas Representatives Chief of Division and Leader, Engineering Physics Section: Counsellor (Atomic Energy). Washington: G. W. K. Ford, M.B.E., M.A.(Cantab.), M.I.Mech.E. D. G. Walker, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.A.C.I., A.M.Aus.I.M.M. Leader, Reactor Performance Section: Counsellor (Atomic Energy), London: A. Bicevskis, M.Eng.Sc., Dipl.Ing., M.A.N.S., M.B.N.E.S. W. E. T. Cawsey, B.E., D.C.Ae., A.M.I.E.Aust., A.F.A.I.M. Leader. Reactor Safety Research Section: Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Tokyo: W. B. Rotsey, B.Met., Ph.D. I. F. Mayer, B.Sc., B.E.(Hons.), A.A.I.P., M.Inst.P., C.Eng., A.F.R.Ac.S., M.A.N.S. Leader, Heat Transfer Section: K. R. Lawther, B.Sc., B.E., Ph.D., C.Eng., M.I.Chem.E. Attache (Atomic Energy), Vienna: G. L. Hanna, M.Sc. NUCLEAR STUDIES GROUP Environment and Public Health Division Chief: D. R. Griffiths, B.E. Chief of Division and Leader, Radiation Biology Section: G. M. Watson, M.B., B.S., D.Phil., M.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.P., F.R.C.P.A. SPECIAL STUDIES UNIT Leader, Health Physics Research Section: D. R. Davy, B.Sc.(Hons.). Chief: A. D. Thomas, M.Sc., M.Inst.P., A.A.I.P. Instrumentation and Control Division R. K. Warner, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.A.C.l. Chief of Division: J. K. Parry, M.Sc., Ph.D. W. J. Wright, M.Sc., F.I.M. Leader, Applied Physics Section: A. J. Tavendale, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.I.E.E.E. Leader, Control and Systems Studies Section: C. P. Gilbert, M.Sc., M.I.E.E. RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT Isotope Division NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BRANCH Acting Chief of Division: Head of Branch: K. F. Alder, M.Sc., F.I.M., M.I.R.E.E.(Aust.), A.M.Aus.I.M.M. 3. G. Clouston, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.S.T.C., D.I.C., F.A.I.P. Site Manager: G. L. Miles, B.A., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.A.C.I., A.Inst.P., A.A.I.P. Leader, Radioisotope Applications Research Section: J. S. Watt, M.Sc., A.A.I.P., A.M.Aus.I.M.M. Program Manager, Power and Energy: J. L. Symonds, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., F.Inst.P., F.A.I.P. Leader, Radioisotope Services Branch, and Leader, Activation and Radiation Source Section: U. Engelbert, Dr.Ing., F.I.M.(Lond.), V.D.Eh. Assessment and Planning Unit: F. H. Carr, M.E., M.I.E.Aust. Leader, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Products Section: R. E. Boyd, B.Sc., A.M.C.T. Program Manager, Nuclear Science and Applications: Leader, Irradiation Research Section: D. F. Sangster, B.Sc.(Hons.), A.R.A.C.l. J. N. Gregory, M.Sc., D.Sc., F.R.A.C.I. Technical Sales Manager: W. A. Wiblin, B.Sc. 102 103 Materials Division Appendix D —AAEC Research Programs Acting Chief of Division and Leader, Ceramics Section: K. D. Reeve, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.I.Ccram. Leader, Materials Science Section: The main research programs in progress at the Research Establishment at P. M. Kelly, M.A., Ph.D.(Cantab.), M.lnst.P., F.A.I.P. 30 June 1974 are Ikied below. Leader, Reactor Materials Section: K. U. Snowden, B.Sc., Ph.D., M.lnst.P., A.A.I.P. Leader, Metallurgy and Assessment Section: Power and Energy Program R. J. Hilditch, B.Tech., A.S.A.S.M., A.M.Aus.I.M.M. 1. Energy Resources and Requirements: Assessment of World trends; nuclear technology review and assessment; electricity generation and process heat, assessment of demand. 2. Fission Reactor Safety and Performance: Neutron and gamma-ray data; steady state, Physics Division transient and accident neutronics; thermal-hydraulic analysis; materials behaviour; fuel element performance; corrosion and other chemical aspects. Acting Chief of Division: W. Gemmell, B.Sc.(Hons.), M.lnst.P., A.A.I.P. 3. Advanced Fission Reactor Systems: Study of performance, safety and economics in comparison with more conventional nuclear systems. Acting Leader, Experimental Reactor Physics Section: 4. Nuclear Propulsion Systems: Assessment of role of nuclear propulsion system per- formance, economics and safety for shipping. D. B. McCulloch, B.Sc.(Hons.), F.A.I.P. 5. Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion Systems: Maintenance of watching brief and Leader, Neutron Physics Section: J. R. Bird, M.Sc.. Ph.D., F.A.I.P. collaboration with universities and international bodies. Leader, Theoretical Physics Section: B. E. Clancy, M.Sc., Ph.D. Uranium Fuel Cycle Program Applied Mathematics and Computing Section i Uranium Industry: Investigation and development of methods for processing Australian ores to various end products, to improve uranium recovery, to reduce costs and to Head o) Section: D. J. Richardson, B.A.(Hons.), B.Sc., Ph.D., F.A.C.S. prevent or minimise pollution of the environment: studies on nature, distribution and association of uranium minerals in Australian ores; assessment and laboratory studies on waste water treatment in the nuclear industry; construction and commissioning of an experimental facility for the production of uranium hexafluoride by an Mechanical Development Section improved Fluorox process. 2. Enrichment by the Centrifuge Process: Investigation of the centrifuge process for Head of Section: D. R. Ebeling, B.Mech.E., M.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.Aust uranium enrichment by assessment studies and a laboratory program. 3. Enrichment by Novel Methods: Assessment and study of laser enrichment through theoretical and experimental studies of laser technology and high resolution spectro- Site Management scopy of uranium compounds. 4. Uranium Fi'd: Methods for fabrication of uranium fuel pellets for power reactors. Controller Safety: J. C. E. Button, B.Sc.(Hons.), F.Inst.P., F.A.I.P. Site Medical Officer: A. D. Tucker, M.B., B.S. Nuclear Science and Applications Program Controller, Site Planning: 1. Radioisotopes and Radiation- Nuclear techniques of analysis-, nucleav techniques in R. C. P. Cairns, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., D.Sc., A.S.T.C., C.Eng., hydrology; industrial applications of radioisotopes; biological and chemical applications M.T.Chem.E., F.I.E.Aust. of radiation; radiation detection and measurement. 2. Environment and Public Health: Environmental field studies; environmental studies Controller, Engineering Services: A. C. Higgins, C.Eng., F.I.Mech.E. (laboratory and assessment); biophysics and radiation biology. 3. Nuclear Science and Applications: Development of techniques — covering, for Controller, Operations: A. C. Wood, B.Sc., F.I.E.Aust. example, non-destructive testing; exploitation of neutron beams for radiography and ore analysis; analytical chemistry techniques. Controller, Site Information Services: K. H. Tale, B.Sc., M.Aus.I.M.M. Controller. Administration: H. W. J. Bowen, B.Ec. Scientific Services Program Assistant Controller, Finance and General Services: C. H. Bebb, A.A.S.A. The program covers the provision of a wide variety of scientific services by research Assistant Controller, Personnel and Office Services: D. M. Lukeman. divisions to each other and to outside organisations. Included in this program are the provision of radioisotopes to industry and the manufacture and distribution of radio- Manager, Commercial Applications: C. D. G. Shaw, M.A., M.A.I., C.Eng., F.I.MectuE, pharmaceutical products. Australian School of Nuclear Technology Divisional Research Programs Principal: D. A. Newmarch, B.Sc.(Hons.), B.A.(Hons.), M.R.I.P., H.A.I.N.E. The divisional research programs include basic research studies of scientific problems and methods in the early stages of development prior to decisions being made regarding their adoption as projects within the main programs. Examples are an investigation of the scientific basis for the application of pulsed neutron techniques to moisture analysis and borehole logging; absorption of radiant energy in carbonaceous suspensions; mechanical property studies on special materials; neutron diffraction studies; study of computer methods in information retrieval and data display. 104 105 Appendix E —AAEC Research Contracts Appendix F —AINSE Research and Training Grants In 1973-74 the Commission awarded research contracts for the projects listed The Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering awarded AINSE Grants in the 1974 Series in support of the 95 projects listed below. below. (Allocation of up to $115,000—expected expenditure $90,000.) Titles of projects undertaken in 1973-74 by AINSE Fellows (10), and AINSE Students (6) are listed separately. NEW CONTRACTS University or Organisation Research Project RESEARCH GRANTS FOR 1974 University of New South Wales James Cook University of North Queensland Department of Physical Chemistry Mass spectra of volatile uranium complexes ($5,000). 1. Neutron capture gamma-ray studies. (Associate Professor R. B. Taylor, Physics, up to $1,100.) 2. Effect of gamma-radiation on selected monomers and polymers. (Dr E. Senogles, Chemistry, up to $1,720.) 3. X-ray diffraction studies on metal complexes of quadridentate ligands. (Dr L. F. Lindoy, Monash University Chemistry, up to $800.) Department of Materials Engineering A fracture mechanics approach to creep crack growth ($3,580). 4. The structure of an enzyme by neutron diffraction. (Associate Professor L. F. Power and Dr F. Moore (AINSE), Chemistry, up to $1,922.) 5. X-ray and neutron diffraction studies on high pressure minerals. (Associate Professor P. J. Stephenson and Dr C. Cuff, Geology and Mineralogy, up to $1,400.) 6. Dislocation — point defect interaction in alkali halides. (Dr G. A. Bielig, Physics, up to Australian Mineral Development Commercial exploitation of radioisotopc research $500.) ($2.000). Laboratories 7. Investigation of the effect of irradiation on metal-oxide composite prepared by powder Studies of the processing of uranium ores in the metallurgy. (Dr N. C. Kothari, Engineering, up to $200.) Northern Territory ($8,000). University of Queensland The Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd 1. The modification of turbulence structure for optimum heat transfer in ducts. (Dr K. J. Melbourne Research Laboratories Creep of aluminium and iron based alloys and Bullock. Mechanical Engineering, up to $350.) magnetic properties of special steels ($16,870). 2. Development of transducers and measuring techniques for isothermal and non-isothermal two-phase flow. (Dr K. Bremhorst, Mechanical Engineering, up to $580.) 3. Chromatographic enrichment of heavy water. (Dr R. G. Rice, Chemical Engineering, up to $200.) EXTENDED CONTRACTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY GRANTS 4. Study of forced vibrations of shells. (Dr J. L. Meek, Civil Engineering, up to $1,250.) 5. Identification of titanium isotopes by (p,y) nuclear activation and excited levels of 4sy University of New South Wales and soy nuclei. (Dr W. B. Lasich, Physics, up to $530.) School of Textile Technology Sxudy of carbon fibres ($4,600). 6. Radiation effects in polymers. (Dr J. H. O'Donnell, Chemistry, up to $1,400.) 7. Neutron and X-ray scattering studies of crystalline solids near transition temperatures. (Dr B. W. Lucas, Physics, up to $1,000.) 8. Structure analysis using neutron diffraction. (Dr C. H. L. Kennard, Chemistry, up to $1,200.) 9. Determination, of U in Australian rocks by delayed neutron counting. (Dr D. C. Green, Geology and Mineralogy, up to $400.) 10. 40Ar/39Ar age determinations. (Dr D. C. Green, Geology and Mineralogy, up to $100.) 11. Electron radiation damage in metals and semi-conductors. (Drs R. B. Gardiner and S. Myhra, Physics, up to $6,000.) University of New England 1. Fluorescence studies of scintillators for tunable lasers. (Professor S. C. Haydon and Dr G. A. Woolsey, Physics, up to $860.) 2. Fission track and neutron activation studies. (Dr J. D. Kleeman, Geology, up to $800.) 3. Neutron diffraction study of statistical solids. (Professor N H. Fletcher, Physics, up to $700.) 106 107 University of Newcastle Macquarie University 1. X-ray structure determination of inorganic compounds. (Mr H. R. Tietze, Chemistry, 1. Collisional decomposition of molecules formed by recoil from nuclear reactions. (Associate up to $400.) Professor J. G. Hawke, Chemistry, up to $1,100.) 2. Neutron diffraction structure determination of a silicon organic compound. (Dr F. H. 2. Radiolysis of polyunsaturaled acids and esters. (Dr J. M. Gebicki, Biological Sciences, Moore (AINSE) and Mr H. R. Tietze, Chemistry, up to $250.) up to $400.) 3. Vibrational spectra of metal-hydrogen solutions. (Associate Professor W. A. Gates, 3. Radiation effects in surface films. (Associate Professor J. G. Hawke and Dr J. M. Metallurgy, up to $400.) Gebicki, Chemistry and Biological Sciences, up to 10$150.) 4. Solute-vacancy interaction in metals. (Mr J. E. McLennan, Metallurgy, up to $100.) 4. The chemical effect of transient species from, e.g., B compounds, during neutron capture 5. Interactions between interstitial solute atoms in alpha-iron. (Professor E. O. Hall and .Dr therapy of malignant neoplasms. (Associate Professor J. G. Hawk'e, Chemistry, up to $800.) J. D. Browne. Metallurgy, up to $250.) 5. Radiation grafting. (Dr L. R. Williams, Chemistry, up to $250.) 6. Ordering in intermetallic compounds. (Dr J. D. Browne, Metallurgy, up to $200.) Australian National University University of Sydney 1. Spectroscopy of laser-produced plasmas. (Dr F. E. Irons, Engineering Physics, up to $605.) 1. Simulation of processes in turbulent shear flows. (Dr J. D. Atkinson. Mechanical 2. Time resolved runaway electron measurements. (Dr J. D. Strachan, Engineering Physics, Engineering, up to $1,720.) up to $1,000.) 2. Basic study of convective heat transfer processes. (Associate Professor R. E. Luxton and 3. Optical studies of uranium in various host crystals. (Dr E. R. Vance, Solid Stale Physics, Dr R. A. Antonia. Mechanical Engineering, up to $2,150.) 40up to $200.) 3. Transport properties of uranium plasmas. (Professor D. W. George, Mechanical Engineer- 4. Ar/39Ar a,"- determination of rocks. (Dr I. McDougall, Earth Sciences, up to $450.) ing, up to $2,323.) 4. Magnetohydrodynamic converter closed-cycle working media. (Professors H. K. Messerle and D. W. George. Dr A. D. Stok'es and Mr B. Campbell, Electrical Engineering, up to University of Melbourne $1,000.) 1. Turbulent boundary layers and heat transfer. (Dr A. E. Perry and Professor P. N. Joubert, 5. Far-infrared wave interactions in plasmas. (Dr L. C. Robinson. Plasma Physics, up to Mechanical Engineering, up to $1,180.) $3,000.) 2. (p, Y) studies. (Dr D. G. Sargood, Physics, up to $1,800.) 6. PIG discharge for cyclotron harmonic wave studies. (Dr G. F. Brand. Plasma Physics, up 3. The nuclear structure of 47y and 4«V. (Dr C. D. McKenzie and Professor B. M. Spicer, to $500.) Physics, up to $1,250.) 7. Measurement of plasma electron temperature behind shock fronts. (Drs W. I. B. Smith 4. Nuclear analysis of the surface of sea-water. (Professor G. 1. Opat, Mr A. G. Klein, and I. S. Falconer, Plasma Physics, up to $3,000.) and Dr F. Maclntyre, Physics, up to $800.) 8. Alfven waves in a plasma. (Dr J. Lehane, Plasma Physics, up to $5.720.) 5. Genes controlling radiation response in Pseiidomonas aeniginoi,a. (Drs A. H. C. Kung and B. T. Lee, Genetics, up to $1,220.) University of New South Wales 6. Neutron spin interferometry. (Professor G. I. Opat and Mr A. G. Klein, Physics, and Dr T. M. Sabine, NSW Institute of Technology, up to $1,000.) 1. Bubble size measurements in two-phase flows. (Dr M. R. Davis, Fluid Mechanics and 7. Application of activation analysis to problems of ore genesis and evolution of the crust. Thermodynamics, up to $800.) (Dr R. R. Keays, Geology, up to $2,000.) 2. Conditional sampling measurements in turbulent flows. (Dr M. R. Davis, Fluid Mechanics 8. The application of activation and fission track analysis to fundamental problems in and Thermodynamics, up to $950.) geochemistry and cosmochemistry. (Professor J. F. Levering, Geology, up to $1,400.) 3. Thermo-mechanical analysis of nuclear plant structures. (Associate Professor Z. J. Holy, 9. Pulse radiolysis studies of gaseous atoms and radicals. (Dr R. Cooper, Physical Chemistry, Nuclear Engineering, up to $2,000.) up to $1,400.) ls 4. Noise measurements in HIFAR reactor. (Mr L. G. Kemeny, Nuclear Engineering, un 10. Study of resonances in O(p, Y). (Professor B. M. Spicer and Dr J. L. Rouse, Physics, to $2,886.) v up to $940.) 5. Investigation of premix polymer concretes. (Mr D. R. Morgan, Civil Engineering, UD to $500.) V 6. Proton and ion channelling in crystal lattices. (Associate Professor J C. Kelly Physics Monash University Department, up to $600.) 1. The effects of radiation on the electrical conductivity of some simple polymer and polymer- 7. Neutron induced nuclear reactions at intermediate energies. (Professor E. P. George like systems. (Dr R. J. Fleming, Physics, up to $1,050.) Physics, up to $750.) 2. Distribution of magnetic moment in CuFe and CuMn alloys. (Dr T. J. Hicks, Physics, 8. The effects of neutron irradiation on the mechanical properties of alkali halides. (Associate up to $4,100.) Professor H. F. Pollard, Physics, up to $600.) 3. Distribution of magnetic moment in transition metal and alloys. (Dr T. J. Hicks, Physics, 9. (a) Radiation catalysis and (b) Studies in mass spectrometry. (Associate Professor J. L. up to $4,220.) Garnett, Physical Chemistry, up to $1,600.) 4. Short-range order in transition metal alloys and compounds. (Associate Professor J. H. 10. Pulsed radiolysis of branched chain alcohols. (Dr N. T. Barker, Nuclear and Radiation Smith, Physics, up to $2,320.) Chemistry, up to $460.) 5. A study of perturbation to spin density wave ordering in chromium. (Professor R. 11. Hydroxylation reactions of heterocyclic compounds. (Associate Professor E. R. Cole Street, Physics, up to $1,620.) and Dr G. Crank, Applied Organic Chemistry, up to $1,100.) 6. Hyperfine interaction studies by nuclear orientation and angular correlation. (Dr J. A. 12. Radiation induced reactions of tritium with organic compounds. (Dr M. A. Long, Nuclear Barclay, Physics, up to $550.) and Radiation Chemistry, up to $1,020.) 7. Magnetic interactions of rare earth compounds. (Dr J. D. Cashion, Physics, up to $400.) 13. Polarised neutron investigation of single crystal Fe:,O,. (Dr G. L. Paul, Physics, up to $300.) 14. Polarised neutron investigation of lanthanum lead manganate. (Dr G. L. Paul, Phvsics La Trobe University up to $300.) ' 15. Neutron diffraction studies of Methyl 2,6-Anhydro-a-D-Altropyranoside, Diacetate and 1. The role of inducible repair systems in the induction of mutations by ionising radiation. l,2:3,4-di-O-isopropylidene-a-D glucoseptanose. (Dr V. J. James, Physics, up to $500.) (Dr D. G. MacPhee, Genetics, up to $1,520.) 16. Experimental investigation of free convection in cavities. (Dr G. L. Morrison, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, up to $1,200.) 17. Distribution of KX-rays as a function of mass and atomic number in the spontaneous University of Tasmania fission of 252Cf. (Dr J. N. Mathur, Physics, up to $200.) 1. Fast neutron spectrometer. (Drs K. B. and A. G. Fenton, Physics, up to $550.) 18. Neutron scattering studies of light-heavy rare earth alloys. (Professor K. N. R. Taylor 2. (a) Effects of heliotrine on animal cells at different stages of cell cycle; (b) Protection Physics, up to $3,400.) against X-irradiation by 1,4-Dithiothreitol. (Dr Y. A. E. Bick, Zoology, up to $1,000.) 108 109 University of Adelaide Appendix G —Technical Papers by Commission Staff 1. Development of laminar natural-convectivc flow in a vertical duct. (Dr J. R. Dye:, Mechanical Engineering, up to $1,135.) 2. Fast reactions of transient oxidation states in solution; flash photolysis and pulse radiolysis. (D, G. S. Laurence, Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, up to $1,000.) The following research publications of the Commission consist of contributions accepted 3. The use of radioactive nitrogen (»N) in studies with bacterial enzymes. (Professor D. by scientific journals and a selection of unclassified scientific reports published in the official J. D. Nicholas and Mr H. R. Lovelock, Agricultural Biochemistry, up to $1,200.) AAEC report scries. The two groups of publications arc listed separately. Patent applications 4. Atomic structure of tridymite at 220°C. (Dr J. B. Jones, Geology and Mineralogy, up to are listed on page 116. Flinders University of South Australia 1. Non-linear wave phenomena at low frequencies. (Dr I. R. Jones and Professor M. H. PUBLISHED PAPERS Brennan, Physical Sciences, up to $5,000.) 2. Fast z-pinch. (Drs I. R. Jones, E. L. Murray and M. G. R. Phillips. Physical Sciences, A1REY, P. L. (1973). The effect of irradiation on electrode processes. Part 2 — Diffusion up to $5,000.) currents associated with radiolylic products. /. Client. Soc. (London), Faradav Trims., I, 3. Laser scattering measurements. (Dr E. L. Murray, Physical Sciences, up to $1,000.) (59:2103-2111. 4. Uranium distribution studies in rocks and sediments. (Dr H. H. Veeh, Physical Sciences, AIREY, P. L. (1974). The effect of irradiation on electrode processes. Radial. Rex. Rev. (In up to $250.) press.) 5. Determination of trichloroadenium zinc (II) by neutron diffraction. (Dr M. R. Taylor Physical Sciences, up to $500.) AIREY, P. L., CALF, G. E., HARTLEY, P. E., ROMAN, D., SPRAGG, W. T. (1974). The use of environmental isotopes and artificial tracers to study recharge to groundwater in University of Western Australia the Burdekin Delta, Queensland. Paper presented at IAEA Symposium on Isotope 1. Crystal structure analysis by neutron diffraction. (Dr E. N. Maslen, Physics, up to $900.) Techniques in Groundwater Hydrology, Vienna, 11-15 March. 2. Absolute measurement of neutron production. (Drs H. Stock and H. H. Thies, Physics, ALFREDSON, P. G., ROYSTON, D., *WARD, J., WRIGHT, W. J. (1973). Survey of future up to $700.) production of zircon and zirconium in Australia. Aust. Miner. I ml. Quarterly Review, 26 (i): 13-38. (*Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics.) Caulfield Institute of Technology BANNISTER, M. J. (1974). Thermal decomposition of beta uranyl dihydroxide single 1. The application of neutron capture gamma-ray spectroscopy to the elemental and tsotopic crystals. J. /iiorq. Niicl. C/icm. (In press.) analysis of materials. (Dr I. F. Bubb, up to $400.) BATLEY, G. E., EK.STROM, A. (1974). Studies of topochemical heterogeneous catalysis. 2. NSW Institute of Technology Catalysts for the reaction of UF4 with oxygen. J. Catal. (In press.) 1. Electron and spin distribution in potassium trisoxolato ferrate (III). (Drs N. Thompson, BATLEY, G. E., EKSTROM, A., JOHNSON, D. (1974). Studies of topochemical hetero- T. M. Sabine and C. J. Howard, up to $400.) geneous catalysis. 3. Catalysis of reduction of metal oxides by hydrogen. J. Catal. (In press.) BENNETT, N. W., SANGER, P. L. (1973). The development of the ACL language and its AINSE SENIOR FELLOWSHIP 1973-74 implementation ACL-NOVA. Aust. Comput. J., 5(3): 105-114. 1. Topics in theoretical nuclear physics, including non-statistical effects in resonant neutron capture, and anomalies in excitation curves at reaction thresholds. (Dr A. M. Lane, BOLDEMAN, J. W. (1974). Prompt neutron yield from the spontaneous fission of 252-Cf. Theoretical Physics, Australian National University.) Nucl. Sci. Eng. (In press.) BOYD, R. E. (1973). Recent developments in generators of 99mTc. Paper presented at IAEA AINSE RESEARCH FELLOWSHIPS AND STUDENTSHIPS Symp. on New Developments in Radiopharmaceuticals and Labelled Compounds, Copenhagen, 26-30 March. Studies of nuclear reactions in aluminium and beryllium. (Dr L. E. Carlson, Nuclear Physics, Australian National University.) BOYD, R. E., ROBSON, J., HUNT, F. C., SORBY, P. J., * MURRAY, 1. P. C., *McKAY, Lattice dynamics of ice and other hydrogen-bonded solids. (Dr D. R. Mcuenzie, AINSE W. J. (1973). 99mTc gluconate complexes for renal scintigraphy. Br. J. Radio!., 46:604-612. Neutron Diffraction Group, Lucas Heights.) (*Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney.) 3. Neutron diffraction studies of Mn-Au alloys. (Dr J. S. Plant, Physics, Monash University.) BRADHURST, D. H., SHIRVINGTON, P. J., HEUER, P. M. (1973). The effects of radiation 4. Theoretical and experimental study of inverse y-n and n-f reactions near threshold. (Dr and oxygen on zirconium alloy corrosion in water at 290°C. Paper presented at 5th R. F. Barrett, Physics, University of Melbourne.) European Congress on Corrosion, Paris, 24-28 September. 5. Nuclear structure studies at low energies. (Dr K. H. Bray, Nuclear Physics, Australian *BROWN, B J., *BARKER, N. T., SANGSTER, D. (1973). Electron solvation processes in National University.) alcohol/hydrocarbon mixtures. Aunt. J. Chew., 26:2089-2099. (*Uni. of NSW.) 6. Effect of radiation damage on the upper yield point. (Dr K. L. Murty, Metallurgy, University of Newcastle.) BULL, P. S., EVANS, J. V. (1973). Cation exchange removal of copper from aqueous 7. Hydrogen bonding in solids. (Dr R. D. G. Jones, Chemistry, University of Sydney.) ammonia solutions. /. Appl. Cliem. Biotech., 25:919-924. Light element analysis of nuclear fuels. (Dr G. E. Murch, Chemistry, Flinders University CHAPMAN, J. F., DALE, L. S., KELLY, J. W. (1974). A carbon tube for the analysis of of South Australia.) water by flameless atomic absorption spectroscopy. Anal. Chi/n. Ada., 69:207-210. The chemical effects of transient species produced from K'B compounds during the neutron CHURCH, V. E., FRASER, H. J., MATTHEWS, R. W. (1973). A small analogue linearising capture therapy of malignant neoplasms. (Dr B. J. Brown, Chemistry Macquarie instrument for ceric-cerous gamma-ray dosimetry. Paper presented at 14th Nat. Radio and University.) Electronics Engineering Convention, Melbourne, 20-24 August. 10. Semi-conductor neutron detectors. (Mr R. N. Williams, Physics, University of Tasmania.) 11. Structural studies of metal complexes of vitamin B,, and model system. (Mr K E Turner COOK, J. L. (1973). The international compilation, evaluation and exchange of nuclear data Chemistry, James Cook University of North Queensland.) for reactors and AAEC participation. At. Energy Auxt., 16(4) :20-26. 12. Angular distribution of fission fragments. (Mr J. Caruana, Physics, Wollongong University CORRAN, E., STAPLETON, C. (1974). Simulation studies of a practical reactor control College, University of New South Wales.) system providing time-optional shutdown. Niicl. Sci. Eng., 54(1) :47-54. 13. The creep and creep-rupture behaviour of Zr-1% Nb alloy, (Mr W. R. Thorpe, Mining CYBULA, C. G., HARRIS, R. W., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1974). The detection and location of and Metallurgical Engineering, University of Queensland.) a boiling noise source using external vibration sensors and noise analysis techniques. Proc. 14. Studies on ionising radiation mutagenesis. (Mr D. M. Podger, Genetics La Trobe University.) 1REE Aust. (In press.) 15. Hall-effect measurements on low-temperature electron-irradiated n- and p-type a-tin DALE, L. S. (1974). A direct carrier distillation procedure for the spectrographic determination (Miss J. E. Charles, Physics, University of Queensland.) of impurities in uranium tetrafluoride. Appl. Spectrosc. (In press.) 110 Ill *D'ARCY, R. L., *WATT. I. C.. McLAREN, K. G. (1972). Radiation-initiated polymerisa- KNIGHT, R. J., SYLVA, R. N. (1974). Precipitation in hydrolysed iron (III) solutions. tion in aged wool keratin. J. Macromol. Sci., Part ^46(4) :689-704. (*Div. of Textile J. Inorg. Nitcl. Client.. .?6:591-597. Physics, CSIRO.) LEVY, J. H., WILSON, P. W. (1974). The reduction of uranium hexafluoride by hydrogen EBERHARDT, J. E., PRYOR, A. W. (1973). A 100 MW, 20 ns pulse generator for a Na at room temperature. A list. J. Chem., 26(12) :2711-2714. laser. Paper presented at 14th Nat. Radio and Electronics Engineering Convention, LOWENTHAL, G. C. (1973). On sources of systematic errors in efficiency tracer measure- Melbourne, 20-24 August. ments. Nucl. lustrum. Methods, 112:165-168. EKSTROM, A. (1974). The kinetics and mechanism of the disproportionation of U(V). LOWENTHAL, G. C., PAGE, V., WYLL1E, H. A. (1973). The use of sources made on Inorg. Clicm. (In press.) electrosprayed pads of ion exchange resins for efficiency tracer measurements. Nncl. EKSTROM, A., BATLEY, G. E. (1973). The catalysis of the reaction between uranium lustrum. Methods. 7/2:197-200. tetrafluoride and oxygen. A novel approach to the preparation of uranium hexafluoride LOWSON, R. T. (1974). Aluminium corrosion studies. Part I — Potential pH temperature by a method not requiring the use of fluorine. Inorg. Nucl. Ghent. Lett., 9:1157-1161. diagrams for aluminium. Aust. J. Chem., 27:105-127. EKSTROM, A., BATLEY, G. E., FLORENCE, T. M., FARRAR, Y. (1974). The kinetics of the U(V1)-U(IV) exchange in perchlonUe and sulphate media. i. Inorg. Nncl. Chem. McLAREN, K. G. (1974). Gas phase dosimetry based on nitrogen yield from nitrous oxide. (In press.) ////. ]. Appl. Radial. Isot., 25:87-93. EKSTROM. A., BATLEY, G. E., JOHNSON, D. A. (1974). Studies of topochemical hetero- MATTHEWS, R. W. (1974). Kinetic evidence for excited water in the cobalt-60 gamma geneous catalysis. 1. The catalytic effect of platinum on the reaction of UF, with O- and radiolysis of ferrous sulphate 0.4 M sulphuric acid solutions. ./. Client. Soc. (London), Faraday Trans. (In preis.) of UO,.F4 and UO3 with H2. J. Catal. (In press.) EKSTROM, A., JOHNSON. D. A. (1974). The kinetics and mechanism of the reaction of U(V1) MIDDLETON, M. (1974). INIS: The International Nuclear Information System. Anst. Lihrary with 4-(2-pyridylazo) resorcinol (PAR). J. Inorg. Nncl. Chem. (In press.) J., May: 136-140. EKSTROM, A., JOHNSON, D. A. (1974). The kinetics and mechanism of the reaction of MILLER, D. J., RYAN, R. D. (1973). Electron and neutron damage in n- and p-channel U(VI) with Eu(ll). J. Inorg. NucL Chem. (In press.) junction field effect transistors. Radial. Efj. (In press.) ELCOMBE. M. M. (1974). Determination of atomic eigen vector magnitudes by isotopic NEWTON, P. J. F. (ed.) (1974). Provisional Program and Abstracts of Papers presented substitution. J. Pliys. C (London). (In press.) to the 5th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Society of Nuclear Medicine, Sydney, 22-24 May. FARDY. J. J.. PEARSON, J. M. (1974). An ion exchange study of the sulphate complexes of plutonium (IV). /. Inorg. Nucl. Chem., J6:671-677. PAKALNS, P. (1974). Spectrophotometric determination of uranium in ores after decomposi- tion in a Teflon pressure bomb. Anal. Chim. Ada., 69:211-215. FLORENCE, T. M., (1974). Determination of bismuth in marine samples by anodic stripping voUammetry. J. Electroanal. Cheni. Intel-facial Electrochem., 49:255-264. PARRY, J. K. (1973). Modular electronic systems for nuclear research. Anst. Phys., Septem- FLORENCE, T. M. (1974). Polarography of azo compounds and their metal complexes. ber: 146-150. /. Electroanal. Cham. Intel-facial Electrochem., 52:115-132. PRICE G. H STUART, W. 1. (1973). Thermodynamic properties and infrared spectra of Li,.SO,.H,O and Li»SO,.D:.O. J. Chem. Soc. (London), Faraday Trans. I, 69:1498-1502. FLORENCE, T. M. (1974). Determination of trace metals at threshold levels in seawater and industrial wastes. Paper presented at 6th Fed. Convention of Aust. Water and Wastewater PRICE, J., SPENCER, A. McM., THOMPSON, N. E. (1973). Elastic deflection of thin Assoc., Melbourne. 30 April-4 May. walled cones rotating about their axes of symmetry. Paper presented at Conf. on Stress and Strain in Engineering, Brisbane, August. FLORENCE, T. M., FARRAR. Y. J., (1974). Determination of tin by thin film anodic stripping voltammetry. Application to marine samples. /. Electroanal. Ghent. Intel-facial REEVE, K. D. (1973). Interfaces in ceramic nuclear fuels. Paper presented at Symp. on Eleclrochem. (In press.) Surfaces and Interfaces in Glass and Ceramics, Alfred, New York, 27-29 August. FLORENCE, T. M., FARRAR, Y. J., DALE, L. S., BATLEY, G. E. (1974). Beryllium content REEVE, K. D., NAPIER, J. G., WEBB, C. E. (1974). The reaction of Al.O.i — 2 wt. % MgO of NBS standard reference orchard leaves. Anal. Chem. (In press.) protective coatings with a BeO substrate: III—Further observations. J. A list. Ceram. Soc., FLORENCE, T. M., JOHNSON, D. A., BATLEY, G. E. (1974). Polarography of hetero- 10 (1):22. cyclic azo compounds and their metal complexes. J. Electroanal. Client. Intel-facial ROSE, E. K., COOK, J. L., BERTRAM, W. K. (1974). Statistics for Adler-Adler resonance Electrochem., 50:113-127. parameters. Anst J. Phys. (In press.) FRASER, H. J. (1974). A portable four-decade logarithmic GM survey meter. Nucl. lustrum. SANGER, P L (1974). Computing facilities at the AAEC Research Establishment. At. Energy Methods. (In press.) Aust., /7(2):2-8. GRAVmS.'V. L., GREIG, R. A., WATT, J. S. (1974). X-ray fluorescence analysis of SANGSTER. D. F. (1974). Rauiation chemical processes — the world scene. At. Energv Anst., mineral samples using solid state detector and radioisotopT X-ray source. Proc. Australas 17 (2): 15-25. /nst. Min. Metall., 249:1-4. SH7RV1NGTON, P. J. (1974). A mechanism for in-reactor oxidation of zirconium alloys from GUY. T. B. (1974). A note on the shock stand off distance for a spherical body in supersonic oxide electrical characteristics. Part I — Zircaloy-2. J. Nncl. Mater., 50:183-199. flow. Am. Inst. Aeronaut. Astronaut. J. (In press.) SHIRVINGTON, P. J. (1974). A mechanism for in-reactor oxidation of zirconium alloys from GUY, T. B., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1973). A numerical approach to non-spherical vapour oxide electrical characteristics. Part II — Crystal-bar zirconium and Zr-1.2 wt. % Cr-0.08 bubble dynamics. Int. J. Heal Mass Transfer, 76:2393-2406. wt. % Fe. /. Nucl. Mater. (In press.) HARRIS, R. W., HOLLAND, P. G. (1973). An experimental study of flow-induced vibration SHIRVINGTON, P. J. (1974). A mechanism for in-reactor oxidation of zirconium alloys from of a cantilever in axial air-water flow. Paper presented at 2nd Int. Conf. on Structural oxide electrical characteristics. Part III — Zr-2.5 wt. % Nb. /. Nucl. Mater. (In press.) Mechanics in Reactor Technology, Berlin, 10-14 September. SNOWDEN, K. U., STATHERS, P. A. (1973). The fatigue deformation in a Zr-O alloy in HOGG, G. R. (1973). Some problems of fusion reactors. At. Energy Aust., 76(3) :7-13. the range 20 to 700°C (0.15 to 0.53 Tm). Scr. Metall., 7:1097-1110. HOWARD, C. J., KHADAKE, R. G. (1974). An X-ray determination of the thermal SNOWDEN, K. U., VEEVERS, K. (1974). Radiation hardening in Zircaloy-2. Railiat. EfJ. parameters for LiF. Ada Crysiallogr. Sect. A. (In press.) (In press.) HOWARD, C. J., SABINE, T. M. (1974). X-ray diffraction profiles from neutron irradiated SOWERBY, B. D., ELLIS, W. K. (1974). Borehole analysis for copper and nickel using magnesium oxide. /. Phys. C (London). (In press.) gamma-ray resonance scattering. Nncl. lustrum. Methods, 115:511-523. HUNT, F. C., MADDALENA, D. J., *YEATES, M. G. (1974). Technetium-99m-6-mercapto- TAYLOR, J. C., WILSON, P. W. (1974). The crystal structure of /j-UOF,. Ada. Crysiallogr. purine, a new radiopharmaceutical for cholescintigraphy. Paper presented at First World Congress of Nuclear Medicine, Tokyo, 30 September-4 October. (*Dept. of Nucl. Med., Sect. B. (In press.) Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney.) TAYLOR, J. C., WILSON, P. W. (1974). The deuterium location in deuterium triuranate, KELLY, P. M. (1973). Irradiation growth in zirconium. Paper presented at Int. Conf. on D:. Un OK, by neutron diffraction. Acta. Crystallogr. Sect. B30, Pan /: 151-154. Physical Metallurgy of Nuclear Fuel Elements, Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England, 2-7 TAYLOR, J. C., WILSON, P. W. (1974). Neutron and X-ray powder diffraction studies of the September. structure of-uranium hexachloride. Acta. Crystallogr. Sect. B. (In press.) 112 113 TAYLOR. J. C., WILSON. P. W. (1974). The structure of beta tungsten hexachloricle by BROOMHALL. G. J.. KENNY. M. J., MARTIN, P. W., BIRD, J. R. (1974). The measurement powder neutron and X-ray diffraction. Ada. Crystallogr. Sect. B. (In press.) of partial capture cross sections for neutron energies above 10 keV. AAEC/E302. TAYLOR. J. C., WILSON. P. W. (1974). The structure of uranyl chloride monohydralc by CLARK. G. H.. BENDUN, E. O. K. (1974). A report on the meteorological studies at Jervis neutron diffraction and the disorder of the water molecule. Ada. Crystallogr. Scd. B30, Bay, ACT, Australia. AAEC/E309. (In press.) Pan 7:169-175. CONWAY. N. F., DAVY, D. R., GILES, M. S., NEWTON, P. J. F. (ed.), *POLLARD, D. A. TAYLOR. J. C.. WILSON. P. W. (1974). The structure of UOCL by neutron diffraction. Ada. (1974). The Alligator Rivers Area Fact Finding Study — four AAEC reports. AAEC/ Crystallogr. Sect. B30. Part 1:175-177. E305. (*NSW Dept. of Fisheries.) TAYLOR, J. C., WILSON, P. W. (1974). The structure of fluorides. IV — A neutron diffraction COOK, J. E. (1973). Site emergency releases and site emcrccncy slocks — recommended values study of K»NiFo. J. Inorg. Nucl. Chcm. (In press.) for use at the Research Establishment. AAEC/E286. " TAYLOR, J. C.. WILSON, P. W. (1974). The structure of fluorides. V — The x-parameter in COOK,.I. E. (1973). Emergency reference levels. AAEC/E287. Nip-. Ada. Crysic.!logr. Sect. B. (In press.) COOK. J. L. (1974). A statistical model for compound nucleus formation. AAEC/E3I5. (In TAYLOR, J. C., WILSON. P. W. (1974). The structure of fluorides. VI — Precise structural press.) parameters in copper difluoride by neutron diffraction. /. Less-Common Met., 34:257-259. CRIPPS. P. (1974). Computational survey of homogeneous, water-moderated, 5 weight per THACKRAY. M. (1974). Autoradiography provides a two-pronged attack on the problem of cent enriched uranium dioxide syslems. AAEC/E308. radiographic film speed. Radiographer, April:53-54. DOHERTY, G. (1974). ZHEX-A Ihree dimensional diffusion code for hexagonal Z geometry. THACKRAY, M., ROMAN. D., HETHER1NGTON, E. L. R. (1974). Precision etching and AAEC/E307. the production of full-tone photographs using the etch-tracks from fission fragments and DONNELLY. I. .1. (1973). Evaluation of boundary conditions for the heterogeneous reactor alpha-rays. Int. J. Appl. Radial. Isot., 25:49-54. code SOS-1. AAEC/E288. TINGATE. G. A. (1974). Parameters influencing the flow of packings of spheres and near FANE. A. G. (1974). The production of sinterable uranium dioxide from ammonium diuranate. spheres in cylindrical vessels. Nncl. Eng. DCS. (In press.) Part I — A review of gas/solid contactors. AAEC/E282. TUCKER, A. D., WYATT. J. H., UNDERY, Dawn (1973). Clearance of inhaled particles FANE, A. G.. Le PAGE, A. L., ALFREDSON, P. G. (1974). The production of sinterable from alveoli by normal interstitial drainage pathways. /. Appl. Pltysiol., 35(5) :719-732. uranium dioxide from ammonium diuranatc. Part II — Batch production in a pulsed TURNER. W. J., TRIMBLE. G. D. (1974). Simulation of transient two-phase compressible fluidised bed reactor. AAEC/E300. (In press.) flow. Paper presented at S1MSIG (Simulation Special Interest Group of the Aust. Comput- FANE, A. G.. CHARLTON, B. G., ALFREDSON, P. G. (1974). The thermal denitration of ing Society) AINSE. 13-15 May. uranyl nitrate in a fluidised bed reactor. AAEC/E284. WALL, T., GILLESPIE, P. (1973). Determination of optimum beam doses for neutron GATT, F. C. (1973). Flow of spheres and near spheres in cylindrical vessels. Part IV — radiography using the foil transfer method. Paper presented at British Nucl. Energy Soc. Individual flow paths in recirculated random packings. AAEC/E273. Conf. on Radiography with Neutrons, Uni. of Birmingham, 10 September. HESSE. E. W. (1973). EQUICORE II — A two dimensional coupled hydraulic-neutronics code WATT, J. S. (1973). Radioisotope on-stream analysis. Development history of an award-winning for calculating the equilibrium and lime dependent burnup states of pressure tube type system. At. Energy Anxt., )6(4):3-19. reactors. AAEC/E293. WHATHAM, J. F. (1973). Quenching of beryllium oxide spheres. Paper presented at Conf. HETHERINGTON, E. L. R., WOOD, N. R. (1973). The production of ytterbium-169 radio- on Stress and Strain in Engineering, Brisbane, August. graphy sources in a high flux reactor. AAEC/E306. WHATHAM. J. F. (1974). The influence of pellet length on fuel/cladding interaction in JOHNSON, S. G., SANGER, P. L. (1974). AAEC facilities to aid in the development of simulated reactor fuel pins. Nucl. Eng. £>«., 26:423-431. Fortran programs. AAEC/E318. '••WILLIAMS. R. N., LAWSON, E. M. (1973). Formation of current pulses in semi-conductor McLAREN, K. G., *SAMARIN, A. (1974). Concrete-polymer composile materials produced nuclear radiation detectors. Nncl. lustrum. Methods, 113:597-598. (*Uni. of Tasmania, by radiation polymerisation techniques. AAEC/E320. (In press.) (*Ready Mixed Concrete Hobart.) Industries Ltd.) "WILLIAMS, R. N., LAWSON, E. M. (1974). The plasma effect in silicon semi-conductor MAY, F. G., POLSON, H. J. (1974). Methyl iodide penetration of charcoal beds: variation radiation detectors. Nitcl. lustrum. Methods. (In press.) (*Uni. of Tasmania, Hobart.) with relative humidity and face velocity. AAEC/E322. (Tn press.) WILLS, Pamela A. (1974). Effects of hydrostatic pressure and ionising radiation on bacterial *MOO, S. P., RAINBOW, M. T., RITCHIE, A.I.M. (1973). Time dependent 237Np, 235U spores. At. Energy A list.. /7(1):2-10. and 2-19Pu fission rates in a thorium assembly during the interval 0 to 200 ns using a WILSON. P. W. (1973). The preparation of uranium tetrachloride. Syntli. in Inorg. and pulsed 9fie (d,n) source. Part II — Theory. AAEC/E295 (*Uni. of Tasmania. Hobart.) Metalorg. Chem., 3(4) :381-385. MUSGROVE. A. R. de L. (1974). Investigation of the energetics of binary and ternary fission WILSON, P. W. (1974). UAF,, — its preparation and properties. J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. (In in 252Cf and 236U. AAEC/E304. press.) ROBSON, J., SORBY, P. J. (1974). An improved distillation separation for the production of W1NSBURY, G. J., LEDWIDGE, T. J. (1973). An experimental study of vibration of a cluster fluorine-18 from reactor irradiated lithium carbonate. AAEC/E321. of flexible hollow cylinders in axial air-water flow. Paper presented at 2nd Int. Conf. on ROBSON, J., SORBY, P. J. (1974). The preparation of magnesium-28 by the irradiation in Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology, Berlin. 30-14 September. HIFAR of mixtures containing compounds of lithium-6 and niagnesium-26. AAEC/E310. WOOLFREY, J. L. (1973). Thermal expansion of BeO.ALO.,, BeO.SAl.O:, and ROSE, E., COOK, J. L. (1974). The statistical distribution functions for product ratios. AAEC/ 3BeO.8AlA.5MgO. /. Anst. Ceram. Soc., 9(1):33. E316. (In press.) WYATT, J. (1974). An illumination system for specimen block knife alignment with the LKB ultratone. Stain Techno!. (In press.) RYAN, R. K., RIDLEY, J. R., ALFREDSON, P. G. (1974). Analysis of dilute natural uranium solutions by gamma-ray excited X-ray fluorescence. AAEC/E314. SANGER, P. L., JONES, C. G., ELLIS, P. J. (1973). Programming the NOVA computer for Dataway communication. AAEC/E268. PUBLISHED REPORTS SANGER, P. L., HAYES, I. J. (1974). A direclecl-graph syntax analyser for the ACL-NOVA system. AAEC/E312. AAEC/E Series SPRAGG, W. T., *FOX, R. E. (1974). The use of a radioactive tracer to study the nesting BEECH, A. McG., EBERHARDT, J. E. (1973). Semiconductor X-ray spectrometer system type system of Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggat. AAEC/E303. (*Forestry and Timber Bureau, 454. AAEC/E297. Forest Research Institute, Darwin.) BERTRAM, W. K., CLANCY, B. E., COOK, J. L., ROSE, E. K. (1974). The statistical THACKRAY, M. (1974). Autoradiography of radioactive photographic images. Application distribution functions for products of variables with a Gaussian distribution with zero mean. to intensification, restoration, precision etching, photomechanical reproduction and photo- AAEC/E313. (In press.) graphic research. AAEC/E317. (In press.) 114 115 URQUHART, D. F., JOHNSON, E. P., BADGER, W. S. (1973). Exposure calibration of a thimble chamber by calorimetric and ionimetric methods. AAEC/E283. WILSON, D. J. (1973). A comparison between experimentally determined flow instability thresholds and calculations using the computer code TOSCLE. AAEC/E296. WOOD, N. R.( HETHER1NGTON, E. L. R. (1974). SPECT-A Fortran program for the analysis of technetium-99m and other gamma spectra in a radioisotope quality control environment. AAEC/E319. AAEC/S Series BARRY. J. M., CLANCY, B. E.. GILBERT, C. P.. McCULLOCH. D. B.. POLLARD, J. P., SANGER, P. L. (1974). A mathematician's computer study of the reactor Moata. Summer School Lectures. AAEC/S15. PATENT APPLICATIONS The following patent applications were lodged during 1973-1974. Australia — Provisional F. C. HUNT. Technetium-99m labelled tetracyclines — PB 6592. Dated 14 February 1974, previous application PB 3028 having been allowed to lapse. M. THACKRAY. Autoradiography in use of non-transparent photographic films — PB 4109. Dated 16 July 1973. F. C. HUNT. Radioactive complexes, technetium-99m mercaptopurine — PB 6124. Dated 28 December 1973. H. J. FRASER. Accurate logarithmic ratemeter for random pulses — PB 7047. Dated 27 March 1974. Australia and Overseas — Complete J. C. WARD. Process for isotopic enrichment (Prov. PB 2732 dated 23 March 1973). Australia 66798/74 dated 18 March 1974. UK 12311/74 dated 20 March 1974. Canada 195695 dated 22 March 1974. Federal Republic of Germany P 2413984.2 dated 22 March 1974. France 74.09735 dated 21 March 1974. Japan 33076/74 dated 22 March 1974. USA 452843 dated 20 March 1974. M. THACKRAY. Method of photo-etching and photogravure using fission fragment and/or alpha-ray etch tracks from toned photographs. (Prov. PA 8411 dated 24 March 1972, PB 1764 dated 29 December 1972, PB 2868 dated 4 April 1973.) Australia 63880 dated 20 December 1973. UK 60006/73 dated 28 December 1973. USA 429177 dated 28 December 1973. Japan 4754/1974 dated 29 December 1973. France 7400075 dated 2 January 1974. Federal Republic of Germany P 2364850.2 dated 28 December 1973. J. S. WATT. A method and apparatus for separation of X-rays of different energy. (Prov. PB 655 dated 29 September 1972.) Australia 59733/7:' "dated 28 August 1973. 116 FRONT COVER Part of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission's Research Establishment at Lucas Heights, N.S.W. Below: The Commission's 10 MW (thermal) research reactor HIFAR at Lucas Heights, showing a 20 tonne fuel handling flask being manoeuvred into position on top of the reactor. Above: Colour composite photograph showing the two complementary images that comprise a symmetric weak beam micrograph of dislocation loops in neutron irradiated titanium. The symmetric weak beam method was developed by the Commission and used in the first characterisation of neutron induced damage in zirconium. Vacancy loops (collapsed discs of missing atoms) have a red outer image, while interstitial loops (discs of extra atoms) have a green outer image. (Magnification 150,000x) Right: The Commission's 100 kW (thermal) research reactor "Moata" in the Physics Division's laboratories at Lucas Heights.