Conclusion: an Interdisciplinary Approach to International Development Studies

Shigeru Otsubo, Hirotsune Kimura, Sanae Ito (eds.)

English Translation (Drafts) DO NOT COPY Preface Introduction to International Development Studies Part I: What are Development and International Development? Chapter 1: From the Viewpoint of Development Economics Chapter 2: From the Viewpoint of Development Politics Chapter 3: From the Viewpoint of Development Sociology Part II: Leading Issues in International Development (English drafts will not be provided for Part II.) Conclusion: An Interdisciplinary Approach to International Development Studies

Introduction to International Development Studies: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Development Studies Conclusion

CONCLUSION An Interdisciplinary Approach to International Development Studies

Shigeru OTSUBO・ Hirotsune KIMURA・ Sanae ITO

1. Directions of International Development & International Development Studies

The Introduction of this book described “international development studies” as a discipline that requires “interdisciplinary” and “active” approaches.

The term “international development studies” implies an interdisciplinary academic field that targets to solve all sorts of problems arising from development, principally from the developing areas of the world. This academic system derives from a combination of two terms namely; (1) the “international development” that is used in the policymaking or in the practice of international aid, and (2) the “development studies” that has been used in the academic world since the 1960s. Various academic fields such as economics, politics, law, sociology, anthropology, education, agriculture, social engineering, and environmental studies have been involved in grappling with the development of the developing countries. It is normal to face complex elements of distinct issues, from political, economic, cultural to social, in the “development” field. The development process does not necessarily limit itself in changing the economic structure but also triggers political, cultural and social changes. Thus, international development studies have been built as something essentially interdisciplinary. Both area studies in the developing world and raising issues from the field of development are indispensable when analyzing the current situation of the developing countries. Yet, “development studies” differ from area studies in a manner

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that they are target- focused and policy- oriented, as one can find in targeting poverty reduction. What is “development”? What are the “development” goals? The principal discourses were introduced in the Introduction and defined “development” as a change in the overall structure that generates material and spiritual poverty. The three major pillars, within the framework of development strategy and poverty reduction strategy, were set as follows: ① Achieving a more "pro- poor" economic growth, ② Development of appropriate public policy. This includes governance and system building.

③ Empowerment of the structural and potential poor. Further, we proposed what we believe as the direction of “international development” in the following statement. Without any doubt, “development” is achieved only when mankind is being empowered and developing nations are flooded with “empowered human beings”. Moreover, “international development” is a cooperative process carried out on a global level that aims for a successful global “development”.

2. An Interdisciplinary Approach to International Development Studies

In the Introduction, an “interdisciplinary elaboration” of “international development studies” was described as follows: International development studies indeed require “interdisciplinary” and “active” approaches, yet are comprised of diverse aspects, discourses and paradigms. This makes it rather difficult to reach a high level of discipline like in the “transdisciplinary studies”. Rather, it has evolved into a “multi- disciplinary network studies”, which changes its form of cooperation from time to time depending on the

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issues raised by researchers and development practitioners. Additionally, the method on how various academic fields relate to each other and compose “development studies” was simply drawn in Figure 0- 1 as shown below. The three disciplines, “development economics”, “development politics”, and “development sociology”, are placed central to “development studies”, as the basic stance of this book. In each of the academic fields selected in Part I , the following points have been elaborated: 1) how it has perceived the “development” issues, 2) trends of discourses and paradigms along with the theoretical frameworks that have supported the debates, 3) how it has associated with other academic fields, and 4) key development issues that it has tackled. When bringing “poverty reduction” at the center of “development” goals, economic growth (income growth), together with securing and expanding employment opportunities, becomes the most important task. What defines the performance of such economic society is, indeed, institutions and governance. Moreover, the field of development sociology assumes the role of adding the necessary social concerns in appropriately distributing the fruit of growth and social performances for the improvement of people’s well- being. The common views encountered are as follows. Firstly, economic growth has been the main topic of “development”. Secondly, economic growth has played an essential role as a means of poverty eradication. Thirdly, however, development issues should be tackled comprehensively, rather than merely focusing on the economic aspects. Fourthly, social development issues should not be considered just in the development sociology framework, but should also be dealt from the development economics and development politics fields. Lastly, development economists have played a big role in incorporating the concept of “human development” and “empowerment” into the “development studies”; yet, this could not have been achieved without the alerting and supplementary effects of the development sociologists and development political scientists.

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Figure 0- 1 Relationship of the interdisciplinary international development

studies and other related academic fields

Development Economics Development

cooperation cooperation field Development field

Economics Development Anthropology Law Law and Dev. Anthropology International

Development Development Dev. politics and Sociology Politics Sociology Studies dev. administration

Education Envi- Engi- Health & Development ron- Agri- neering Me- dicine cooperation ment cultur Development field cooperation field (Source) created by author

Economics is an academic field that considers human being's rational behavior as a major premise. Meanwhile, sociology, particularly in development sociology, derives from a hypothesis that individual's economic activities are embedded in the social and cultural contexts of social relationships, history and culture that are non- economical. Further, while development economics seeks for universal principles, development sociology denies the single- line development process and questions the concept that “the world moves on under a certain system”. In examining each of the field of development policies closely (cf. Table 0 - 1 : Overview of the Development Policies), it is apparent that diverse academic fields are involved in the “development” of the developing countries. Those fields are: economics, politics, law, sociology, anthropology, education, agriculture, social engineering, environmental studies, etc. This is why this book carries a subtitle “An Interdisciplinary Approach to Development Studies”, and diverse researchers of

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development related fields have been asked to participate in composing the work. International development studies are comprised of diverse aspects, discourses and paradigms. Therefore, it has evolved into a “multi- disciplinary network studies”, which changes its form of cooperation from time to time depending on the issues raised by researchers and development practitioners.

3. Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Leading Issues in International Development

In Part II, seven topics were raised as task clusters, respectively, “Poverty”, “Governance”, “Globalization”, “Rural Community”, “Education”, “Environment”, and “Peace”. In addition, some of the multi- disciplinary network studies were introduced. The following two questions were asked to the seven editors of the seven different academic fields who took charge in editing the Part II. The individual opinion of each editor, which reflects the reality of an “interdisciplinary approach of international development studies”, can be found in the succeeding part 1 .

(Question 1) What are the discipline clusters (academic fields) that are required in an interdisciplinary approach in dealing with the leading issue of international development that you are in charge of? What is considered to be the most important “core” of the cluster and what are the related subjects? Try to show

1 The three editors of the book, Shigeru Otsubo (development economics), Hirotsune Kimura (development politics), and Sanae Ito (development sociology) have been in charge of the “globalization”, “governance”, and “poverty” clusters, respectively. Without any doubt, the three believe that it is appropriate to propose the three disciplines, development economics, development politics, and development sociology, to form the core orthodoxy of “international development studies”.

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your stance and clearly specify the answers.

(Question 2) This book proposes the three disciplines, “development economics”, “development politics”, and “development sociology”, as the core orthodoxy of international development studies. If you think that this idea is inappropriate upon dealing with the task cluster of your area, state the reason by comparing it to the core orthodoxy that you believe in.

3.1 Poverty Cluster Editor: Sanae Ito (Development sociology)

(Answer 1) All the three fields are essential when discussing poverty. Both in the conceptualization and policy making, a high level of interdisciplinary approach is required. In understanding poverty issues at a micro level, the viewpoint of development sociology is particularly crucial as indicated in this book. Yet, development economics, including agricultural economy and new institutional economics, contribute a big portion in dealing with the issue as well. Development economics and development politics are of big significance in proposing a political framework when handling poverty reduction from macro and long- term aspects.

(Answer 2) It is appropriate.

3.2 Governance Cluster Editor: Hirotsune Kimura (Development politics)

(Answer 1) Regarding governance, all the three disciplines are important. Only by linking the three academic fields interdisciplinarily, the myth to exclude economic growth from the governance concept can be concealed. When considering a good governmental rule under the form of “good

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governance”, which is one of the concepts of governance, the improvement of the living standards of the citizen, being associated with economic growth, is indispensable. Furthermore, economic growth is achieved only through cooperation between the government and the private sector. The outcome of economic growth is acknowledged only when the growth is trickled down to ordinary citizens. Thus, the relation between the economic world and civil sector under good governance framework, can form an interdisciplinary study, amid interaction with the development field, and through linkage of politics with economics and sociology.

(Answer 2) It is appropriate.

3.3 Globalization Cluster Editor: Shigeru Otsubo (Development economics)

( Answer 1) Globalization can be classified into 3 major trends: politics, economics, and culture and society. Further, four globalization streams lie beneath: ideology, information, people, and institution. Amid this globalization that presents diverse and multidimensional phases, economists, who are involved in analytical researches and policy dialogues of the globalization of economic activities, should not limit their approaches to economic phenomena that can be assessed technically and objectively. Rather, they should work on, whether directly or indirectly (as an environmental factor), globalization and harmonization of social systems and institutions that include democracy, market mechanism, and global/regional/national/local governance. Human beings have to perceive environmental issue, population problem (population explosion in the 20th century, population decline and aging in the 21st century), and problematic infectious disease as global issues; thus, grapple with them along with building global governance. Development and international development cooperation in developing countries, which is centered on solving poverty issues, are something that mankind did not completely solve in the 20th century. These indeed are a global issue that

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the international society faces under the ongoing globalization trend. “Globalization and development” deserves to be treated appropriately, given this viewpoint. Development economics, development politics, and development sociology correspond to the 3 major globalization trends and form the analytical core of “globalization and development”. Diverse academic fields exist at the periphery of the core: international (economic) law, international environmental cooperation, peace building, history and culture, anthropology, international migration, education to promote international understanding, and more.

(Answer 2) As described above, the three major trends of globalization, in other words, economics, politics and culture and society, correspond with the three core disciplines. Therefore, the statement in question 2 is adequate. In the opening Box of Chapter 1, it states that the criticism from (development) sociologists is the rejection of “economic growth”. This was intended to simply clarify the differences between the two disciplines. Yet, in reality, sociology provides social viewpoint, which is essential. Technical factors involving transportation and communication (information flow) make a big contribution in the global expansion of international trade and international finance. In addition, environmental and agricultural technologies, including stable supply of food crops, give a huge impact on global environmental and population issues. This book’s weak point is that, apart from experts in agriculture, few researchers with science background have participated as authors. For future interdisciplinary approaches to international development, integrated researches embracing both humanities and sciences that incorporate natural science, medicine, and engineering, will be required.

3.4 Agriculture Cluster Editor: Yoshiaki Nishikawa (Development administration and Agrobiology)

(Answer 1) Each of the three disciplines is considered to take an

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important role in the debates over agricultural development in the context of development policy. The primary goal of agricultural development is to supply sufficient food to the nation and to secure production and employment in rural communities. Analysis on this goal is primarily conducted by economics. Meanwhile, under the definition of economic indicators, agriculture has lesser productivity compared to other industries, thus some kind of policy intervention will be required. This implies the necessity of the academic fields of politics and governance. Agricultural society has been formed through a long period of clash between human beings and the environment. Without the minimum roles being played by development sociology, it would be hard for development to be achieved.

(Answer 2) It should be noted that when dealing with agricultural development comprehensively and in analyzing development phenomena targeting rural communities, a reductive approach to the three disciplines, namely economics, politics, and culture and sociology, significantly lowers the possibility in analyzing complex matters. This might lead to loose sight of the essence of agricultural development. With the idea of agricultural principles that quest for what agriculture means for human beings in mind, a holistic approach is needed. This approach implies the contributions of area studies including agriculture studies, which deal with technical theories and environmental studies with ecological aspects.

3.5 Education Cluster Editor: Yuto Kitamura (Education)

(Answer 1) There is no big objection in perceiving the three disciplines as a core, when discussing the education cluster. Yet, it should be stressed that education studies lies common in all three academic fields. In this context, education studies can be considered as a discipline that proposes the historical and ideological viewpoints related to education. Apart from the three disciplines, anthropology plays a significant role.

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(Answer 2) It is basically appropriate. However, the role of “anthropology” is anticipated to be further focused in the future of “international development studies”. Therefore, it is advisable that the core orthodoxy encompasses this discipline in its range. Moreover, related to this matter, the future of “international development studies” must actively implement the outcomes of history and other human studies.

3.6 Environment Cluster Editor: Kiyoshi Fujikawa (Econometrics and Environmental economics)

(Answer 1) There is no fixed notion called “environmental studies”. There is an academic society named Japan Association on the Environmental Studies. However, the name of the society is used as a general term and the association itself was founded as a result of criticism against the business world and government, who do not care about the environment. Academic societies related to environmental studies can be classified into various disciplines, including science and humanities backgrounds. Some examples in science and engineering include: Japan Society for Atmospheric Environment and, Japan Society on Water Environment. For medical areas, the example is the Japan Society of Endocrine Disrupters Research. Under, social science, examples include: The Japanese Society of Environmental Education, Society for Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, The Japanese Association for Environmental Sociology, and the Japan Association for Environmental Law and Policy. Among the listed groups, the Japanese Association for Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, the Japanese Association for Environmental Sociology, and the Japan Association for Environmental Law and Policy have been holding a joint symposium for over a decade. This indicates that there is a common agreement that the economic, social, and legal aspects must be integrated and discussed to adjust the interests of the stakeholders of environmental issues. This year’s joint symposium was held in Nagoya University, with “biodiversity” as the common theme. The same spirit is reflected in the

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Environment Cluster of this book. In this book, the Environment Cluster takes a parallel stance with the trend of social science kind of environmental societies

(Answer 2) It is not problematic from the social science perspective. Dialogues between social scientists and technicians remain as a task. For instance, economists claim that imposing tax on carbon dioxide (CO2 ) leads to less CO2 emission. This is based on the idea that input of energy, which has become relatively expensive, will be substituted by other factors such as capital and labor. This idea can be applied within the scope of differential changes in macroeconomics. However, the figures that are targeted are rather bigger reaching up to few dozens of percentage of CO2 reduction. It is impossible to argue over the issue on the same line with the isoquants (constant product curves), yet not many economists are aware of it. A shift in the isoquant itself, in short, a technology innovation is required to achieve a large- scale reduction of CO2 emission. On the contrary, engineers do not agree on this, as they believe that factor inputs ratio varies depending on the relative prices . Technicians stress that they always put their best effort in deriving the latest technology, thus whether or not to impose tax does not affect the factor inputs ratio. Further, tax levy on CO2 emission will simply add more financial burden on the private sector. Energy substitution is a long- term issue at a macro level, and is not a matter of short- term task on an individual basis. This causes the gap between economists and environment engineers.

3.7 Peace Cluster Editor: Hisae Nakanishi (International politics)

(Answer 1) Development economics, development politics, and development sociology must all be mixed and summed up together in dealing with peace building as a discipline. Development economics play a big role in analyzing the two principal assumptions of peace building: 1) economic factors that lie in the root cause of conflicts along with economic

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cost that is triggered by conflict and war, 2) computation of the cost required for aid for reconstruction and development, and its impact. When talking of an effective operation of peace building aid programs, the field of social and human development together with governance, security, and governance of law has to be integrated to pay off. In this sense, the contribution of development politics and development sociology is significant. In addition to these views, the perspective of international law should be added, thus an integrated scientific approach is required. So far, peace building studies have not yet been established as an academic discipline. Hence, efforts should be made to accomplish this target by integrating the four disciplines: development economics, development politics, development sociology, and development law including international law. Development politics becomes the core and pillar of the academic studies of peace building. This is attributed to the fact that the majority of the issues and tasks that are targeted in peace building involve political factors.

(Answer 2) In peace building, it is not that any of the three disciplines is n ot appropriate. In fact, as previously described, all the three academic fields need to be embraced in studying peace building as a cluster.

What is your opinion…?