International Decision-Making in the Age of : 1993-1995 Conference Briefing Book

Compiled and produced by the National Security Archive, at George Washington University for the Critical Oral History Conference in , , June 28-July 1, 2015.

Co-sponsored by:

Briefing Book produced with generous support from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.

For more information, see www.nsarchive.gwu.edu, or contact the National Security Archive at 202.994.7000.

International Decision-Making in the Age of Genocide: Srebrenica 1993-1995 Critical Oral History Conference

Table of Contents

 Welcome Letter  Biographies of Participants  Conference Agenda  Chronology of Events  Key Players  Declassified Documents o Part 1: Creating the “Safe Areas” o Part 2: Testing the “Safe Areas” o Part 3: The Fall of Srebrenica o Part 4: Endgame-Lessons from Srebrenica o Part 5: Map annex

*Please note that the contents of this briefing book are for the private use of conference participants and should not be publicly released without permission from the conference organizers.

International Decision-Making in the Age of Genocide Srebrenica: 1993-1995 The Hague, June 28 – July 1, 2015 Conference Participants

Yasushi Akashi was a UN Under--General (1979-1997), and Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General to the former (January 1994-October 1995). He previously served as Special Representative of the Transitional Authority in (UNTAC) from 1992 to 1993. Akashi is currently the Japanese government’s Representative for Peace-Building, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction in , Chairman of the International House of and President of the Japanese Organization for International Cooperation in Family Planning.

Diego Arria was Permanent Representative of to the UN from 1991 to 1993. He was President of the UN Security Council in March of 1992, and led the UNSC delegation to Srebrenica in April 1993. Early positions included Governor of and Venezuelan Minister of Information and Tourism. Arria is on the Board of Directors of the Institute of the Americas, Freedom Now, and the Advisory Board of the International Crisis Group. He has also served as the Special Advisor to UN Secretary-General .

Carl Bildt was appointed the European Union’s Special Envoy to the former Yugoslavia in June 1995 after serving as Prime Minister of Sweden from 1991 to 1994. A co-chairman of the Dayton Peace Conference, Bildt became the first High Representative of from 1995 to 1997 and the UN Secretary-General’s Special Envoy for the from 1999 to 2001. He has also served as Sweden’s Minister of Foreign Affairs (2006-2014), and is a board member of the International Crisis Group.

Muhamed Duraković is a Srebrenica native who survived the genocide by making a 37-day trek through Bosnian Serb Army controlled territory. During the war, Duraković worked with international aid organizations inside the Srebrenica enclave. Following his escape from the “safe area,” he reached Tuzla where he continued to work on projects supporting genocide survivors. Duraković helped organize the annual Srebrenica Peace March and Summer University Srebrenica project. He is currently head of the program at the International Commission on Missing Persons.

André Erdös was Hungary’s Permanent Representative to the United Nations from 1990 to 1994, and a member of the Security Council delegation that visited Srebrenica in April 1993. He was elected Chairman of the UN Disarmament Commission in 1994, and was Deputy State Secretary for Foreign Affairs from 1994 to 1996. Other posts included Ambassador of Hungary to France and member of the UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Civil Society. He is a Senior Advisor of the International Center for Democratic Transition in Budapest and Vice-President of the UN Association on Hungary.

Peter Galbraith was the first US Ambassador to (1993-1998). He was the co-mediator and principal architect of the 1995 . In 2000 and 2001, he was Director for Political, Constitutional and Electoral Affairs in the UN Transitional Administration in . In 2009, he served as Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary-General in . He has been a Professor of National Security Strategy at the National Defense University and is currently senior diplomatic fellow at the Center of Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. He is the author of two books on the war including the bestselling, The End of Iraq: How American Incompetence Created A War Without End.

David Hannay was Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom to the United Nations from 1990 to 1995, following an earlier five-year tour as Permanent Representative to the European Union. He was appointed to the House of Lords in June 2001. He has since served as Chair of the Board of the United Nations Association UK from 2006 to 2011 and is now Chair of the UN All Party Parliamentary Group. Hannay is also a member of the Top Level Group of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation.

David Harland was a civilian affairs officer in the United Nations mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1993 to 1998. He co-authored the 1999 United Nations report on the , “The Fall of Srebrenica.” Harland has also served in peacekeeping missions in Timor Leste (1999-2000), Kosovo (2008) and Haiti (2010). He was a witness for the prosecution at the ICTY for several cases including those against Ratko Mladic and Radovan Karadzic. He is currently Executive Director of the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue based in Geneva.

General Vere Hayes negotiated the Srebrenica “safe area” agreement in April 1993 between the Bosnian government and the Bosnian while serving as Chief of Staff of UNPROFOR. He served in the for 37 years, retiring in 2001. His military experience covered platoon to battalion command and operational tours in Borneo and Northern Ireland. Hayes’ last appointment was in Zimbabwe teaching peace support operation doctrine and techniques.

Larry Hollingworth, C.B.E. was appointed Chief of Operations in for the UN High Commission for Refugees in 1992. He joined UNHCR after thirty years in the British Army. Hollingworth has also served as Humanitarian Coordinator for the Center for International Humanitarian Cooperation for the UN in Iraq, , East Timor, Palestine and Pakistan. He is currently Visiting Professor of Humanitarian Studies at the Institute for International Humanitarian Affairs at Fordham University in New York.

Henry Jacolin was French Ambassador to Bosnia from 1993 to 1995. He had earlier served in the French embassy in Yugoslavia (1972-1974) as a Balkan specialist and fluent Serbo-Croatian speaker. Other ambassadorial posts included Fiji and Nicosia. Between 1998 and 2001, he was head of the OSCE department for negotiating a Balkan arms control agreement, and co-president of the Minsk group from 2002 to 2006. Since retiring from the French diplomatic service, Jacolin has also served as president of the International Railway History Association.

Colonel (ret.) Thom Karremans was the Commanding Officer of 3 battalion, which was deployed in Srebrenica Safe Area in 1995. He previously worked in Bosnia in 1991 as a liaison officer to the European Community Observation Committee in Bosnia. Prior to this peacekeeping duties in Bosnia, Karremans served with UNFIL in Lebanon, and with NATO in Mons, Belgium. Subsequent posts included command of a mechanized infantry battalion and an airmobile battalion in Assen, Netherlands and Liaison Officer to the US Army Training and Doctrine Command. Karremans described his experiences in Srebrenica in his book Srebrenica, Who Cares?: Een puzzle van de werkelijkheid (“A puzzle of reality”). He retired in Spain.

Obrad Kesic is Director of the Office for Cooperation, Trade and Investment in Washington, DC, as well as a Senior Partner of TSM Global Consultants LLC. Earlier Kesic worked as Program Coordinator for the Democratic Transition Program as well as the Program Officer for Media and Central and East European Programs at IREX in Washington, DC. Between 1994 and 2001, he was Director of Government Affairs at ICN Pharmeceuticals.

Wim Kok was Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 1994 to 2002. A prominent trade union leader, he was elected to the Lower House of the Dutch parliament in 1986, as well as leader of the Labour Party. He served as Minister of Finance from 1989 to 1994. After stepping down as Prime Minister, he served on the board of leading international companies and NGOs, including Royal Dutch Shell, KLM, the International Commission on Missing Persons, International Crisis Group and the Anne Frank Foundation. In 2003 and 2004, Kok was an advisor for the European Council and Commission on revitalizing the European economy. He was granted the honorary title of Minister of State in 2003.

Dr. Zlatko Lagumdžija was Deputy Prime Minister of Bosnia in 1992 and 1993. He served in multiple posts in the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 2015, including Chairman of the Council of Ministers. He was President of the Social Democratic Party from 1997 to 2014. He has been President of the Governing Board of Bosniak Institute since 2005. He was Bosnian Foreign Minister between 2012 and March 2015.

General Kees Matthijssen was a Company Commander for Dutchbat III stationed in Srebrenica in 1995. He has since been deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan. Matthijssen obtained a Master of Strategic Studies degree from the US Army War College in 2010. In September 2013 he was appointed Military Advisor to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In October 2014, Matthijssen was promoted to brigadier-general and Commander of the 11 Air Assault Brigade.

Hasan Muratović served as the Bosnian Minister for UN affairs between 1992 and 1996. He succeeded Haris Silajdzic as the Prime Minister of Bosnia (1996-1997). Muratović went on to become a Professor and Rector at the University of Sarajevo (2004-2006). He has also served as the Minister for Economic Relations, Ambassador to the Republic of Croatia, and the Vice President of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.

General Kees Nicolai was Chief of Staff of the UN Command in Bosnia from March to September of 1995, and was closely involved in decisions concerning the use of air support in Srebrenica. He later served as a Division Commander in the Dutch army and was appointed commander of the Training Command of the Royal Army in 1998. He retired in September 2004 after 39 years of military service.

David Rohde won the Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting in 1996 for his coverage on Srebrenica while a reporter for The Christian Science Monitor. He was arrested by the Bosnian Serb authorities in 1995 while visiting a suspected mass grave site, but released as part of the Dayton peace negotiations. In 1997, he published an account of the massacre entitled, Endgame: The Betrayal and Fall of Srebrenica, Europe’s Worst Massacre Since World War II. Rohde is now an investigative journalist for Thomson Reuters.

James Rubin was Senior Advisor and Spokesman for the US ambassador to the United Nations, Madeleine Albright, from 1993 to 1996, after earlier serving on the staff of the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee. He was Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs between 1997 and 2000. He served as a special negotiator during the Kosovo crisis. Rubin is a writer and commentator on world affairs and Co-Chair of a project on Extending American Power for the Center for New American Security in Washington, DC.

John Shattuck became Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor in 1993. He made multiple fact-finding trips to Bosnia, including in July 1995 after the massacre in Srebrenica. He worked closely with during the Dayton peace process. Shattuck helped establish the International Criminal Tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda. He has also served as US Ambassador to the Czech Republic and CEO of the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation. He is currently the President of Central European University in Budapest, Hungary.

General Sir was Commander of UNPROFOR in 1995, creating the UN Rapid Reaction Force which broke the . He earlier served as Assistant Chief of Defence Operations and Security at the UK Ministry of Defence from 1992 to 1994, where he was closely involved with the UK’s development of strategy in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Smith also served as Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe between 1998 and 2001. He retired from the army in January 2002, and in 2005 published The Utility of Force: in the Modern World.

Shashi Tharoor led the team in the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations that was responsible for the former Yugoslavia. He was then appointed Executive Assistant to Secretary-General Kofi Annan and Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information. He was India’s official candidate to succeed Annan as UN Secretary-General. Tharoor has also served as Minister of State for External Affairs in India and Minister for Human Resource Development. He is Chairman of its External Affairs Committee of the Lok Sabha, the Indian Parliament.

Joris Voorhoeve was Dutch Minister of Defence from 1994 to 1998, after serving as leader of the People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy (1986-1990). He is a member of the Netherlands Council of State, the Dutch Foreign Ministry’s Advisory council on International Affairs, and the Trilateral Commission. He lectures on international peace, justice and security at The Hague University. He has just completed a book on the events of Srebrenica.

Jenonne Walker was Special Assistant to President and Senior Director for Europe on the National Security Council Staff from 1993 to early 1995. She previously worked at the CIA, the Department of State and received the Distinguished Civil Service Award from President Ronald Reagan. Walker was US Ambassador to the Czech Republic from 1995 to 1998.

High Commissioner Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein served as political affairs officer in UNPROFOR from 1994 to 1996 and Jordan’s Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations from 1996 to 2000. Other positions have included Ambassador of Jordan to the United Nations (2000-2007; 2010-2014) and President of the UN Security Council in January 2014. He was appointed UN High Commissioner for Human Rights in September 2014.

Conference Staff

Mark Bailey is the Special Assistant to the President at The Hague Institute for Global Justice. Prior to joining The Hague Institute, Mark was a Conflict and Humanitarian Advocacy Officer at Save the Children UK, where he carried out policy research on humanitarian crises, covering cases such as Côte d’Ivoire, Pakistan and Gaza. His career in humanitarian affairs has also included postings at UN OCHA and the European Union Delegation to the United Nations.

Tom Blanton is the director of the National Security Archive at George Washington University in Washington, DC. He first came to the Archive in 1986 as its first Director of Planning and Research. Blanton has published and co-authored books, and his articles have appeared in notable international publications such as , , The Wall Street Journal and The Globe.

Nikola Dimitrov is a Distinguished Fellow at The Hague Institute for Global Justice. He took office upon completion of his duties as Ambassador of the Republic of Macedonia to the Kingdom of the Netherlands in April 2014. Dimitrov has extensive experience of public service in foreign security policy, international dispute settlement and conflict resolution.

Michael Dobbs is director of the International Decision-Making in the Age of Genocide project. He covered the end of the war in the former Yugoslavia and the Dayton peace talks as diplomatic reporter for The Washington Post. He was a reporter in Belgrade from 1997 to 1980 and went on to cover the collapse of communism in eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. He is the author of five books, including a “ trilogy” and a biography of Madeleine Albright.

Nadia Ficara is director of Donor Travel Programs and the VIP Speakers Bureau at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC, after having served as director of Special Events since 2006. Shortly after starting at the Museum she developed the International Travel Program and has worked with the Simon- Skjodt Center to develop its Bearing Witness Programs. Ficara previously worked for the World Presidents’ Organization for ten years as its special events manager.

Cameron Hudson is director of the Simon-Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocide at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC. He was previously the Center’s policy director, overseeing initiatives on early warning and the responsibility to protect. Hudson has also served as the chief of staff to the President’s Special Envoy for Sudan (2009-2011) and as the director for African Affairs on the staff of the National Security Council at the White House (2005- 2009).

Naomi Kikoler is deputy director of the Simon-Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocide at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC. Prior to joining the Museum, she was the Director of Policy and Advocacy at the Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect in New York and an Adjunct Professor at The New School. Kikoler has also worked for Amnesty International Canada and the Office of the Prosecutor at the Rwanda War Crimes Tribunal.

Suzan Maxwell joined The Hague Institute for Global Justice as a secretary for the Communications Department and serves as main hostess during diplomatic events since October 2013. Prior to joining the Institute, she owned a communications and events specialized company, Branding Marketing and Sampling, and worked as a Marketing and Communications assistant at the ANWB HQ, the National Roadside Assistance Organization in The Hague.

Marie-Laure Poire is the Manager for Events and Communications at The Hague Institute for Global Justice. She previously spent time at The Center for Transatlantic Relations, at Women in International Security (WIIS) and also at The Alliance for Peacebuilding designing and implementing programs to educate those from the private, public, and nonprofit sectors on national and international security issues.

Kristin Scalzo is the research assistant for the International Decision-Making in the Age of Genocide project at the Simon-Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocide at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC. Previously she served as a research assistant at the National Security Archive on their Genocide Prevention Project. Scalzo has focused her research on genocide prevention and peace and conflict resolution.

Erwin Tuil is the Head of Communications at The Hague Institute for Global Justice. Prior to his posting at the Institute in 2014, Tuil was a senior advisor with PricewaterhouseCoopers Business Development in the Marketing and Communications department. As a foreign correspondent for more than 12 years, Tuil covered the process of economic, social and political transition in Central Europe, the Balkans and the Greater China region for Dutch media and a number of publications in other European countries.

Boudewijn J. van Eenennaam is Ambassador-in-Residence and Development Advisor at The Hague Institute for Global Justice. He served in the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 1973 to 2012. His posts included Director-General for Political Affairs, Ambassador to the , Puerto Rico, Guam and the Bahamas, and Permanent Representative to the United Nations.

Emily Willard is the research associate for the Genocide Prevention Project at the National Security Archive at George Washington University in Washington, DC. Previously, she worked on the Archive’s Evidence Project conducting research on Guatemala, Mexico, and El Salvador, and on the Colombia Documentation Project. In 2014 Willard earned a Professional Development Certificate in Peace and Conflict Resolution from Chulalongkorn University Rotary Peace Fellowship.

Dr. Abiodun Williams was appointed the first President of The Hague Institute for Global Justice in January 2013. He has previously served as the Senior Vice President of the Center for Conflict Management at the US Institute of Peace (USIP) in Washington, DC (2011-2012). From 2001 to 2007, Williams served as the Director of Strategic Planning in the Executive Office of the UN Secretary-General, where he was a principal advisor to Secretaries-General Ban Ki-moon and Kofi Annan. He has published three books on conflict prevention and multilateral negotiations. Conference Agenda

Sunday, June 28, 2015

Opening dinner (7:00 pm)

Monday, June 29, 2015: The Safe Area policy, 1993-1995

Morning (9:30 am – 12:30 pm) Session 1: Creating the “Safe Areas”  General Morillon’s visit to Srebrenica, March 1993.  Inside the United Nations Security Council.  Decision-making in Western capitals.  The role of the media and public opinion.  Negotiating the Srebrenica “Safe Area” agreement.  UNSC visit to Srebrenica, April 1993.  The “Joint Action Programme.” Limitations on the UN mandate. Reservations of UNPROFOR commanders.

Afternoon (2:00 pm – 5:00 pm) Session 2: Testing the “Safe Areas”  Negotiations on “Close Air Support.” The “dual key” system.  Resources available to UNPROFOR.  The Dutch decision to send peacekeepers to Srebrenica.  Gorazde and Bihac crises, April–December 1994. A dry-run for Srebrenica?  Debates about the use of air power.  NATO bombing of Serb positions, May 1995.  Bosnian Serb response. Hostage-taking. Shelling the Safe Areas.

Tuesday, June 30, 2015: The Fall of Srebrenica, July 1995

Morning (9:30 am – 12:30 pm) Session 3: The Fall of Srebrenica  The final Serb offensive on Srebrenica, July 1995.  Appeals for Close Air Support.  Inside the UN/Dutchbat chain of command.  Bosnian Serb decision-making.  Negotiating with Mladic and Milosevic.

Afternoon (2:00 pm – 5:00 pm) Session 4: Endgame-Lessons from Srebrenica  What did we know and when did we know it?  The Road to Dayton Chronology of Events PART 1 – Creating the “Safe Areas”

1992

March 3: Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina declares independence following referendum boycotted by most Serbs.

April 6-7: European Community and United States recognize Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent state.

April 18: Serbs take control of Srebrenica after shelling the town, which had a pre-war population of 37,000 (73 per cent Muslim, 25 per cent Serb).

May 9: Bosniak (Muslim) forces regain control of Srebrenica from Serbs.

1993

January 7: Bosniak forces under Naser Oric attack Serb-controlled village of Kravica. Serb sources claim that at least 40 Serb civilians are killed in attack. (Document 1-27)

January 20: William Clinton becomes 42nd President of the United States after accusing President Bush of a lack of consistency, decisiveness, and “moral leadership” on Bosnia.

February 19: President Clinton authorizes US planes to airdrop food and supplies over Srebrenica enclave. (Document 1-8)

March 9: Serb forces advance on Srebrenica, continuous shelling. Population of town has swollen to 80,000, mainly Muslim, refugees from other parts of eastern Bosnia.

March 10-13: General Philippe Morillon, detained by local inhabitants after breaking , declares refugees to be “under the protection of the UN.” UN flag is raised over Srebrenica. UNHCR organizes evacuation of nearly 3,000 women, children, and old men. (Document 1-11)

March 26: Vice President Gore urges Bosnian President Izetbegovic to sign the Vance-Owen peace plan; says US will consider lifting if Serbs refuse to sign. (Document 1-32)

April 2: Bosniak authorities in Srebrenica announce that no more evacuations will be permitted. (Document 1-35)

April 12: Serbs forces shell Srebrenica, hitting elementary school, killing at least 56 people. (Document 1-46)

April 14: US Ambassador to the UN, Madeleine Albright, proposes use of US air power to create “United Nations Protected Enclaves” in eastern Bosnia, similar to the Kurdish security zone in northern Iraq. (Document 1-43)

April 16: Acting under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, UN Security Council passes Resolution 819, calls on warring parties to treat Srebrenica as “a safe area….free from any armed attack.” (Document 1-50)

April 17: General Mladic and Bosniak General Halilovic agree on a “total ceasefire” in the Srebrenica area, and the “demilitarization” of the enclave following arrival of Canadian peacekeepers. (Document 1-52)

April 25: UNSC delegation led by Venezuelan ambassador Diego Arria visits Srebrenica. (Document 1-69)

May 6: UNSC adopts Resolution 824, declaring that Sarajevo, Tuzla, Zepa, Gorazde and Bihac should be treated as safe areas in addition to Srebrenica. (Document 1-85)

May 22: France, , Spain, United Kingdom, and the US adopt a “Joint Action Programme” supporting “safe areas” in Bosnia. International negotiator dubs the safe area concept “complete madness” and a “Muslim ploy to drag us into the conflict.” (Documents 1-95, 1-97)

May 28: UN Secretariat circulates working paper stating that 15,000 extra troops will be required to defend proposed “safe areas” against “possible aggression”. (MSC-870) UK and France criticize the paper as “slanted”. (Documents 1-104, 1-121)

June 3: UNPROFOR Commander Wahlgren criticizes “safe areas” resolution, which envisages co-deployment of UN and Bosnian government forces, stating that “one simply cannot make peace and war at the same time.” (Z-703) (Document 1-135)

June 4: UN Security Council adopts Resolution 836, extending mandate of UNPROFOR “to deter attacks against the safe areas.” Resolution calls for withdrawal of military units “other than those of Bosnian government.” (Document 1-145, Paragraph 5).

June 11: North Atlantic Council agrees that NATO shall provide air support to UNPROFOR to enforce safe area regime under “dual key” system.

June 14: UN Secretary-General tells UNSC that 34,000 extra troops required for “deterrence through strength,” but also outlines “light option” with about 7,600 troops.

PART 2 – Testing the “Safe Areas “

1994

February 5: First Markale marketplace shelling in Sarajevo, killing 68 people.

February 10: North Atlantic Council establishes 20-kilometer heavy weapons exclusion zone around Sarajevo.

February 28: US Air Force planes shoot down four Serb jets over for violating the No-Fly Zone.

March 31: Bosnian Serb army launches major offensive against Gorazde.

April 10-11: US warplanes attack Serb targets near Gorazde, including a tank and a command post. Mladic threatens to shoot down NATO aircraft. (Documents 2-5, 2-7)

April 14: Serbs detain 150 UN personnel in Sarajevo-Gorazde area.

April 16: Serbs agree to release UN hostages in return for a halt to combat air patrols over Gorazde.

April 22: UNSC passes Resolution 913 condemning attacks against Gorazde. North Atlantic Council establishes heaven weapons “exclusion zone” 20 kilometers around Gorazde, to be extended to other “safe areas” in the event of “concentration or movement of heavy weapons.” (Document 2-16)

November 26: Serbs shell Bihac, fire missiles at NATO planes, take more than 400 UN personnel hostage.

1995

January 18: Dutchbat-3 takes over from Dutchbat-2 in Srebrenica

January 19: Over 400 shells fired into Bihac area, Serbs advance 1.5 km within Srebrenica

March 4: UN says it will not tolerate Serb blockades of Srebrenica, Zepa and Gorazde. Serbs let through 30 tons of food aid for 500 Dutch peacekeepers in Srebrenica, but no medical aid.

March 8: “Directive No. 7” signed by Radovan Karadzic calls for combat operations to “create an unbearable situation of total insecurity with no hope of further survival or life” for the inhabitants of Srebrenica and Zepa.

April 24: Richard Goldstone, chief prosecutor for the ICTY, names Karadzic, Mladic and Stanisic as war crimes suspects.

May 17: Jacques Chirac becomes President of France.

May 24: General Janvier urges UN to consider withdrawing from Safe Areas, stating that the peacekeepers have become “simply scapegoats”. (Document 2-40)

May 25-26: NATO carries out air strikes against Serb ammunition dump, in response to violations of Sarajevo weapons exclusion zone. Bosnian Serbs respond by shelling safe areas and taking nearly 400 UNPROFOR personnel as hostages to deter further air strikes. (Documents 2-42, 2-45)

May 29: UN Secretary-General approves new guidelines for use of air power, stripping General Smith of authority to approve Close Air Support. States that “execution of the mandate is secondary to the security of UN personnel.” (Document 2-54)

June 3: Serbs capture Dutch peacekeeping post OP-Echo, south of Srebrenica town.

June 4: Generals Mladic and Janvier hold secret meeting in Zvornik on hostage crisis. (Document 2-63) Rumors, never confirmed, that Janvier agreed to drop threat of air strikes in return for release of hostages.

June 9: Akashi announces that UN will abide by “strictly peacekeeping principles.” UN hostages released. Privately, warns that UNPROFOR should not cross “the Mogadishu line.” (Document 2-68) Carl Bildt replaces David Owen as Europe peace negotiator.

June 16: UNSC passes Resolution 998, establishing a Rapid Reaction Force.

PART 3 – Fall of Srebrenica

July 2: Commander of Drina Corps orders attacks on Zepa and Srebrenica enclaves, “to reduce them to their urban areas” pursuant to “Directive 7” of March 8. (Document 3-20)

July 6: Serbs launch attacks against Srebrenica enclave from south, east, and north, shell UN positions. (Document 3-26) UN military observers assess full-scale-attack as “very unlikely.” (Document 3-25) Karremans makes first request for Close Air Support.

July 8: Bosnian government forces kill Dutchbat gunner, Private Van Renssen, after Dutchbat withdraws from UN observation post. (Document 3-36) Second Karremans request for Close Air Support. Carl Bildt negotiates with Pale over opening of corridor to Sarajevo. RSA capture several dozen Dutch peacekeepers.

July 9: Karadzic authorizes Bosnian Serb army to capture Srebrenica. UNPROFOR orders Dutchbat “to establish a blocking position” south of the town. If blocking position is attacked, “NATO Close Air Support will be employed.” (Document 3-30)

July 10: UN Military Observers fear possible “massacre” if Serb offensive continues; warn that UN “is losing credibility.” (Document 3-8) Dutchbat (Major Franken) orders BSA to withdraw to boundary of enclave by 6 am July 11 or face “massive air strikes.” (Documents 3-29, 3-31) At crisis meeting in , UNPF commander Janvier postpones decision on air strikes until following morning.

July 11: General Mladic enters Srebrenica at 1615 local time following two ineffective NATO air strikes at 1440. (Documents 3-43, 3-45) About 25,000 refugees flee to HQ at Potocari. (Document 3-14) UNPROFOR orders Colonel Karremans to “take all reasonable measures to protect refugees and civilians in your care.” (Document 3-53) Column of 15,000 Bosniac soldiers and fighting age men (around 4,000 carry light arms) attempt to cross Serb lines to Tuzla.

July 12: After meeting with Mladic, Karremans informs UNPROFOR that Dutchbat is in “sitting duck position” and unable to defend refugees. (Document 3-56) Serbs allow women and children to leave after separating them from men.

July 13: In conversation with President Clinton, President Chirac calls for “joint military intervention” to recapture Srebrenica and protect Zepa and Gorazde. Clinton agrees that Serbs have made “a mockery of the UN” but blames Bosniacs for failing to fight. (Document 3-76)

July 14: Serbs begin full scale attack on Zepa, which falls on July 25.

PART 4 – Endgame

July 12-16: Bosnian Serb Army executes over 7,000 captured Bosniac soldiers and refugees at several different locations.

July 13: Bosnian PM Silajdzic says refugees reporting “hundreds of dead bodies” by side of road near Srebrenica.

July 14: Carl Bildt meets Mladic and Milosevic in Belgrade, urges Mladic “to free the boys, young men who were taken to Bratunac.” (Document 4-6)

July 17: Independent reports “summary executions” of dozens of , based on July 13 Belgrade TV footage. (Documents 4-4, 4-5)

July 18: UN New York (Annan/Tharoor) asks Akashi for report on alleged “atrocities committed by the Bosnian Serbs.” (Document 4-9) On July 19, Akashi reports “4,000-8,000” “missing Srebrenica residents. (Document 4-12)

July 21: NATO foreign and defense ministers meet in London, promise to use “substantial and decisive air power” to prevent fall of Gorazde. Russian foreign minister refuses to sign.

July 25: Cable from Ambassador Galbraith reporting machine-gunning of “several thousand refugees” in Srebrenica area triggers CIA search for possible grave sites near Konjevic Polje and visit to Bosnia by Assistant Secretary for Human Rights John Shattuck. Zepa falls to RSA. (Documents 4-14, 4-19)

August 10: Madeleine Albright shows UN Security Council U-2 photographs of suspected massacre site at Konjevic Polje. (Documents 4-21, 4-23) Christian Science Monitor reporter David Rohde visits site on August 16, finds evidence of killings. (Documents 4-25, 4-26)

September 15: Bosnian Serbs agree to withdraw heavy weapons from around Sarajevo.

November 1: Bosnia peace talks begin at US Air Force base in Dayton, Ohio.

November 21: All sides in Bosnia conflict announce Dayton peace agreement, dividing Bosnia 51-49 per cent between Muslim-Croat Federation and Republika Srpska.

Key Players

Yasushi Akashi: Special Representative for the UN Secretary-General (1993-1997) Madeleine Albright: US permanent representative to the UN Security Council (1993-1997) Viktor Andreev: Head of UNPROFOR Civil Affairs (1992-1995) Kofi Annan: Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping (1993-1995) Diego Arria: Venezuelan representative to the UN Security Council (1991-1993) Les Aspin: US Secretary of Defense (1993-1994) James Baker: US Secretary of State (1989-1992) Reginald Bartholomew: US Ambassador to Italy (1993-1997) Sandy Berger: US Deputy National Security Advisor (1993-1996) Carl Bildt: European Union Special Envoy to the former Yugoslavia (1995) Urs Boegli: Head of ICRC operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina Boutros Boutros-Ghali: UN Secretary-General (1992-1996) Jeremy Brade: British Diplomat, David Owen/ICFY Representative in Sarajevo Tone Bringa: Norwegian social anthropologist and UN official in Zagreb Francis Briquemont: Belgian Lieutenant General, UNPROFOR commander in Bosnia (July 1993–January 1994) Fletcher Burton: Deputy Chief of Mission at the US Embassy in Sarajevo (1995-1996) Jacques Chirac: President of France (1995-2007) Warren Christopher: US Secretary of State (1993-1997) Vitaly Churkin: Deputy Foreign Minister of the Russian Federation, Special Representative of the President of the Russian Federation to the talks on the former Yugoslavia (1992- 1994) : Lieutenant General in the US Army, Director for Strategic Plan and Policy in the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1993-1996) Bill Clinton: President of the United States (1993-2001) Jean Cot: French General, Force Commander of UNPROFOR (June 1993-March 1994) Bertrand de La Presle: French General, Force Commander of UNPROFOR (March 1994– February 1995) Tom Donilon: US Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs and Chief of Staff to the Secretary of State (1993-1996) Muhamed Duraković: Srebrenica survivor, worked with international aid organizations during and after the fall of Srebrenica Lawrence Eagleburger: US Secretary of State (1992-1993) André Erdös: Hungarian representative to the UN Security Council (1990-1993) Robert Franken: Major and Deputy Commander of Dutchbat III (January-July 1995) Robert Frasure: US Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for European and Canadian Affairs (1994-1995) Leon Fuerth: National Security Advisor to US Vice President Al Gore (1992-2000) : US Ambassador to Croatia (1993-1998) Chinmaya Gharekhan: Special Political Advisor to the Secretary-General () Richard Goldstone: first chief prosecutor of the UN International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda (1994-1996) Al Gore: Vice President of the United States (1993-2001) Marrack Goulding: Undersecretary-General for Peacekeeping (1986-1993), Undersecretary-General for Political Affairs (1993-1997) Mate Granić: Foreign Minister of Croatia (1993-2000) Jelte Groen: Captain, Company Commander of Bravo Company, Srebrenica Roy Gutman: journalist, author of Witness to Genocide Milan Gvero: General in the David Hannay; UK permanent representative to the UN Security Council (1990-1995) Sefer Halilovic: General and Commanding Officer of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina David Harland: Head of UN Civil Affairs, Sarajevo (1993-1995), co-author of UN report on Srebrenica Vere Hayes: British General, Chief of Staff to UNPROFOR (1993) Chris Hill: Director, Office of South-Central European Affairs at the US Department of State (1994-1996) Richard Holbrooke: Assistant Secretary of State for European and Canadian Affairs (1994- 1996) Larry Hollingworth: UNHCR, Sarajevo-Srebrenica : UK Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (1989-1995) Karl (Rick) Inderfurth: US special representative for political affairs to the UN Alija Izetbegović: President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1990-1996) Henry Jacolin: French ambassador to Bosnia (1993-1995) Bernard Janvier: Lieutenant General of France, Force Commander of UNPROFOR (March 1995-January 1996) Laurens Jolles: UNHCR representative in the former Yugoslavia George Joulwan: American General, Supreme Allied Commander for Europe (October 1993–July 1997) Alain Juppé: Prime Minister of France (1995-1997) Radovan Karadzic: President of Bosnian Serb Republic (1992-1996) Thom Karremans: Colonel, Commander of Dutchbat III (January–July 1995) Obrad Kesic: representative of Republika Srpska in Washington : Netherland prime minister (1994-2002) Judith Kumin: UNHCR representative in the former Yugoslavia Zlatko Lagumdžija: deputy prime minister, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1993-1996) Tony Lake: US National Security Advisor (1993-1996) Jacques Lanxade: French Admiral, Army chief of staff (1991-1995) Vladimir Lukic: Prime Minister of Republika Srpska John Major: Prime Minister of Great Britain (1990-1997) Kees Matthijssen: Dutch General, company commander, Dutchbat III, Srebrenica (1995) Tadeusz Mazowiecki: Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights José María Mendiluce: Head of UNHCR to the conflict in the Balkans (1991-1993) John Menzies: US Ambassador to Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996) Jean-Bernard Mérimée: Permanent Representative of France to the UN (1991-1995) Slobodan Milosevic: President of the Republic of Serbia (1989-1997) Manojlo Milovanovic: Lieutenant General and Chief of Staff of the Army of Republika Srpska Ratko Mladic: Commander of Bosnian Serb Army (1992-1996) Philippe Morillon: French Lieutenant General, UNPROFOR commander in Bosnia (September 1992–July 1993) Hasan Muratović: minister for relations with UNPROFOR, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992- 1995) Satish Nambiar: Indian Lieutenant General, Force Commander of UNPROFOR (March 1992– March 1993) Kees Nicolai: Dutch General, Chief of Staff to General Smith Hasan Nuhanovic: Dutchbat interpreter, Srebrenica survivor Terrence O’Brien: Permanent Representative of New Zealand to the UN (1980-1983, 1990- 1993) Sadako Ogata: UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (1991-2001) Naser Orić: Commander of the ARBiH 28th Division in Srebrenica David Owen: EU peace negotiator in the former Yugoslavia (1992-1995) Rudolph Perina: Chief of Mission of the US Embassy in Belgrade (1993-1996) William Perry: US Secretary of Defense (1994-1997) Colin Powell: Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff (October 1989-September 1993) David Rohde: journalist and author Endgame: The Betrayal and Fall of Srebrenica Michael Rose: British Lieutenant General, UNPROFOR commander in Bosnia (January 1994–January 1995) James Rubin: advisor to US Ambassador to the UN, Madeleine Albright Muhamed Sacirbey: Foreign Minister of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Ambassador to the UN (1992-1997) Norman Schindler: Chief, US Balkan Task Force John Shalikashvili: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Supreme Allied Commander (1993-1997) John Shattuck: Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy and Human Rights Vasily Sidorov: Deputy Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation to the UN) Haris Silajdzić: Prime Minister of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1996) Walter Slocombe: US Undersecretary of Defense for Policy (1993-2001) Leighton Smith: Admiral in the US Navy, Commander of NATO forces, Southern Europe (1994-1996) Rupert Smith: British General, UNPROFOR commander in Bosnia (1995), Assistant Chief of Defense Operations (1992-1994) Thorvald Stoltenberg: Special Representative of the Secretary-General (May-December 1993), UN Representative to the International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia (1992- 1995) Gojko Šušak: Croatian defense minister (1992-1998) Strobe Talbott: US Deputy Secretary of State (1994-2001) Peter Tarnoff: US Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs (1993-1997) Shashi Tharoor: senior advisor to Kofi Annan, UN Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations Cedric Thornberry: Director of UNPROFOR Civil Affairs (1992-1994), Deputy Chief of Mission of UNPROFOR and senior negotiator : General, Bosnian Serb military commander Piers Tucker: British Major, aide to General Philippe Morillon Franjo Tudjman: President of Croatia (1991-1999) : Dutch Foreign Minister (1994-1998) Cyrus Vance: former US Secretary of State (1977-1980), Special Envoy of the UN Secretary- General for Croatia, and UN Special Envoy to Bosnia Alexander Vershbow: Senior Director for Europe, US National Security Council (1994- 1997) Yoris Voorhoeve: Netherlands defense minister (1994-1998) Yuli Vorontsov: Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation to the UN (1991- 1994) Lars-Eric Wahlgren: Lieutenant General, Force Commander of UNPROFOR (March–June 1993) Jenonne Walker: Europe director, National Security Council (1993-1995) Zeid Ra’ad al-Hussein: political officer, UNPF 1994-1996