AN EXPLORATION OF MILLINERY TRENDS AND TECHNIQUES

Abstract: Historically, a mainstay of fashionable dress in the United States, the hat has long been a way for all people to express themselves within fashionable protocols. Many different methods of hat making and hat designs exist, ranging from simple kerchiefs to the high fashion fascinators seen most frequently at British Royal weddings, and beyond. In addition to an exploration of social trends regarding hats and headwear, this project will include the process of making different hats and explain the process, from research and pattern development to a finished product.

2020 KATHLEEN A. STOMPS UVA Drama Contents Introduction ...... 2 Bycocket, or Robin Hood Hat ...... 7 Jester Hat: ...... 10 Snoods, Hairnets, Cauls, and Crespines: Netted Hair Coverings: ...... 12 Heart-Shaped Hennins and reticulated headdresses: ...... 16 Coiled and Padded Headdresses: ...... 19 French Hood: ...... 22 Romantic Bonnet: ...... 26 Bandeau and Toque Hats—1880s-1890s ...... 28 Cameo Tiara/tiaras and ballet headpiece: ...... 31 Fantasy Leaf Helmet from She Kills Monsters ...... 34 Half Hat: ...... 38 Conclusion: ...... 40 Images of Finished Products ...... 41 Appendix 1: Stitches ...... 60 Appendix 2: Making the Hat ...... 63 Making a Wire Hat or Headdress: ...... 66 Making a Felt Hat (flat felt): ...... 68 Appendix 3: Glossary of Supplies and Fabrics ...... 69 Bibliography ...... 80

Stomps 1 Figure 1: The Gold Mask of Tutankamun, displaying the Nemes Headdress of Ancient Egypt. The Egyptian Museum...... 4 Figure 2: Errol Flynn in The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938)...... 7 Figure 3: Joker from Handa Deck of Playing Cards, Denmark...... 10 Figure 4: "Folie" from Album de Travestis, La Mode Nationale, 1920s...... 10 Figure 5: Fillet, Veil, and Wimple as worn by Maid Marion (Olivia de Haviland) in The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938)...... 12 Figure 6: Woman Blacksmith wearing a Crespine, Filet, and Barbe. From the Holkham Bible. 14th Century England...... 12 Figure 7: Padme Amidala (Natalie Portman) as shown in Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (2002). Designed by Trisha Biggar ...... 13 Figure 8: Vivian Leigh as Scarlett O'Hara and Clark Gable as Rhett Butler in Gone with the Wind (1939). Leigh is pictured wearing a snood...... 14 Figure 9: Effigies of Sir John Cokayne and his wife, Margaret Longford. Mid 15th Century, England. Margaret wears a typical Heart-Shaped Hennin...... 16 Figure 10: Effigy of Infanta Beatriz, wife of Thomas, 5th Earl of Arundel. Mid 15th century, West Sussex, England. Beatriz wears a horned headdress and veil...... 16 Figure 11: Portrait of Philip the Good, c. 1450. Rogier Van der Weyden. Musee des Beaux-Arts, Dijon, France...... 19 Figure 12: Portrait of A Man, Jan van Eyck, 1433. The National Gallery, UK...... 19 Figure 13: Dolley (Payne) Todd Madison, 1817. Joseph Wood. Held by the Virginia Historical Society, 1967.14...... 21 Figure 14: Two Views of a Lady Wearing an English Hood, Costume Study. Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1526-28 or 1532-35. British Museum...... 22 Figure 15: Portrait of a Lady, Probably a Member of the Cromwell Family, Perhaps Elizabeth Seymour, c. 1535-40, Hans Holbein the Younger. Toledo Museum of Art...... 22 Figure 16: From The Fashions of the XIX Century, 1836. Women Center and Left wearing bonnets typical of the time. Plate held by the New York Public Library in the Miriam and Ira A Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs...... 26 Figure 17: Woman wearing a Bandeau Hat, 1895. From La Mode Pratique, accessed through the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute...... 28 Figure 18: Toque Hat as pictured in Revue de la Mode, 1885...... 29 Figure 19: Cameo Tiara from the Royal Collection of Sweden, 1804. Marie-Ettiene Ninot, Paris...... 31 Figure 20:Faberge Myrtle Spray Tiara, 1930s. From the collection of the Duke and Duchess of Westminster. From Munn, p. 299, pl. 268...... 32 Figure 21: Finished helmet for She Kills Monsters...... 34 Figure 22: Hats from a 1957 Alden's Catalogue...... 38 Figure 23: Bycocket Back ...... 41 Figure 24: Bycocket Side ...... 41 Figure 25:Bycocket Top ...... 41 Figure 26: Jester Hat Proccess. Upper Right and Bottom Left are Actress Grace Bowie...... 42 Figure 27: Crespinettes. Upper Left image is H. Thompson, J. Guarnieri (wearing French Hood), and J. Landini (wearing crespinettes) ...... 43

Stomps 2 Figure 28: Heart Shaped Hennin Front ...... 44 Figure 29: Heart Shaped Hennin Side ...... 44 Figure 30: Chaperone Side ...... 44 Figure 31: Chaperone side front ...... 44 Figure 32: French Hood. Center Left is a portrait of Elizabeth Seymour, painted by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1540...... 45 Figure 33: Romantic Bonnet ...... 46 Figure 34: Romantic Bonnet with Flowers ...... 47 Figure 35: Bandeau Front ...... 48 Figure 36: Bandeau Side ...... 48 Figure 37: Bandeau Back ...... 48 Figure 38: Toque Front ...... 49 Figure 39: Toque Back ...... 49 Figure 40: Toque Side ...... 49 Figure 41: Cameo Tiara ...... 50 Figure 42: Laurel Tiara on wig styled for V. Seguin as Princess Winnifred...... 51 Figure 43: Publicity Still for UVA's Once Upon a Mattress. Photo by Martyn Kyle of Pernmoot Photography. Tiara on Winnifred (V. Seguin, bottom right), French Hood on J. Guarneri (Bottom left), and crespinettes on J. Landini (middle right)...... 52 Figure 44: Leaf Helmet for Farrah the Fairy in She Kills Monsters. Design and Rendering (Bottom Left) by Cee-Cee Swalling...... 53 Figure 45: Half Hat ...... 54 Figure 47: Queen Aggravain (left) and Sorceress (right) ...... 56 Figure 48: Sir Harry (top) and Lady Larken (bottom) ...... 57 Figure 49: Prince Dauntless (top), King Sextimus (bottom left), and the Nightengale (bottom right) ...... 58 Figure 50: Princess Winnifred ...... 59 Figure 51: Prick Stitch ...... 60 Figure 51: Prick Stitch ...... 60 Figure 52: Stab Stitch...... 60 Figure 52: Stab Stitch...... 60 Figure 53: Slip Stitch ...... 60 Figure 53: Slip Stitch ...... 60 Figure 54: Whip Stitch ...... 61 Figure 54: Whip Stitch ...... 61 Figure 55: Wiring Stitch ...... 61 Figure 55: Wiring Stitch ...... 61 Figure 56:Buttonhole (top) and Blanket (bottom) stitches ...... 62 Figure 56:Buttonhole (top) and Blanket (bottom) stitches ...... 62 Figure 57: Catch Stitch ...... 62 Figure 57: Catch Stitch ...... 62

Stomps 3 Introduction There are very few items in one’s wardrobe that can tell you as much about them as their choice in hats.

Likewise, few clothing items or accessories can be such a grand statement on their own. It is difficult not to notice when one is wearing a hat, even if it is something as simple as a baseball cap. A hat in and of itself can be the crux of one’s outfit, and a well-designed hat can be a statement like no other.

By definition, a hat is merely a shaped covering Figure 1: The Gold Mask of Tutankamun, for the head. They are worn for a variety of reasons, displaying the Nemes Headdress of Ancient Egypt. The Egyptian Museum. including warmth, fashion, and uniformity. Historically, it has been a societal obligation to wear a head covering in some way, shape, or form. The men of the upper class in Ancient Egypt wore the meticulously folded nemes headdress, while the women of Anglo-Saxon England were seldom seen without their head-rail. For centuries, it was indecent to have an uncovered head in many cultures. Even though this was typically seen as modest behavior, a head covering likely aided hiding the hygiene of the day. The expectations of the time and culture caused the acceptable dress to vacillate.

Although it is not as common for people to wear elaborate headwear in their day to day life in the 21st century, headwear has remained a consistent and vital part of theatrical costume; it aids in immersing the audience in the world of the play. If a princess is not wearing a tiara, is she still a princess to the audience? Should a play be an adaptation of a fairy tale, would we see fanciful headdresses for men and women alike? Historicity notwithstanding, an audience always has a strong association with how they believe a period should appear.

Stomps 4 When designing a show, a discussion of hats should be had within the first few meetings, mainly if hats and head coverings were worn widely in the desired period. It is important to note that even the most historically accurate design cannot be wholly historically accurate as it would immediately alienate the audience, so caution must be used when considering the style to be used in the production. Indeed, in finding hairstyles, the lead may be more anachronistic than everyone else; in bringing their styling closer to our own time, we tend to see them as more accessible and sympathetic. This anachronism extends into hat styling as well; for centuries, hair styling and hat styling have been wholly intertwined and inform one another.

In addition to the challenges presented in the design considerations of hats, the making of hats and headdresses come with specific technical concerns. The best, most graceful hats look as though they were put together effortlessly, with the decorations appearing to float atop it with great ease. A hat can be both functional and decorative, but the most stunning appear more decorative than practical in many cases. Like many clothing items, the foundations of millinery utilize techniques and stitches from a couture background (See Appendix 1: Stitches).

A survey of millinery techniques and practical making, this is by no means a comprehensive guide to making hats and headwear. However, if interested in millinery and hat- making, an extensive bibliography has been included, along with stitches, brief instructions, and an overview of necessary millinery supplies. Millinery history and techniques will be touched on throughout while exploring different shapes and techniques from a historical perspective and being applied to theatre. Although not all the hats mentioned have been designed for a specific

Stomps 5 production, the majority of them were either to be used in Once upon a Mattress,1or used in She

Kills Monsters.2

1 Cancelled due to SARS-CoV-2, Spring 2020. Directed by Amanda McRaven, Costume Design by Katie Stomps. 2 Fall 2019, Directed by Marianne Kubick, Costume Design by Cee-Cee Swalling.

Stomps 6 Bycocket, or Robin Hood Hat

The bycocket, or more commonly, the eponymous

Robin Hood Hat, is a soft hat originating from at least the

13th century. Worn by both men and women, this hat remained in style on and off for upwards of three centuries and is still a shape in our minds today, although the decoration and wearing of it could vary greatly depending on time, place, and person. Figure 2: Errol Flynn in The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938). Historically, the bycocket, or chapeau a bec,3 was frequently heavily ornamented when worn by a person of the upper classes. Rarely, if ever, were they plain. Both the crown and brim might be decorated with jewels, feathers, or even embroidery. When worn by women, they were typically donned in conjunction with a veil when it first appeared in the late 13th century. A man might wear a coif, a close-fitting cap made of white linen that tied under the chin, under his bycocket. Typically, the protruding point of the brim was worn to the front, but it has been documented in artwork facing to the back of the wearer’s head.

The intent behind making this hat was to add an extra element of “dashing rogue” to the character of Sir Harry in UVA’s spring 2020 production of Once Upon a Mattress.4 With the strong association of Robin Hood, the shape of the bycocket was perfect to me. Director Amanda

3 French, “hat with a beak.” 4 This production, directed by Amanda McRaven, was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Multiple facets of the design will be mentioned throughout the paper, and will be discussed as if it had come to completion to the best of my ability. Where able, fitting photos will be substituted for production photos and full color sketches will be provided if not. All should be clearly noted within the text, and the design package will likewise be attached in the thesis.

Stomps 7 McRaven and I had already created a look for this knight, played by actor Brandon Bolick, that was close to an oversexed version of Errol Flynn’s impeccable portrayal in the 1938 film The

Adventures of Robin Hood.5 There was a certain air that Flynn brought to his bycocket, and as a costume designer, to invoke the thought of such a perfectly roguish, yet somehow noble, character seemed to be correct for the portrayal of Sir Harry.

The overall design concept of our production of Once Upon a Mattress was an MGM

Musical. It would not be genuinely of any period, or any place, in reality, but thoroughly a product of its time. The show was to be an amalgam of everything and nothing. I had consistently thought of the world we were creating as “Renaissance Faire Chic,” in that while we would see men in fanciful tights and tunics, but we would also be seeing the very modern aspects of the world in which the play is performed. In this mounting, we utilized a framing device to set the Mattress as a play performed in the 1950s when originally written: Pennsylvania’s Tamiment

Playhouse. This production contained many facets and layers to play with, but most of all, the goal was to create unique characters genuine to themselves.

This hat is frequently made of wool or fabric, but it can also be made out of soft, full- grain leather. I chose to make it out of leather, for the color and texture created by the leather was much more fitting to the nature of the character than utilizing the same, or similar, green that was used in his doublet. As it is a sectioned hat, the creation of the shape was mostly quite simple; utilizing a pattern graded to Mr. Bolick’s size from From the Neck Up6, I cut two pieces of leather with a half-inch seam allowance. After stitching the seam, I trimmed the seams on the hat and topstitched all the seams down. To maintain the pointed bycocket shape, it was essential

5 Directed by Michael Curtiz and William Keighley, costumes designed by Milo Anderson. 6 Mentioned throughout, a book by hatmaker Denise Dreher which includes patterns, millinery techniques, sources for millinery supply companies, and references to what sometimes-defunct materials were. This latter portion was highly useful in determining language from other sourcebooks.

Stomps 8 to not only topstitch all seams but also to tack the fold of the brim up in place, using a matching thread and picking strategic locations in which to stitch.

The process of making this hat was not different from making the Jester’s Hat, also a sectioned hat, but the critical difference was how the crown was shaped. The Jester’s Hat desired a very sharp point at the top; the bycocket did not. The brim was split and shaped differently, requiring different thoughts and treatments of the hat itself.

Stomps 9 Jester Hat:

The jester hat, or fool’s hat, is traditionally a three-pointed cowl or hat that covers both one’s neck and the back of one’s head. It is typically parti-colored, representing the colors of the court that they are entertaining, as Jesters were usually part of the court of European monarchs during the

Middle Ages and Renaissance.

The prototypical jester’s hat is three-pointed, developed out of a donkey’s tail and ears, which were worn by early jesters and fools. Our modern notion of the jester, seen in mostly tight-fitting, patchwork clothing of an array Figure 3: Joker from Handa Deck of of triangles and diamonds, is partly inspired by the Playing Cards, Denmark. traditional stock character from Commedia dell’Arte, Arlecchino—in English, Harlequin.

While designing Once Upon a Mattress, my director wanted to

play with theatrical tropes and push boundaries. In creating the Jester,

typically portrayed by a male in this production performed by a

Figure 4: "Folie" from Album female, I wanted to play with the notion of a female jester hat. During de Travestis, La Mode Nationale, 1920s. the research phase, I had found a fashion plate for a jester character, likely from the 1920s. The figure in the fashion plate did not wear the typical hat, but it still was tri-pointed and parti-colored and synthesized the traditional cap with a fashionable hat of the time, the Dutch-girl cloche. In combining the concepts of the typical jester hat and the Dutch-girl cloche, we get something simultaneously familiar and unique. While I did find an earlier image

Stomps 10 with a more traditional feminized jester’s hat, giving the character something unique to her was much more interesting to all parties involved.

This hat was flat patterned, made with two colors of flat millinery wool. The shape was developed through utilizing the knowledge of fitting a person’s head, looking at patterns from

From the Neck Up, and using research images to build the right shape. In fittings, I found that we needed to round the curve of the peak out and elongate the sides of the brim to create a shape reminiscent of both the Dutch-girl cloche and the jester’s cap.

Stomps 11 Snoods, Hairnets, Cauls, and Crespines: Netted Hair Coverings:

The hairnet is an aspect of millinery that may not always be thought of as true millinery. Evolving as a way to encapsulate the hair without the necessity of a veil, an early type of hairnet was the crespine or crespinette, appearing first in the 13th century. These were typically attached to a stiffened band of silk or linen known as a filet, varying in width from one and one half to four inches. The widest type would sometimes have the top covered, giving the appearance of a very early pillbox hat. These filets could be shaped Figure 6: Woman Blacksmith wearing a and pleated, although some were left plain. Typically, Crespine, Filet, and Barbe. From the Holkham Bible. 14th Century England. the filet was worn in conjunction with a barbette, a linen band that encircled the face and was pinned in place atop the head. Filets were worn regardless of whether a coronet or crown was worn, with the coronet being worn over the fillet.

Like many other early headdresses, the material used in the

crespine depended on the wearer’s status. A lady of the upper

class might wear a crespine made of silk cord and decorated

with jewels, while a woman of lesser means might be wearing

a coarser linen cording. While the earliest crespines appeared

to be of a softer make, over time, the crespine developed into

Figure 5: Fillet, Veil, and Wimple as a firmer piece of headwear to give rigidity to the hairstyles worn by Maid Marion (Olivia de Haviland) in The Adventures of Robin desired. Instead of silk cording, a flexible metallic mesh was Hood (1938).

Stomps 12 created and formed into two cylinders to insert hair, attached to a coronet. The cylindrical shape of this new style of crespine aided in maintaining the hairstyle of the day, comprised of two vertical braids framing the face. This style became one of the most recognizable of its day, worn by ladies of status. However, this style would have immediately alienated any audience; if worn in a theatrical production, it would likely have to be worn by an actress in the ensemble as it is so severe and unsympathetic.

In Once Upon a Mattress, we wanted to stay away from the more

traditional images of medieval courts while still evoking the thought of

“many moons ago.” I landed upon the idea of crespinettes, or two cauls

attached to a headdress, in this case, a ribbon. The earliest crespinettes

were soft, but when part of a more extensive reticulated headdress, they

were undoubtedly rigid structures to either side of the wearer’s head. As

Figure 7: Padme Amidala the character of Lady Larken (played by Julia Landini) is softer and (Natalie Portman) as shown in Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the gentler, so the rigid nature of the later crespinettes would not work. Clones (2002). Designed by Trisha Biggar Inspired by the look of Padmé Amidala in Star Wars: Attack of the

Clones, I initially decided to keep the softer look and make these cauls out of yarn. This decision allowed me to stay true to the softness of the character while maintaining a more authentic medieval shape.

After some trial and error, along with conversations with my director, the design balanced structure and delicacy. We ultimately utilized a loosely woven Hercules Braid to make a delicate net embellished at each cross with a 6-millimeter pearl. The knitted lace wound up being slightly too flat, lacking in the dimensionality and the shine of the Hercules braid. An

Stomps 13 additional benefit of this method was simply that the braid was stiffer than the yarn, lending a more structured look to the headpiece as well, holding the necessary fake hair for the actress.

Ultimately, this design bridges the 14th and 15th centuries; it has some of the more notable features of the early crespines, but also the structure and shape of the early reticulated headdresses of the 15th century. Having the cauls sit over Ms. Landini’s ears evoked the shape of the previous period, yet the structure itself evokes a later period. In true fantasy fashion, the real goal was not to be accurate but to evoke more of a feeling than a highly period-specific piece of headwear.

The crespines were undoubtedly not the only time that hairnets have been worn, nor are they entirely out of fashion. Although not a particularly fancy piece of headgear, the knitted hairnet, or snood, is a notable piece of practical headwear. Mainly worn to contain large amounts of hair, the snood is primarily extremely practical and keeps a looser arrangement of hair away

from the face. It also functions as a protective piece of

headwear, keeping delicate curl arrangements out of the

way. Hairnets, knitted or otherwise, have been extant for

centuries. Gone with the Wind spurred on one of the

latest notable stylings of the snood.

Figure 8: Vivian Leigh as Scarlett O'Hara Snoods can be either extraordinarily fancy or and Clark Gable as Rhett Butler in Gone with the Wind (1939). Leigh is pictured wearing a snood. extremely plain, ranging from a bejeweled delicate lace pattern to a simple honeycomb stitch. Utilizing a pattern from Madame Weigel’s Journal of

Fashion, dated September 1, 1944, I made the latter type: a simple knitted snood with an openwork honeycomb pattern. This pattern is highly adaptable and can be made to fit a variety of hair lengths.

Stomps 14 Although not as frequently worn today, it is not uncommon to see someone accessorize their hair with a simple hairnet in the same shade as their hair. Ultimately, our modern aim with hairnets is not so much to cover our hair and decorate it, but to keep it from escaping its arrangements. Most commonly, we will see ballerinas covering their buns with a hairnet; the concept is mostly the same as it was during the 13th century..

Stomps 15

Heart-Shaped Hennins and reticulated headdresses:

While designing Once Upon a Mattress, it became apparent early in the process that the character of the queen would need to be one of the most commanding figures onstage. My immediate thoughts were that the size, shape, and scale of her headdress was one of the best Figure 9: Effigies of Sir John Cokayne and his wife, ways to emphasize her presence In the early part Margaret Longford. Mid 15th Century, England. Margaret wears a typical Heart-Shaped Hennin. of the design process, I had drawn and pitched different types of shapes, ranging from a bourrelet, a variation on the hennin with a long padded roll at the front of the head, to a horned headdress, with conical protrusions to either side. What I

submitted in my final sketch for the queen was not a

heart-shaped hennin, although what I eventually

created was more closely based on a heart-shaped

hennin than the original design.

Through the process of creating the queen,

played by Emily Sumlin, the original headdress felt

more severe than necessary for her characterization. I

Figure 10: Effigy of Infanta Beatriz, wife of had attempted to make a horned headdress, thinking Thomas, 5th Earl of Arundel. Mid 15th century, West Sussex, England. Beatriz wears a horned headdress and veil. that it was more closely aligned with a “double hennin” shape, but the theatrical nature of the queen did not seem to fit that as well as I would

Stomps 16 have thought. As a designer, it became more important to me that we had a headdress to connote the largesse of the character. The hat felt as though it was going to be wearing the actress in its original form, so it became vital for it to be scaled back in shape and decoration.

The heart-shaped hennin was undoubtedly a development of the hennin,7 the horned headdress,8 and the firmer crespines of the last century. As the horned headdress rose from nearly horizontal to nearly vertical, it took on a more heart-shaped appearance and rounded with the contours of the head. These headdresses were typically made of luxurious fabrics, encased in a golden mesh, and decorated with jewels.9

This headdress was built out of two layers of Fosshape10 quilted together and covered in the same velvet from which Ms. Sumlin’s dress was made. The process of making a headpiece with Fosshape, and a note on working with thermoplastics is described in appendix 2. The headdress was initially designed with a purple veil; due to supply constraints from the advent of

SARS-CoV-2, this was not made. As with much of Mattress, this headdress was a stylized portrayal of a possible hat. It is more over-the-top in a cartoonish manner out of the desire to create a cartoonish caricature of the Evil Queen and Domineering Mother from fairy tales; the decorations are meant to be more stylized than true-to-period. However, of all the shapes presented in the production, this would have been one of the more accurate shapes to a

7 The hennin is a conical headdress that many typically associate with a fairytale princess. If a child is dressing up as a fairytale princess, the likelihood that this shape is the one she would wear is high. 8 The horned headdress is an expansion on large, box-like cauls to either side of the head. They could range from almost horizontal, giving a t-shaped appearance, to very pointed, which eventually gave them the name of “horned shaped”. The largest were enhanced with wire protrusions to support the veil. 9 Georgine De Courtais, Womens Hats, Headdresses and Hairstyles With 453 Illustrations, Medieval to Modern (New York: Dover Publications, 2013)) 10 Fosshape is a thermoplastic felt designed to maintain a rigid shape after steaming. It is used much like buckram, and comes in two different weights. It can be fused together with stitching and heat for extra security. For more, see Appendix 2.

Stomps 17 “fairytale” production, having been seen in various mountings of Mattress, notably the movie starring Tracy Ullman as Winnifred and Carol Burnett as Queen Aggravain.

Stomps 18 Coiled and Padded Headdresses:

Trade and trade routes have always been a significant influence on the expansive nature of fashion, and its impact on the headwear is no less notable than the shapes that it brought to broader aspects of clothing styles and shapes. The turban initially appears to have come from what we now regard as the Middle

East, primarily being made from a long rectangle of fabric wound around the head. Using a rectangular shape is not dissimilar to the way many early pieces of headwear were fashioned, but the shape was seen to be unique. It was initially a headdress for a man but could be seen to be worn by both genders in European society as Figure 12: Portrait of A Man, Jan van Eyck, 1433. The early as the middle of the 15th century. An elegant shape, the National Gallery, UK. turban remains worn throughout the world today, both as a religious garment and as a secular headdress. Particularly in modern ladies’ dress, the turban is a chic, yet practical shape that

almost always flatters its wearer.

Although the exact turban shape appears not to have come

into play until the mid-15th century, the chaperone served as a

sort of proto-turban form. The chaperone initially developed as

a different way to wear the hooded cowl with a liripipe, a long

tube that protruded from the crown of the hat. It was arranged

by placing the face hole on the top of the head and wrapping

the liripipe around the head to create a circular roll. This Figure 11: Portrait of Philip the Good, c. 1450. Rogier Van der Weyden. 11 Musee des Beaux-Arts, Dijon, arrangement allowed the gorget to sit atop the head, creating a France.

11 An extended piece extending to cover the neck and upper shoulders.

Stomps 19 uniquely decorative shape. The liripipe was occasionally stuffed, creating a more substantial, padded roll. The roll eventually evolved into the rondelle, where the draped form of the chaperone was stitched together and padded.

The unique nature and somewhat bizarre shape of the chaperone drew me to it. When designing the Minstrel, played by Aiden Carroll, the whimsical nature of the chaperone immediately came into my mind. It is not a shape we see frequently, the drape creates a somewhat clownish feel, and it is ultimately something that an audience can associate with a character on the outside. While initially playing with the idea of a bycocket, it felt too debonair for the role of the Minstrel. The playful nature of the character did not show through as well.

When Lady Larken (Landini) appears dressed in men’s clothing during the second act of the play, I had initially decided to utilize a soft tam.12 Through the fitting process, it did not feel as playful as when I put a rondelle on her for the first time. I wanted to utilize the same shape for her as well because she was dressed by the Minstrel and the Jester (Grace Bowie).

The way I created the minstrel’s rondelle for Mattress was very modern: I cut a leg from an old pair of pantyhose, stuffed them to create the roll, and essentially cut a circle with an inner circle to create the drape. I then hemmed the circle and stitched the drape into the interior of the pantyhose while stretched out. Ultimately, this is one of the simpler hats to make, but the size, shape, and stitching of the drape presented some challenges.

12 A soft hat with a band, sometimes circular, sometimes sectional. The Tam O’Shanter is a specific type of tam, typically a wool hat with a pom-pom.

Stomps 20 While the turban originated as a man’s headdress and has been worn by women since at

least the 15th century, it became an item of fashion around the late

17th century for women, genuinely hitting its peak around the

early 19th century. In American style, one of the most notable

turban-wearers was First Lady Dolley Madison. Mrs. Madison

was known to wear turbans, most frequently in white velvet,

accessorized, and trimmed to coordinate with her gowns. Being

as she was one of the foremost ladies of her time, American Figure 13: Dolley (Payne) Todd Madison, 1817. Joseph Wood. ladies followed suit, making the turban a more and more Held by the Virginia Historical Society, 1967.14. fashionable choice over time.

Although once again highly fashionable in the 1930s, the turban made a notable return to the world during World War II as a form of protest in the Nazi-occupied Paris. While millinery shops were highly monitored to conform to Nazi standards, hats were uniquely censured for their ability to make people stand out in a crowd. The simple, draped turban made of a square or rectangle of fabric became an unlikely protest item. It was furthermore practical and gave a simple, elegant way to cover dirty hair, with shampoo being in short supply.

The turban, unchanged and chic as ever, can still be seen around the world today, in places ranging from fashion magazines to simple turban-inspired winter hats. They are indeed everywhere, especially if you know where to look.

Stomps 21 French Hood: In its earliest, purest form, the hooded headdress

came into fashion in England during the late 15th century,

the first reign of the Tudor Dynasty. Developing as a

softening of the earlier truncated hennin, what appears to

be the earliest form of hooded headdress was comprised

of a round crown and long lappets extending from a front

band. Although hoods quickly developed and changed in

shape, the essential parts remained similar. In essence,

there was a semi-circular hood in a heavy, dark fabric,

lined with a contrasting color when folded back, worn Figure 15: Portrait of a Lady, Probably a Member of the Cromwell Family, Perhaps Elizabeth Seymour, c. 1535-40, Hans over a type of soft under-cap. Once again, the decoration Holbein the Younger. Toledo Museum of Art. of the hood ranged, depending on the class structure.

They might be heavily jeweled and embroidered if worn by a woman in the upper echelon of society, or much simpler when the woman was of the lower class.

In the early 16th century, women of nobility began to wear the Gable Hood, a high, stiff headdress with a tent-like structure peaking above the forehead. They were typically highly decorated and embroidered, creating a largesse and imposing image for its wearer. These headdresses were the immediate predecessor to the softer

Figure 14: Two Views of a Lady Wearing an French Hood, which slowly superseded the Gable Hood at English Hood, Costume Study. Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1526-28 or 1532- court. 35. British Museum.

Stomps 22 A French Hood is a rounded headdress fashionable during the 16th century, likely during the 1520s, throughout Europe. Typically associated with Queen Mary I of England and Queen

Anne Boelyn, it is most commonly seen as a crescent-shaped cap that sat back on the head, exposing the wearer’s hair.13 The stiff frame of the cap typically curves forward to cover the wearer’s ears and is usually decorated with two billiments or ornamental bands of goldwork.

These billiments may have also matched the trim around the collar of the wearer’s dress.

Historically, what appears to be a simple veil in many modern interpretations is truly an enclosed caul, a closed fabric covering for the hair. Most popular depictions of the French hood are that of a rigid, one-piece headdress with a crescent-shaped protrusion from the top, heavily decorated with jewels, although some dispute this as not being the style of a genuine French Hood. As there are very few, if any, extant examples of a French Hood, this would be a difficult claim to either prove or disprove.

Other notable Renaissance headdresses are the English Hood, a simple headdress still slightly exposing the front of the hair with a more angular line at the jaw; the Gable Hood, an angular headdress resembling a small roof with a rigid back and padded front piece; and the cap most frequently associated with Mary, Queen of Scots, a roughly heart-shaped headdress with an enlarged opening around the face.

While making my French Hood, I chose to follow more closely to the modern, cinematic interpretation of the French Hood, while taking color inspirations from the paintings of the time.

Using a pattern from Denise Dreher’s From the Neck Up, in conjunction with a workshop taught

13Daniel Delis Hill, History of World Costume and Fashion (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2011), 381.

Stomps 23 by Jeffery Lieder14, I created a French Hood to evoke thoughts of the disgraced queen, Anne

Boleyn, who is most frequently associated with the headdress. Although the only extant portrait created in her life is of her wearing a Gable Hood, the persisting image of Boleyn is of her with a more flattering French Hood.15

For this interpretation of the French Hood, I chose to utilize a durable buckram and wire structure to make it both light and durable; the fabric that was chosen to cover it and the sheer size of the crescent would lend to the theatrical gravitas of the hood. The length of the veil, although historically likely just past the shoulders, is longer than waist-length to further exaggerate the largesse of the character wearing it. Covering the prominent crescent shape is a lightweight golden brocade, cut on the bias as to stretch to the form, the headpiece takes the appearance of a halo.

Additionally, by covering the base of the headdress in a similar golden tone, it takes on the texture and appearance of having much more elaborate decorations than it does, particularly from a distance. The crescent is decorated with a couched16 strand of pearls. The broad front is decorated with a pleated band of lace to simulate a cap that was worn under it.

As happens with many objects of which we have no extant examples, much of the shape and detail are extrapolated from paintings and funerary effigies, and much pictorial research to determine the shape.

While designing Once Upon a Mattress, I found this hat in stock and decided that, with some re-dressing, I could use it for my “MGM Medieval” show, being that it is of “a period” and

14 Mr. Lieder is a renowned costume professional and Professor Emeritus from the University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, who has worked for many theatres across the country and notably works for the Tony-Award winning Utah Shakespeare Festival. 15“The Francophile French Hood Wearer or Not?,” The Costume Society (The Costume Society, December 9, 2018), http://costumesociety.org.uk/blog/post/the-francophile-french-hood-wearer-or-not) 16 See note 22 on couching.

Stomps 24 “no period” at all. As it is a light and humorous show, however, I could not utilize it as it was.

Instead of the heavy velvet veil, I changed it to a shoulder-length golden lace veil. This redressing allowed a much lighter headpiece to come out of the severe headpiece it was.

Stomps 25 Romantic Bonnet:

From the relatively soft, streamlined, classically inspired shapes of the early 1800s until the 1820s, the high crowned, large brimmed bonnet of the 1830s and early 1840s is a complete departure from much of the first part of the century. Developed in part to display the widening curls, and more Figure 16: From The Fashions of the XIX Century, 1836. Women Center and Left wearing bonnets grandiose hairstyles of the decade, everything typical of the time. Plate held by the New York Public Library in the Miriam and Ira A Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs. about the bonnets of the 1830s was more heightened than before; from the large number of flowers, ribbons, and lace to the much larger decorated brim, the bonnet was indeed a statement in and of itself.

By definition, a bonnet is a hat that is tied under the chin, typically worn by women and children. It consists of only a few parts, depending on the type of bonnet; for this particular bonnet, there is a hard crown and a hard brim, made of buckram and wire, and covered with a soft, period-appropriate fabric. Before this point in history, one might see a deeper brim on the bonnet resting closer to the wearers’ face, but typically not the large, more open brim utilized on this hat. However, some sources still call this type of hat historically a poke bonnet,17 as it again does shield the wearer’s face and can prevent unwanted conversations.

This bonnet was made during a workshop with Jeffery Lieder18, as was the French Hood.

In the workshop, we utilized a pattern that Mr. Lieder made for a production of A Christmas

17 “Poke Bonnet,” Fashion History Timeline (Fashion Institute of Technology, September 12, 2018), https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/poke-bonnet/) 18 See note 12 on Mr. Jeffrey Lieder, Costume Director of the Utah Shakespeare Festival.

Stomps 26 Carol, using the shape and feel of a genuine romantic bonnet while further opening the face for the stage. Using traditional hand stitching techniques, we covered and built our hats using buckram and wire and added a loftiness to the frame using a single-sided flannel. Although it is acceptable to utilize a spray adhesive now, and indeed quicker, I utilized a more traditional pad stitching technique to attach my cloth to the frame. Pad stitching, while time-consuming, produced an even smoother result on the hat itself.

In covering the hat, although a wholly silk bonnet would undoubtedly have been acceptable, I decided that I wanted to utilize a simpler dove grey cotton dobby. Dobby is a fabric woven on a jacquard loom with a small, figured design. In this case, the dobby used was produced with a small herringbone weave and printed with a repeating floral figure. However, for the lining, I chose a pure silk taffeta. This choice of fabrics produced a more common type of bonnet that could appropriately be worn for typical day outings, such as the market or calling upon others.

Although I completed this bonnet with relative ease, I did struggle with an appropriate decoration for it. Multiple iterations occurred: some had flowers closer to the crown, some had no flowers in the brim, some with no feather, and even one with the feather standing as a plume.

Eventually, I did decide to utilize a feather across the crown and place two clusters of rosettes to one side of the inner brim. What resulted was an accurate, but not gaudy, romantic bonnet.

Stomps 27 Bandeau and Toque Hats—1880s-1890s

The Bandeau hat was a small crowned hat with a

large brim meant to perch atop the grand coiffures of the

1880s and 1890s. Generally, this hat is worn by using a

hatpin through a bandeau and high bun. The bandeau is

not only necessary for the attachment of the hat, but also

to maintain the shape and tilt of the brim. Notably, it is not

a flat brim but bent into shape by both the crown band and

the bandeau. Traditionally, it is decorated with an array of

ribbons, flowers, feathers, and even birds.

The decorations on these late Victorian hats can Figure 17: Woman wearing a Bandeau Hat, 1895. From La Mode Pratique, accessed through the Metropolitan Museum of Art's range wildly, from having full arrangements of flowers Costume Institute. sitting atop the brim (aptly called garden hats) to having a more spartan decoration of a simple band and bow. This hat falls towards the more spartan side of decoration but is no less detailed than a hat of more elaborate decoration.

The general shape of the toque hat has been around for much longer than that of the bandeau hat. First seen in the 12th and 13th centuries, the toque is a small, close-fitting hat with a small, or no, brim. During this period, it features a high crown and a flat brim, generally in the shape of an upturned flowerpot.

These hats were made much like any other buckram hats I have made, starting with wiring the different parts of the hat. Before assembling the hat, you must cover its different parts, therefore, before attaching brim and crown, I had already covered both sides of the brim.

Stomps 28 To draw attention to the crown of the Bandeau, I knife-pleated a Petersham ribbon19 to create a hat band after circling the ribbon, pressing it into a curve. After pleating approximately two-thirds of the ribbon, I left a portion of the band flat to accommodate for the bulk the flowers would bring. As no decoration of a hat should ever look as though it was forced, but merely floating, I attached each ornament with small prick stitches through the brim and crown, respectively. After finishing the decoration, I lined the hat with a circle of acetate lining.

For the decoration of the toque, I utilized feathers instead of flowers. However, during this period, it was more than acceptable to decorate the hat with as much as it could hold, ranging from ribbons, flowers, small plumes, and jewels to entire birds placed on the hat. Not having access to a whole bird, I decided to use a simulated wing and a contrasting ribbon.

Birds and feathers were in such high demand in this Figure 18: Toque Hat as pictured in period specifically for their usage in millinery; it was not Revue de la Mode, 1885. uncommon to see a whole bird, often dyed rich purples and blues,20 on top of a woman’s head.

During this period, many birds were pushed to the brink of extinction: the great egret, the herring gull, among others. As the world was growing more metropolitan and distant from nature, the usage of feathers was widely seen as a way to show how connected a person was to the natural world. Eventually, the usage of feathers and whole birds led directly to the passage of the 1918

19 Petersham is a type of grosgrain typically made of cotton with a “knife-tooth” edge to conform to curves. It can be ironed into a circle or wet and wrapped around an edge of something circular in order to give it a smooth, round shape. It can only be found at specialty retailers. 20 Angela Serratore, “Keeping Feathers Off Hats–And On Birds,” Smithsonian.com (Smithsonian Institution, May 15, 2018), https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/migratory-bird-act-anniversary- keeping-feathers-off-hats-180969077/)

Stomps 29 Migratory Bird Act Treaty, ending the hunting of egrets, swans, eagles, and hummingbirds, among others, particularly in the usage of fashion.

Stomps 30 Cameo Tiara/tiaras and ballet headpiece:

Although we most commonly

see tiaras as a fanciful, jewel-

encrusted object worn only by

royalty in the 21st century, the

tiara has a long, storied history

that is not broadly known. While

certainly worn by royalty on

court occasions and weddings, Figure 19: Cameo Tiara from the Royal Collection of Sweden, 1804. Marie- Ettiene Ninot, Paris. more inexpensive tiaras are

frequently worn by women of all statuses on special occasions, ranging from quinceaneras and sweet-sixteens to weddings. For much of history, the sheer expense of owning a tiara was restricted to the upper tiers of society.

During the reign of Napoleon, Empress Josephine was fond of a different, more classically inspired approach to courtly diadems, the cameo. As Empress, Josephine’s fashion decisions would impact styles around the world.

A cameo is a design that is carved in relief, traditionally from a hard stone or shell, many times either depicting a portrait or a scene from classical mythology. Empress Josephine was crowned with her husband, the infamous Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1804 at La Cathédrale Notre

Dame de Paris. The cameos in the paure, or set, created with the notable Cameo Tiara (now in

Stomps 31 the Royal Collection of Sweden), were believed to be supplied by jeweler Marie-Etienne Ninot and were not originally a set.21

Although not a recreation of the famous cameo tiara, I decided to emulate a more straightforward form of one, with only one central cameo to be utilized and a spartan22 arrangement of pearls. Using one long piece of millinery wire, measured and cut to the size of the pattern, and a piano wire brace, the tiara was once again created through a workshop with

Jeffery Lieder. Lieder developed the pattern from a headdress from the Nutcracker created by the illustrious Barbara Matera.23Although traditionally tiaras are made through many hours of delicate gold work, we took a more straightforward approach, creating the illusion of a golden crown using golden Hercules Braid, an elegant mylar trim. To be used on stage, particularly at the ballet, the tiara must look extremely delicate but be extremely sturdy, as not to be damaged while throwing it across the room during a quick change. In order to make the tiara more stable,

the pearls are not sewn on individually but are

instead couched24 onto the sturdy double layer of net

covering the tiara itself.

In Once Upon a Mattress, we wanted to stay

away from a traditionally bejeweled tiara for our Figure 20:Faberge Myrtle Spray Tiara, 1930s. From the collection of the Duke and Duchess of Westminster. From Munn, p. 299, pl. 268.

21 Kathleen Marino, “The Swedish Cameo Tiara,” The Practical Gemologist (The Practical Gemologist, August 4, 2015), http://www.thepracticalgemologist.com/jewelry-history-1/2015/8/4/the-swedish-cameo-tiara) 22 Defined here as modest or sparse, used throughout the paper in this manner. 23 Barbara Matera (1929-2001) was a British-born American costume designer and maker who founded the costume shop Barbara Matera, Ltd. Her creations spanned multiple mediums, having created costumes for ballet, musicals, plays, and films. Barbara Matera, Ltd. Executed designs for William Ivey Long and Ann Hould-Ward, among many others. An award for Costume Making is presented in her name by The United States Institute for Theatrical Technology (USITT), recognizing outstanding young costumers. 24 Couching is a technique in which beads are not attached one by one, but strung onto a wire or thread for support and stability. The beads are then whip-stitched over the support onto the piece. This increases the speed at which the piece is executed.

Stomps 32 non-traditional leading lady, Princess Winnifred (or just plain “Fred”). While we think most frequently of the jewel-encrusted headwear worn by princesses and other female royalty, the earliest form of the tiara is not unknown on its own: the golden laurels of Rome and the classical world. For Fred, we wanted to keep her closer to nature than any of the other members of the court, so we landed upon the classic laurel wreath.

Stomps 33 Fantasy Leaf Helmet from She Kills Monsters

The show She Kills Monsters by Qui Ngyuen brought with it many challenges, specifically in the world of costume crafts. For our Fall 2019 production, designed by Cee-Cee Swalling, we focused much of our time and attention on the creation of armor and creatures through their necessary parts; we created everything from forearm bracers to Were-Rat Headdresses atop bicycle helmets. One of my projects within the show was to create a layered leaf helmet for the character of Figure 21: Finished helmet for She Kills Monsters. Farrah the Fairy, played by Hannah Han.

This helmet took multiple steps to create and ultimately was settled through discussion and trial and error. When Ms. Swalling gave me the rendering, I created an initial shape reflective of what she had presented in craft paper on a canvas wig head. For proof of concept, I created half of the hat to scale. This structure was comprised of multiple shapes and sizes of leaves devised to be placed in a precise and specific order and mirrored to the other side. With the initial approval, I stretched a buckram over a balsa-wood block to fit the actor’s head.

Knowing that the actor would have a substantial wig that would ultimately be stitched to the hat,

I picked a larger head size than would have otherwise been necessary. Knowing that Ms. Han’s hair would likely be braided and placed under a wig cap, further adding mass to her head, I chose a 23-inch block over which to stretch the buckram.

Stomps 34 Stretching the buckram over the form is not an easy task; getting it smooth indeed requires a significant amount of time, strength, and patience. The buckram we had in stock was both a heavy-duty, tightly woven buckram and previously double-layered. This weave was an obstacle in and of itself; it is not an easy task to smoothly stretch buckram at its thinnest and having a double layer with differing grain25 was even more difficult.

At the best of times, blocking buckram can be a messy process. The first step is to measure the head and with the actor’s measurements for the shape of the hat; cut the buckram with at least one inch extra in every direction, if not slightly more. Cutting a more substantial piece will give you a stable place to hold on to when placing it over the form. Then, you must immerse the buckram in warm water to loosen the sizing. Before putting it over the block, it should be thoroughly soaked, then gently wrung out to remove the excess water.

In preparing the head block, it should be thoroughly wrapped with plastic wrap or aluminum foil to protect it from water. The buckram should then be centered on the head, placing a pin on the top of the head to anchor it. It should then be stretched and pinned, working in one direction at a time. This step should be done as evenly as possible; there will almost certainly still be gathers along all the edges. To mitigate this, one can take a tight piece of elastic made into a circle and squeeze it over the top of the head to hold the hood’s shape. The elastic should give a little bit of resistance, but it does make it easier to smooth out any wrinkles and folds that may have occurred.

25 The grain of the fabric is the way it was placed on the loom to be woven. The long strands running parallel to the selvedge, or hard edge of the fabric, are placed along the loom to the length desired to create the yardage. The weft, or filling yarns, are woven across those set threads perpendicularly to them. This can be done in a specific pattern to create a specialty weave, or can be as simple as a 1 over, 1 under (1x1) pattern. Generally, buckram is woven in a loose 1x1 pattern and highly sized, or starched.

Stomps 35 After stretching a buckram hood, it was time to fit it on the actress; we placed it atop her head, and Ms. Swalling traced the shape that she desired. I took this, made a brown paper pattern piece to fit, and reflected it to the other side before cutting the shape. The frame was then finished by wiring and binding the edge with ribbon.

The initial shape of the hat was so voluminous that it appeared the best route to avoid the white buckram being seen was to cover the frame with a green fabric. This covering was achieved by stretching the fabric along its bias and pinning it over the hat. However, pulling it smoothly became a problem due to the singular nature of the shape; we wanted no fullness anywhere in the cover fabric, and being a domed crown, this was quite difficult. The solution was two delicately fell stitched darts at the back of the hat, one to either side.

Until the week before the show, the hat’s leaves were to be much more voluminous than they wound up being. Each leaf was comprised of two pieces of leather and a pressed piece of

Fosshape, a felt-like thermoplastic. The Fosshape created too much loft within the leaves, and it added an undesirable white line around the edge of each leaf. Additionally, it was challenging to sew through, even with the most durable leather needle.

After Ms. Swalling reflected on the shape, she asked for a repeat of one leaf shape spread over the helmet. This decision created a smoother form, and I created dimension over the helmet with the usage of a second color of green leather and acrylic leather paint for detail. The leaves were then stab-stitched to the frame, varying in direction and encasing the edge. They were worked from front to back, shingling on the leaves in layers to create the appearance of a solidly made piece of armor. After tacking all the leaves in place, I further solidified the shape by carefully applying FabriTac, an industrial fabric adhesive, to the end of each leaf. The result was a sleek, shiny leather leaf helmet, with further detail painted onto each leaf.

Stomps 36 This hat was a hybrid of many different techniques and materials, and the creation of this shape presented various challenges. I had not worked with leather before, and I had never attempted to stretch a buckram hood. I still have much to learn about using hat forms to create shape, but this project was a first step into the world of blocking hats.

Stomps 37 Half Hat:

While in the latter half of the 20th-

century, women mostly stopped

wearing hats, the 1940s and 1950s

were utterly full of hats. One such

hat is the half hat, a small cap that

has to be pinned to one’s head as

they are not large enough to fit the

Figure 22: Hats from a 1957 Alden's Catalogue. circumference of a woman’s head.

Typically worn over a bun hairstyle and shaped in such a way to accommodate a teased and curled front, this hat is largely shaped to accommodate a woman’s elaborate hairstyle of the time.

The Half Hat is a style of cocktail hat that was typically pinned to the wearer’s head.

These hats had a range of shapes and decorations, and would usually not have been removed indoors. They were not informal when in regular usage and would have been seen at semi-formal occasions or better. Many cocktail hats were meant to be a showpiece, setting the style for the day. Generally, the cocktail hat is acknowledged as the direct precursor to today’s fascinator headpieces, which are arguably not actual hats, but merely ornaments.26

This particular hat was made from a vintage, pre-made wireframe and took inspiration from motifs of the time. It utilizes many of the same methods as covering the wire tiara, including covering the frame with a layer of Balanchine, or tutu, netting. It was additionally

26 “So What Is the Main Difference between a Cocktail Hat & a Fascinator?,” Samuels Hats Church Kentucky Derby, July 21, 2016, https://samuelshats.com/news/2016/07/21/so-what-is-the-main- difference-between-a-cocktail-hat-a-fascinator/)

Stomps 38 covered with a layer of satin and decorated with the same cloth made into stripes and roses.

There are three stripes, and three flowers set diagonally across the frame of the hat with the flowers set atop the bun.

Though not made in shop, many of the hats to be used in Once Upon a Mattress were re- dressed cocktail hats of various shapes and sizes. Being that the goal was not to have a correct

“period” production, but to have a production in a period, the usage of such a variety of hats was ideal; it allowed us to further create individual personalities for the characters with the actors.

One actress had a hat covered in sequins with shaping reminiscent of the base of the French

Hood, while another had a hat wholly covered in flowers, and yet another had a bow. The variety of the styles possible with a cocktail hat was genuinely ideal for our MGM Musical-inspired production.

Stomps 39 Conclusion:

There are very few accessories that can lend quite the gravitas to an outfit that a hat can.

Although typically not part of formal American dress, the appearance of headwear is still seen at events like the Kentucky Derby and the events that it inspires throughout the country. Formal headwear might further be seen at outdoor weddings and the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s

Annual Gala. There has been a recent resurgence of interest in American millinery due to spectacular showpieces worn by actress Janelle Monae and actor Billy Porter. Though not haute couture, most people still wear a range of hats; sun hats, and baseball caps are still notable for their shape and how they developed. In the United Kingdom, millinery is still a large part of formal attire. Hats and fascinators alike can be seen sprinkled throughout the recent weddings of

Princess Eugenie and Jack Brooksbank and The Duke and Duchess of Sussex, Prince Harry and

Meghan Markle.

Outside of formal millinery and hat making for modern usage, there has been a resurgence of period dramas and television shows, furthering the interest in historical hat shapes.

The recent adaptation of Jane Austen’s Emma is notable for its treatment and attention to detail in its past shapes of headwear and hairdress. Truly important in immersion in the world of the show, historical millinery and craftwork are of the utmost importance to film and television.

Stomps 40 Images of Finished Products

Figure 23: Bycocket Back Figure 25:Bycocket Top

Figure 24: Bycocket Side

Stomps 41

Figure 26: Jester Hat Proccess. Upper Right and Bottom Left are Actress Grace Bowie.

Stomps 42

Figure 27: Crespinettes. Upper Left image is H. Thompson, J. Guarnieri (wearing French Hood), and J. Landini (wearing crespinettes)

Stomps 43

Figure 28: Heart Shaped Hennin Front Figure 29: Heart Shaped Hennin Side

Figure 31: Chaperone side front Figure 30: Chaperone Side

Stomps 44

Figure 32: French Hood. Center Left is a portrait of Elizabeth Seymour, painted by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1540.

Stomps 45

Figure 33: Romantic Bonnet

Stomps 46

Figure 34: Romantic Bonnet with Flowers

Stomps 47

Figure 36: Bandeau Side

Figure 35: Bandeau Front

Figure 37: Bandeau Back

Stomps 48

Figure 38: Toque Front

Figure 40: Toque Side

Figure 39: Toque Back

Stomps 49 Figure 41: Cameo Tiara

Stomps 50

Figure 42: Laurel Tiara on wig styled for V. Seguin as Princess Winnifred.

Stomps 51

Figure 43: Publicity Still for UVA's Once Upon a Mattress. Photo by Martyn Kyle of Pernmoot Photography. Tiara on Winnifred (V. Seguin, bottom right), French Hood on J. Guarneri (Bottom left), and crespinettes on J. Landini (middle right).

Stomps 52 Figure 44: Leaf Helmet for Farrah the Fairy in She Kills Monsters. Design and Rendering (Bottom Left) by Cee-Cee Swalling.

Stomps 53

Figure 45: Half Hat

Stomps 54 Figure 46: Half Hat back

Stomps 55

Figure 47: Queen Aggravain (left) and Sorceress (right)

Stomps 56

Figure 48: Sir Harry (top) and Lady Larken (bottom)

Stomps 57

Figure 49: Prince Dauntless (top), King Sextimus (bottom left), and the Nightengale (bottom right)

Stomps 58

Figure 50: Princess Winnifred

Stomps 59 Appendix 1: Stitches

Prick Stitch:

1. Work right to left. Pick up a small stitch.

2. Move needle backward two to three threads Figure 51: Prick Stitch to take a stitch. Figure 52: Prick Stitch 3. Travel on the wrong side of the fabric.

4. Repeat.

Stab Stitch:

1. Working right to the left, stab the needle

through buckram and fabric. Figure 53: Stab Stitch 2. Stab through to the front, traveling on the Figure 54: Stab Stitch backside. Place stitches ¼” apart.

3. Repeat.

Slip Stitch:

1. Start in the fold.

2. Pick up two to three threads of opposite

fabric

3. Return to fold directly

4. Travel through the fold, no more than Figure 55: Slip Stitch ¼.” Figure 56: Slip Stitch

Stomps 60 5. Repeat

Whip Stitch:

1. Start on the wrong side of the fabric.

2. Take a stitch around the raw edge of the

fabric. Figure 57: Whip Stitch

3. Repeat. Figure 58: Whip Stitch

Wiring Stitch:

1. Take Stitch to anchor with double

thread.

2. Stitch over the wire and into

buckram.

3. Move over wire diagonally, stitch.

4. Stitch around wire again. Repeat,

moving along wire. Figure 59: Wiring Stitch 5. Overlap stitching for at least 1” to

secure. Figure 60: Wiring Stitch

Buttonhole Stitch:

1. Start on the right side of the buttonhole with the worked edge facing upwards

Stomps 61 2. With the tip of the needle pointing towards you, take a stitch between 1/16” and 1/8”

wide.

3. Loop the thread under the needle from right to

left.

4. Pull the needle through so it becomes

perpendicular to the fabric, creating a purl on

top of the cut edge.

5. Repeat until finished.

Blanket Stitch:

Figure 61:Buttonhole (top) and Blanket (bottom) 1. Position project right side up with the raw edge stitches

facing upwards. Figure 62:Buttonhole (top) and Blanket (bottom) stitches 2. Insert needle approximately ¼” from the edge of

the fabric.

3. Loop the thread under the needlepoint and pull so taught, but not bunching the fabric.

4. Repeat until finished.

Catch Stitch:

1. Start at left. Take a small stitch from the bottom with the

needle moving to the left.

2. Take stitch above the fold, diagonally right of the last

stitch. Figure 63: Catch Stitch 3. Move diagonally below repeat. Figure 64: Catch Stitch

Stomps 62 Appendix 2: Making the Hat

Making a Buckram hat:

1. Pick your pattern, keeping in mind the amount of buckram, if you will have to cut anything in duplicate, and grain direction. These things will be marked on the pattern. As not many hat patterns are available commercially, you may have to make your pattern or reproduce a one from a book; typically, the designs in a book are printed on a grid for ease of reproduction.

2. Carefully lay your pattern out of the buckram, keeping in mind space and grain line. The grainline is the direction of the warp yarns on the loom.27 Buckram is a loosely woven, heavily starched cotton fabric. Cut with either seam allowance noted on the pattern, the smallest amount possible to attach, or no seam allowance. Be careful to mark any notches or balance marks given in the pattern.

3. If any pieces need to be cut in duplicate, use spray starch, and hot iron to glue the pieces of buckram together.

4. Stab-stitch the center back of the crown seam together.

5. Wire the following sections: Outer edge of the brim, the outer edge of the crown tip, EITHER lower edge of the crown stand, or inner edge of the brim. Wiring can be done by either machine or hand. With a sewing machine, use a zig-zag stitch and a buttonhole foot to run the wire along the edge of the piece. By hand, stab-stitch the wire to the buckram, as illustrated.

6. Although not strictly necessary for finishing, cover the wires in bias or French elastic (a bias- cut crinoline)28 for extra security.

27 For more on warp and grainlines, see note number 23. 28 See “crinoline,” appendix 3.

Stomps 63 7. If any extra volume is desired, or sheer fabric is being used, it may be desired to cover the hat in a flannelette, a one-sided flannel. It is not always necessary but does add additional volume to the hat without adding much weight. Covering the buckram can hide the weave and stiffness of the fabric. This can be carefully tailor basted to the frame, or it can be attached with spray adhesive.

8. Attach the crown tip to the crown band by stab-stitching the notches, typically found at the center back, center front, and at the center of each side. If that does not feel secure enough, stab- stitch halfway between center front and each side, and center back and each side.

9. Cut a square of your cover fabric slightly larger than the crown tip. Carefully pin the fabric to the crown tip; carefully stab-stitch the cover fabric to the crown stand directly below the crown tip. Alternately, stitch the fabric to the tip before attaching the crown and tip; this wholly depends on the patterns used.

10. Cut a piece of bias slightly larger than your crown stand pattern piece. With the wrong side of the fabric facing out, pin the fabric snugly at the center back, creating a seam. Remove the bias while it is still pinned, then stitch, trim, and press the seam open.

11. Match the back seam of the hat frame and cover prepared above. Turn the edge of the fabric under where the crown tip and stand meet, clipping as needed. Slip stitch.

12. Flip excess under edge of the tip; make sure to leave no more than half an inch of excess.

13. Cover the top of the brim, using a small whip stitch to the wire. Clip excess.

14. Carefully slip stitch the desired fabric under the brim, clipping as needed.

15. Stab-stitch the brim and crown together, matching notches or balance points at the same critical places as the tip to the brim, at minimum center front, center back, and each side.

16. Cut and stitch desired lining pieces as a typical pattern, slip-stitch to the edge of inner-brim.

Stomps 64 17. Decorate the crown and brim as desired.

On Fosshape hats:

The methodology for buckram hats largely transfers to making hats out of Fosshape, a modern thermoplastic with the appearance of felt sometimes referred to as “buckram replacement.” When using it, take into account that it is a thermoplastic and will shrink up considerably. During patterning, make sure to create a test swatch and steam it down to where you will be steaming the hat itself. By what percentage did it shrink? When making your pattern, be sure to account for that margin of shrinkage. If melted too heavily, it becomes quite difficult to stitch through.

Fosshape comes in two different thicknesses: 300 and 600. If you are making something that needs to bear more weight, it would be best to purchase the thicker material as it will be more durable. Similarly to buckram, it can be layered and stitched together. When making a

Fosshape hat, I chose to quilt the pieces together before steaming the frame itself to have consistent shrinkage through the hat. While with buckram, you can simply layer the buckram pieces with a thorough spray of starch before wiring, this proved to be the most sturdy way to create a shape needing to stand up to a heavy drape.

Stomps 65 Making a Wire Hat or Headdress:

1. Make a reasonable pattern flat. Utilizing both measurements and an existing headpiece, or create a shape using an ovular crown template.

2. Copy and mirror the pattern at the center front; the hat should be symmetrical.

3. Measure all lines to understand how much wire is needed; double if working on a half pattern.

Ideally, the hat should be one wire.

4. Using a piece of craft paper, measure and mark out critical points for half of the headpiece

(each petal in a tiara pattern, each spoke, etc.). Mark each of these critical points on the entire length of wire with a sharpie from end to mid-point or center front, continue by marking the mirror image of the headpiece.

5. Start to use the pattern piece to bend the wire. Thinking of your wire as a square block with four sides, bend the wire as flat as possible. Utilize pliers as needed. It is vital to keep the wire as flat as possible when making the pattern, checking periodically by lying the wire on the table.

Make sure that the wire does not torque but that you are keeping the “four sides” of you wire on the same plane.

6. Use a 19 gauge wire to secure the details of the headpiece at each mark, working to make the headpiece as symmetrical as possible.

7. Add a drop of Superglue or epoxy putty to all joins for security.

8. Bend wire to the dimensionality required by the headpiece at this point.

9. Cover wire with Hercules braid (a type of Mylar-based, tightly woven trim), or a large strip of tulle. Wrap around all areas, reinforcing with a spot of Tacky Glue every one to two inches the entire headpiece.

Stomps 66 10. Cover the right side of your wireframe with Balanchine net or heavy tulle, cut on the bias to stretch over the form. Whipstitch to the wrapped wire.

11. Decorate, couching beads onto the frame if desired.

Stomps 67 Making a Felt Hat (flat felt):

1. Cut pattern, adding in 1/8” in addition to your seam allowance (1/2”) to account for any minor shrinkage. If using two different pieces of wool, cut one, and then flip the pattern in order to create a right and left piece, to cut it on the other side.

2. Clip and press open seams carefully, using a press cloth between the felt and the iron and utilize minimal steam.

3. Flip hat right side out.

4. Carefully baste back hem, with a temporary stitch, in preparation for a fitting.

5. After fitting, finish the hem with a neat whip stitch.

6. Steam hat.

7. Spray a small amount of hat sizing29 on to keep the shape intact.

8. Decorate the hat as desired.

29 Hat Sizing is a type of fixative used to help a hat hold its shape, stiffening it. Traditionally called lacquer, it can be highly toxic and may need to be applied using a respirator, even if outdoors. There are now less toxic versions made of shellac (a product of insects) and alcohol.

Stomps 68 Appendix 3: Glossary of Supplies and Fabrics

Batiste:

Batiste is light, plain weave cotton named for its creator, French weaver Jean Baptiste. It is a sheer, combed, mercerized cotton muslin, cotton blend, or silk. Mercerization is a process to increase luster and affinity for dyes in fiber. Pieces of fabric are placed in a caustic soda solution and later neutralized with acid, which results in a swelling of the fiber. It was discovered by John

Mercer of Lancashire, England, in 1894. It is used in shirts, handkerchiefs, infant dresses and bonnets, nightgowns, and lingerie. If it is made of wool, it resembles a nun’s veil. Today, rayon batiste may be found and used for women’s lingerie and apparel, while silk batiste (batiste de soie) resembles silk mull (a light, soft muslin with a plain, open weave). Other variations are batiste d’escosse, fine linen cambric (a plain-woven fabric with a slight shine on the face made of combed singles), or similarly batiste hollandaise, or dutch linen.

If used in hat-making, it is most likely that a batiste would be sized, or starched, to enable it to keep the form necessary to create a delicate decoration or flower. Indeed, it could be used as a lining for a soft, semi-sheer hat if desired.

Buckram:

Buckram is a type of woven cotton fabric used typically in hatmaking. Although historically it might have been made of linen or horsehair, today it is only available widely in cotton. It comes in a variety of weights, which correlate to different usages. In theatrical millinery, the desired weight is called crown buckram, which is a two-ply, heavy-weight and heavily sized cotton fabric.

Stomps 69 Crown weight buckram is currently off the market, so there are a few different options available to milliners. One-ply buckram can be combined and made into two-ply buckram by utilizing spray starch between the layers, creating a very sturdy, yet still lightweight foundation material.

In its lightest weight, buckram can be used to create trim and as ribbon in couture women’s hats.

Burano Lace:

Burano lace is a needle lace made in Venice, on the island of Burano. It is characteristically punto in aria lace, meaning points in the air. It is worked without a ground fabric and is regarded to be one of the first true laces.

Lace in this style would be used in trimming elegant, delicate hats.

Crepe/crape:

Crepe, or crape, is a general classification of fabrics made with hard twisted yarns, chemical treatments, specialty weaves, or embossing. While both spellings are correct, when spelled crape, the modern association is with antiquated mourning clothing. Crepe is a prevalent type of fabric and is produced in many different ways, each way having a different name. Some of the most notable types of crepe are crepe de chine, crepe back satin, crepe georgette, crepon, and bark crepe.

Perhaps one of the most common crepes, crepe de chine is lightweight silk with a silk warp and a crepe twist weft in a 2s 2z twist pattern. It is commonly used in dresses and blouses

Stomps 70 and has an extremely light hand. The twist of the weft has between 40 and 80 turns per inch, creating the distinctive pebbled crepe surface. As a silk, it is also reasonably durable, while still being delicate in its appearance. An archaic, corded variant of crepe de chine is simply called

“cord de chine,” having cords running in the direction of the weft.

Crepe back satin is a dual-faced fabric, lustrous on one side and dull on the other. It is called both “crepe-back satin” and “satin-back crepe,” depending on which side is out. Although mainly used in special occasion garments, the hand is a bit stiffer, and the fabric tends to be of a medium weight. Initially, it was made of silk; it is now available in a variety of human-made fabrics.

Crepe georgette, or simply Georgette, is a lightweight, crinkled, sheer fabric used mainly in women’s apparel and special occasion gowns. It is dull in luster, and like both crepe de chine and crepe-back satin, it was initially silk but is now produced in a much more extensive range of fabrics. Both s-twist and z-twist yarns are used in the warp and weft, creating its distinctive crinkled look. Georgette was named for the 29th dressmaker from France, Georgette de la Plante.

While the above fabrics are characterized by their delicate pebbled appearance, both bark crepe and crepon are characterized by their lengthwise wrinkles. Both are also compound fabrics, not dissimilar to matelasse, and are typically woven on the dobby or jacquard looms. Where they differ is the fabric in which they are manufactured: bark crepe is typically made of cotton and is a sturdier hand, while crepon tends to be of a more delicate hand and made of silk or silk-like materials.

Crepe is generally used in female fashion, with the predominant uses being dresses and blouses. It can also be used in home decor for airy curtains and decorations. In millinery, we most commonly use crape as both a covering for hats and a veil for mourning purposes. At the

Stomps 71 same time, it is still a fabric of dignity and composure; its texture absorbs the light and lends the gravitas deemed necessary for a woman in deep mourning. A crepe also can hide stitching,

Crinoline

Although to many modern makers a crinoline is a type of netted underskirt, crinoline is a type of woven cotton fabric, starched to make it stiff. While similar to the lightest weight of buckram in appearance, the weave of crinoline is typically finer and tighter. It is also less heavily sized, or starched. When cut on the bias, crinoline becomes known as French Elastic, which is traditionally used to bind and secure the wire to the frame. Crinoline can also be used to great effect to create fine flowers and trims.

Duvetyne/Duvetyn:

Duvetyn is a twilled fabric with a short nap on one side of the fabric. Typically found today in a 100 percent cotton format, historically duvetyn could be found in wool and silk as well. It is typically found in a 54” wide format and is relatively light, only weighing about 8 ounces per linear yard of fabric. The nap of the fabric is created by brushing one side after milling, giving the fabric a lofty, plush feel. As is the case with many fabrics historically used for millinery, it is not as widely used today. Still, it can be found in flame-retardant varieties used for masking and drapery in theatres and on film sets.

Stomps 72

Flannel:

Flannel is a typically cotton fabric brushed on one or both sides to create a soft, plush nap. In millinery, it is typically used to create loftiness and hide the rough, open weave of the buckram under a thinner fabric. If used, it should be of a similar tonality to the cover fabric if possible to make it less likely that a needle prick will expose the fabric.

Jacquard:

Jacquard fabric is an umbrella term for all the fabrics created on a loom using the technology created by Joseph-Marie Jacquard in 1801. This system utilized punch cards and is noted to be the first programmable machine. It is also thought to be the origin of the binary coding system.

The oldest looms took two people to operate, a weaver, to weave, and a draw boy, to pick up the threads that were meant to be up. Old-style looms made brocades and other highly detailed woven fabrics extremely sumptuous, expensive, and complicated to produce. This loom made it much easier and much quicker to mass produce this type of fabric.

All Jacquard type fabric is a patterned fabric woven on a mechanical loom with an intricate pattern woven into the warp. Weights can vary, as well as material. The wrong side of the fabric typically has extremely long “floats,” or exposed weft threads, which are a tell-tale sign that it is jacquard. Jacquard is the weave type, rather than the actual fabric, and any fiber may be used in the jacquard set. Each has varying characteristics and usages. All types share these characteristics:

Stomps 73 · Durable, stable

· Strong and resilient

· Resistant to wrinkles and wear

· Highly decorative

· Pleasant to the touch

· Having an intricate design

· Having a large number of colors used (Tissura).

Like most other fabrics, jacquards are widely used in both clothing and home decors, although it is an ever-popular option for ties. Most frequently, it seems to be used in costumes and theatrical reproductions. The types of fabric that can be a jacquard weave include, but are not limited to,

Brocade, Dobby, Damask, Matelasse, Cloque, Tapestry, and Brocatelle. All jacquard weaves were at one point associated with the upper classes, but because of the loom and the revolution that it caused, they have since become accessible to the masses.

Millinery Wire

Millinery wire is one of the most integral materials in hat making, with a range of uses from flower stems to hat frames. It comes in two varieties, paper-wrapped and rayon-wrapped.

Like many other types of wire, the higher the number of the wire, the finer it is. While it comes in multiple sizes, the three most popular sizes are 23 gauge, 19 gauge, and 16 gauge. Most commonly when making a foundation, a milliner will choose a 19 gauge wire, as a 23 gauge will be too fine to support the structural integrity needed for the hat. Wire can be joined with a joiner

Stomps 74 or ferrule, clamping it over the wire, by overlapping the wire whilst on the frame, or by using a high gauge floral wire and superglue.

Organza: Organza is traditionally crisp plain weave silk, although much modern history organza is made out of synthetics, such as rayons, polyesters, and acetates, or blends of silk and synthetic fiber. The word “organza” is speculated to have entered the language because of one particular place that silk was traded: Urgang, Turkistan. It developed in the Middle Ages to the French and

Italian “organsin” and “organzano,” respectively. Organza is closely related to organzine, another silk fabric with its filaments twisted into strands. If made from cotton, it is known as organdy.

The region from which silk organza comes from weighs heavily on how it is constructed.

Organza from China is more likely to be purely silk filaments, and those originating from Italy or

France are often blended with nylon to produce a sturdier fabric. The organzas produced in Italy and France are often highly regarded, tending to be of a higher quality than those produced in

India or China. Organza produced in the United States is most frequently made of polyester so that it is more cost-efficient.

Organza is woven loosely in a plain weave to achieve its trademark translucency. This weave is particularly durable, and due to its strength, organza can be used as a highly efficient pressing cloth. The methodology for weaving it creates a crisp, stiff fabric used in a variety of clothing and decor, but one that is smooth and not at all abrasive. It is used mainly in bridal, evening and cocktail dresses, along with gift bags, curtains, and other interior design effects. The silk variety of organza takes dye particularly well and lends itself to bright colors. Due to its

Stomps 75 strength, silk organza is often used to create body and shape in dresses and clothing, along with being a highlight; clothing with details that seem to defy gravity are often made of silk organza.

By using different synthetic fibers, one may expect different classifications of fabric and the creation of sheen. Modern synthetic organza, mainly those available at craft stores, are known for being particularly shiny, and some even include glitter. Silk organza is typically a matte fabric, with no extra sheen. In caring for organza, one must note that it is typically dry- cleaned only due to the nature of the silk, although it is recommended that it be washed before the first usage. Polyester Organza is particularly noted for its low melting point, so taking the utmost care of the fabric is tantamount.

In millinery, we are most likely to see organza not as a covering fabric, but as a fabric used for flowers. If used for a hat itself, we are most likely to see it in a sports hat or, historically, a child’s hat, particularly if using organdy.30 We might utilize high-quality organza as couture, transparent hats.

Taffeta:

Taffeta is a plain-woven fabric with a crisp drape and a lustrous sheen. First produced in the Middle East in the 12th century, the word taffeta comes from the Persian “taftah,” meaning crisp woven. It is typically made of silk, although it can also be made of polyester or nylon today. While beautiful, it is not always the best choice to cover hats as it can scar with a needle very easily, yet with care, it can be quite beautiful. However, it is used to great effect as a trim, lining, or band.

30 Jane Lowen, Millinery (New York, NY: The Macmillan Company, 1925), 55.

Stomps 76 A taffeta typically has a 1x1 weave, with the warp and weft creating a very light checkerboard pattern. The yarns used to weave taffeta are generally tightly twisted, giving it its distinctive crisp drape and sound (called “scroop”).31

Velvet:

One of the broadest, and frequently used, fabric categories/types is velvet. Velvet is, at its simplest, a warp pile fabric with a close, cut pile. The term velvet is a derivative of the French term velours, itself a derivative of the Latin vellous, meaning hairy. Although different and distinct types of fabric, both velvet and velour are loosely applied to any fabric with a nap or pile.

Velours is specifically a cotton fabric with a thicker pile while velvet is a term historically applied to a silk double-cloth with a short, dense pile. Velour, without the s, refers to a pile fabric on a knit backing, most commonly known for its use in the early 2000s in tracksuits. It was created in 1844, France.

Most velvets are made with one of two methods. The first method is through a double cloth weave, creating two nap fabrics woven face to face, with a pile interchanging and cut on the loom with an oscillating knife. When cut apart, it results in two pieces of velvet. Alternately, the pile ends are lifted over a wire inserted in the same manner as a filling thread. When withdrawn, the wire cuts the pile. In the highest quality velvet, one may find a silk weft, but typically, the weft will be either cotton or polyester.

Although velvet can be made of many fabrics, both synthetic and natural, the most traditional, and luscious, is silk velvet. Silk velvet was, at one point, reserved for royalty and the

31 MasterClass, “What is Taffeta Fabric? How Taffeta is Made and the Characteristics of Taffeta Fabric.” Accessed March 20, 2020.

Stomps 77 upper echelons of nobility through sumptuary laws.32 Velvet must be handled with care, as the delicate pile crushes easily, creating a different sheen that may be unwanted. Most modern silk velvets are made of silk blends, due to the expense and amount of silk filament needed to create velvet. More common today are rayon, polyester, and cotton velvet, which differs from the extra- short pile of velveteen.

Under the umbrella of velvets, there is a large variety of variations and types of velvet.

The category “velvet” includes, but is not limited to, crushed, croise, brocaded, velveteen, velours ombre, velours Russes, chiffon velvet, Soleil, and Devore (burnout) velvet. Crushed velvet has a crinkled appearance with a high luster, which is created either by twisting the velvet while wet or pressing the nap in different directions. Velours Russes is a 19th-century dress fabric woven with diagonal, varicolored cords. Velveteen, as mentioned previously, is a cotton velvet-like fabric with an extremely short pile. The pile is typically no more than 3 millimeters high, and it can have small figures printed onto it or woven in it. Devore velvet has a pattern created by having some pile free areas. Chiffon velvet is the lightest type of velvet, with as short, erect pile. It has a light hand and excellent drape, but crushes easily; it is primarily used in ladies’ apparel. For hats, the best velvet is a silk Lyons velvet, named for the city in which it was made.33

Velvets can be used in many different applications, from evening dresses and elaborate hats to home decor and upholstery, although the pile may vary depending on the application. It has varying weights per the different uses. In millinery, velvet was sometimes used as a veil,

32 Sumptuary laws are historically laws regarding the usage of materials and dress of differing social status. The most luscious materials were reserved for the upper echelon of society, while the person of average status may only use average materials. These laws dictated everything from size and grandeur of trimmings to color of clothing, and additionally covered occasions in which the people of each status should dress a certain way. 33 Lowen, 53.

Stomps 78 occasionally on the interior of a bonnet to aid the bonnet remaining on the wearer’s head, and also as a trimming fabric. If used as a cover fabric, it is tantamount that the velvet is laid out in such a way that the direction of the pile is rough from the face.34

34 Ibid, 69.

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