CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Bradford Scholars Community Liaison Unit Community Perceptions of Forced Marriage Yunas Samad and John Eade University of Bradford and University of Surrey Roehampton The views expressed in this report are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect those of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This is an analytical report for the Community Liaison Unit (CLU), 'Community Perceptions of Forced Marriage'. This report provides the context, explores the problems and the perceptions of the Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities of forced marriages. Therefore, this report represents a comprehensive and rigorous synthesis of existing research evidence combined with primary data collected specifically for the report. Chapter One Reviews the original aims of the research project and how they will be met by this report. It clearly sets out the focus of the research and delineates closely related issues that will not be investigated. It considers a variety of perspectives, assessing their strengths and weaknesses, and then explains the strengths of a multi-dimensional approach and how this can be actualised in terms of method. It also discusses the following:- • Pros and Cons of Different Approaches • Methodology • This Research as a Comparative Study • Data Collection • Limitations of the Research ii Chapter Two Provides the local context within which the two communities are located showing that they both are primarily rural in origin, working class, have low human capital and a substantial young population. The middle class professionals and elderly population are relatively small, both at national and local levels. Both groups suffer from a high degree of social stress making them dependent on bonding social capital, based in kin networks, to establish niches in the labour market. • Bradford o History of migration o Demography o Social Stress o Employment and Unemployment o Education • Tower Hamlets o Economic and Cultural Background o History of Migration o Age and Sex Ratios o Social Stress: National and Local Data o Education iii Chapter Three Examines marriage practices amongst Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities within the context of marriage and Britain generally, in among minority groups specifically. It provides an overview of endogamous marriage practices and examines factors that are salient to understanding forced marriages. It evaluates the following: - • Marriage • Group Boundaries and Marriage • Kinship and Marriage • Caste • Honour • Arranged and Love Marriages • Trans-continental Marriages This chapter reviews marriage practices, examining factors for high rates of marriage amongst the communities and the phenomenon of endogamy. Endogamous marriages are used to reinforce kinship of networks and group boundaries and to maintain the cultural distinctiveness of the group and its identity. However, both communities are highly diverse and marriage is conducted between sub-groups within these communities. Caste hierarchy and status are important motivating factors in the arrangements of marriage. Arranged marriages are not contracted between individuals but between families and families invest in the stability and success of marriages because iv divorce and separation can result in inter-family feuding. There are various forms of arranged marriages and the social class and educational backgrounds of parents are closely linked to the degree of choice that is offered to children in the arrangement of marriages. 'Traditional' arranged marriages are most common amongst the least qualified and the working class. Trans-continental marriages are associated with a limited marriage pool and the need to find sub-groups of similar status, educational and class backgrounds, and will thus persist into the foreseeable future. Chapter Four Examines the causes of and the debates on forced marriages within the communities. A detailed examination of the forced marriage issue is followed by an analysis of community discussions about it. It discusses the following issues: - • Forced Marriage - Definition and Numbers • Motives of Forced Marriages • Debates on Forced Marriages • Parental Love, Duty and Reciprocity • Denial about Forced Marriages • Gender and Ethnicity • Honour and Men in the Public Sphere v The chapter examines the definition of forced marriage in detail, considers various views on the extent of the problem and explores demographic explanations for the problem. While the motivations involved in forced marriages are complex, the chapter demonstrates that liaisons with the opposite sex are an important trigger for instigating the process of forced marriage. Communities have become reflective about the issue and realise that forced marriages do not work. Divorce, separation and running away from home are some of the consequences. The elderly are being forced to adjust and adapt in reaction to their children’s demand for greater choice. While they want young people to accept their marriage decisions, the elderly are aware they cannot force them. Middle-aged participants believe that forced marriage will die out because they realise the un-Islamic nature of the practice. This group is acutely aware that they need to make pragmatic decisions to accommodate the wishes of their children or they will suffer dishonour by them running away. The general consensus is that force is unacceptable but community understanding of coercion does not include emotional and psychological pressure. This issue crops up in delicate situations such as inter-religious relations. Women, due to socialisation, are important enforcers of patriarchal norms and in many cases are the active agents in the process of forced marriages. vi Chapter Five Examines generational differences in greater detail. It first defines the ambiguity of the categories `generation’ and `youth’ and then explores differences between young and old. The main issues covered are: - • Religion and Culture • Social Change, Parents and Arranged Marriage • Trans-continental Marriage • Social Class and the Rise of Individualism Generational differences are clearly emerging in a number of areas. The first area is the emergence of linguistic change, mainly among Pakistanis, where we are seeing English becoming the main language of communication. The young tend to identify themselves as Muslim, although this is truer for Pakistanis than Bangladeshis due to their different heritage. This is not an example of increasing religiosity but a shift in social identity. The shift is reflected in the difference between generations over what are considered to be important criteria for matrimony. Elders argue that religious and cultural factors should be taken into account, meaning that the person should be from the same ethnic group, while young people are saying that only religion is important. Marrying outside the ethnic group is acceptable, but marrying outside one's religion is unacceptable. Parents recognise the ground reality that their children’s expectations of marriage are different, and are being forced to become more flexible or face unacceptable situations such as their vii offspring running away. Trans-continental marriages are another area of difference. Young people argued that linguistic and cultural compatibility is important and only if appropriate candidates were not found in Britain would they look for a partner in South Asia. They do accept the concept of arranged marriage, but want a greater degree of choice and show a clear preference for marrying someone already living in Britain. For women educational compatibility is an important criterion. Young people are concerned also that community leaders have not adequately and seriously addressed the issue of forced marriage and show little confidence in them. Chapter Six Considers the very strong response from the community about the project itself. It covers the following areas: - • Race and Islamophobia • Immigration These issues emerge spontaneously from the focus groups and indicate the sensitivity to the topic that was being investigated. The range of opinion was strongest amongst the elderly but was still evident among the youth. The research was seen as part of a veiled threat against arranged marriages. The reaction showed how important it was for policy initiatives to be articulated in a sensitive manner, otherwise they would face a hostile community rallying around the accusation that the government’s interest in forced marriages was an example of racism and Islamophobia. viii Chapter Seven Draws together the various findings that were explored and analysed in the body of the report and the annex, summarising the main points raised in the individual sections. Annex 1 Reviews the national demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities within the context of minority ethnic groups in general. Providing a national context for the data examined in chapter 2, it explores the following: - • Spatial Distribution • Population Size and Growth Rate • Age Structure and Sex Ratio • Employment, Unemployment and Self-employment • Human Capital. ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge the research team’s skill and patience in conducting this project and for their critical reflections and good humour. In the aftermath of the Bradford, Burnley and Oldham riots and September 11th 2001 it required their consummate expertise, forbearance and patience to complete the research. We wish to recognise all of those