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Geotechnical Engineering—A Historical Perspective

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Geotechnical Engineering—A Historical Perspective Geotechnical Engineering— A Historical Perspective Braja M Das 1 1/25/2019 • The development of Geotechnical Engineering up to about 1700 A.D. was through experimentation without scientific character. • Galileo and Descartes made references to the idea of speed and distance moved without stating what it meant. 2 1/25/2019 Growth of Early Civilization along Some Major Rivers Egypt Mesopotamia China India River Nile Tigris and Huang Ho Indus Euphrates (Yellow River) Annual 250 200 500 250 rainfall (mm) African lakes Mountains of Kunlun Hindu Kush & Source & Abyssinia Armenia Mountains Himalayas Flood rise (m) 5–7 5 4–7 4–5 Percentage 0.17 0.75 1 to 2 0.43 silt Clay with up Calcareous Type of soil Loess Fine clay to 20% sand loam Gradient 1:13,000 1:26,000 1:35,000 1:7,000 3 1/25/2019 Dikes dating back to about 2000 B.C. were built in the basin of the Indus to protect the town of Mohenjo Daro (in Pakistan after 1947). During the Chan Dynasty in China (1120 B.C. to 249 B.C.), many dikes were built for irrigation purposes. There is no evidence that measures were taken to stabilize the foundations or check erosion caused by floods. 4 1/25/2019 Around that time, ancient Greek civilization used isolated pad footings and strip-and- raft foundations for building structures. 5 1/25/2019 • Beginning around 2750 B.C., the five most important pyramids were built in Egypt in a period of less than a century (Saqqarah, Meidum, Dahshur South, Dahshur North, and Cheops). This posed formidable challenges regarding foundations, stability of slopes, and construction of underground chambers. • These pyramids were built as tombs of the country’s pharaohs and their consorts. 6 1/25/2019 Major Pyramids in Egypt Pyramid/Pharaoh Location Reign of Pharaoh Djoser Saqqara 2630--2612 B.C. Sneferu Dashur (North) 2612—2589 B.C. Sneferu Dashur (South) 2612—2589 B.C. Sneferu Meidum 2612—2589 B.C. Khufu Giza 2589---2566 B.C. Djedefre Abu Rawash 2566—2558 B.C. Khafre Giza 2558—2532 B.C. Menkaure Giza 2532—2504 B.C. As of 2008, a total of 138 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. 7 1/25/2019 A view of the pyramids at Giza. 8 1/25/2019 With the arrival of Buddhism in China during the Eastern Han Dynasty in 68 A.D., thousands of pagodas were built. Many of these structures were constructed on silt and soft clay layers. In some cases, the foundation pressure exceeded the load− bearing capacity of the soil, thereby causing extensive structural damage. 9 1/25/2019 One of the most famous examples of soil−bearing−capacity−related problems in the construction of structures in the pre-18th Century era is the Leaning Tower, began in 1173 A.D. when the Republic of Pisa (Italy) was flourishing and continued in various stages for over 200 years. 10 1/25/2019 The Leaning Tower of Pisa weighs about 15,700 metric tons and is supported by a circular base having a diameter of 20 m. The tower has tilted in the past to the east, north, west, and, finally to the south. Recent investigations showed that weak clay layer existed at a depth of about 11 m below the ground surface compression, of which caused the tower to tilt. It became more than 5 m out of plumb with the 54 m height (about a 5.5 degree tilt). 11 1/25/2019 The tower was closed in 1990 because it was feared that it would either fall over or collapse. It recently has been stabilized by excavating soil from under the north side of the tower. About 70 metric tons of earth were removed in 41 separate extractions that spanned the width of the tower. As the ground gradually settled to fill the resulting space, the tilt of the tower eased. The tower now leans 5 degrees. The half-degree change is not noticeable, but it makes the structure considerably more stable. 12 1/25/2019 The stabilization plan was overseen by a commission of 13 members hired by the “Opera della Premaziale Pisana.” This commission of 13 included Professor John B. Burland (UK), Professor Michele Jamiolkowski (Poland), and Professor Salvatore Settis (Italy). Professor John Burland took the lead of this 30-million Euro project to its successful completion. 13 1/25/2019 Professor John Burland 14 1/25/2019 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING−18th CENTURY AND AFTER 1. Pre-Classical Soil Mechanics ─ 1717−1775 2. Classical Soil Mechanics−Phase I ─ 1776−1856 3. Classical Soil Mechanics−Phase II ─ 1856−1910 4. Modern Soil Mechanics ─ 1910−Present 15 1/25/2019 Pre-Classical Soil Mechanics Empirical earth pressure theories based on natural slope and unit weight of earth fill material 16 1/25/2019 Henri Gautier (1660-1737) French engineer and scientist; author of the first book on bridge building. His Treastise on Bridges appeared in 1716 and remained the standard work on bridge building for some 70 years. 17 1/25/2019 Henri Gautier Paris − Dissertation, 1717 In the chapter on retaining walls, Gautier classified soil as: Soil γ (lb/ft³) Natural slope Clean dry sand 115 31° Ordinary earth 85 45° Compacted clay 18 1/25/2019 Henri Gautier (continued) Gautier studied natural slopes of soil and angle of repose to formulate design procedures of retaining walls. • Clean dry sand and earth — 31° • Ordinary earth — 45° • Unit weight of sand — 18.1 kN/m³ • Unit weight of ordinary earth — 13.4 kN/m³ 19 1/25/2019 Bernard Forest de Belidor (1694 – 1761) • A professor of mathematics at the military college at La Fère, saw active service as an engineer during the War of Austrian Succession and then settled in Paris. • His fame rests primarily on Architecture Hydraulique (1737– 53), in four volumes, covering engineering mechanics, mills and water wheels, pumps, harbors, and sea works. 20 1/25/2019 Bernard Forest de Belidor Paris (1729) In his textbook, de Belidor classified soil for foundation problems as: (a) Rock (d) Soft earth (b) Sand (e) Clay (c) Ordinary earth (f) Peat 21 1/25/2019 As a follow−up to Gautier, de Belidor proposed a theory for lateral earth pressure. He proposed a soil classification system Classification Unit weight (kN/m³) Rock ─ ─ Firm or hard sand; compressible sand 16.7 − 18.4 Ordinary earth (dry locations) 13.4 Soft earth (primarily silt) 16.0 Clay 18.9 Peat ─ ─ 22 1/25/2019 Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls de Belidor (textbook), 1729 A C Earth Fill H 1/2 H ² Natural slope = 45o B 23 1/25/2019 Following de Belidor, many earth pressure theories were developed and summarized by J. M. Mayniel (1808). ─ From Archives of Corps du Génie 24 1/25/2019 Francois Gadroy (1705−1759) An officer in the Corps du Génie, he served in The Netherlands, was promoted to Captain at Valenciennes in 1747 and later became chief engineer at Brest. 25 1/25/2019 Francois Gadroy, Chief Engineer Brest, France (1746) • Existence of slip plane behind retaining walls • First results of model tests 26 1/25/2019 Typical Features Observed in a Retaining Wall Failure Natural slope (c. 45o) Slip plane Earth Fill 64o de Belidor, 1729 (Textbook) 27 1/25/2019 Model Tests Line of rupture Natural slope o 3 in. (31 ) Sand 57o 28 1/25/2019 Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708-1794) French architect and structural engineer, known for his many stone arch bridges. His best known work is the Pont de la Concorde. Chief engineer of the Ponts et Chaussées and director of the Ecole Polytechnique from its inception in 1747. Member of the Academy of Sciences and Fellow of the Royal Society. 29 1/25/2019 Jean Rodolphe Perronet Director of Ecole Polytechnique, Paris (1769) • Slope stability • Intact ground and fill • Introduction of water into slope (seepage analysis) 30 1/25/2019 CLASSICAL SOIL MECHANICS, PHASE I 1776 − 1856 Dominated by: c = 0 assumption “cohesion” strength of clay Era of Coulomb to Rankine 31 1/25/2019 Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806) He is best known for developing what is now known as Coulomb’s law, the description of the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion. Graduated from military engineering school at Mézières; served in France and abroad from 1762 to 1781; and settled in Paris. Coulomb leaves a legacy as a pioneer in the field of geotechnical engineering for his contribution to retaining wall design. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. 32 1/25/2019 Charles Augustin de Coulomb France (1776) The theory of earth pressure and the generalized wedge theory, related to geotechnical engineering, propounded by him still form the basis of engineering practice. 33 1/25/2019 GASPARD-CLAIR-FRANÇOIS-MARIE-RICHE, BARON DE PRONY (1755 – 1839) Distinguished civil engineer; held position of Chair of Mechanics at the Ecole Polytechnique. 34 1/25/2019 G. C. F. M. R. PRONY PARIS Textbook: Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique, Vol. 1, Paris, 1790 • Led to acceptance of Coulomb’s theory. 35 1/25/2019 Jacques Fredéric Francais (1775−1833) Studied at the Ecole Polytechnique; served as an army engineer from 1801 and, in 1811, became professor of fortifications and surveying at Metz Military College. 36 1/25/2019 Jacques Fredéric Francais France − 1820 • Extended Coulomb’s theory to active earth pressure of a cohesive fill • Short−term stability of excavated clay slope 37 1/25/2019 Claude−Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785−1836) • Professor of applied mechanics at Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées.
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