DOCSLIB.ORG

“If My Daughter Runs Away, I Will Drink Poison” (In)Dividual Honour and the Gendered Nature of Child Marriage in Southern Rajasthan, India

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
“If My Daughter Runs Away, I Will Drink Poison” (In)Dividual Honour and the Gendered Nature of Child Marriage in Southern Rajasthan, India “If my daughter runs away, I will drink poison” (In)dividual honour and the gendered nature of child marriage in southern Rajasthan, India Jelena Johanna Kärki Faculty of Social Sciences Social and Cultural Anthropology Master’s Thesis August 2013 Tiedekunta/Osasto – Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos – Institution – Department Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Sociology Tekijä – Författare – Author Jelena Johanna Kärki Työn nimi – Arbetets titel – Title “If my daughter runs away, I will drink poison” – (In)dividual honour and the gendered nature of child marriage in southern Rajasthan, India Oppiaine – Läroämne – Subject Social and Cultural Anthropology Työn laji – Arbetets art – Level Aika – Datum – Month and year Sivumäärä – Sidoantal – Number of pages Master’s Thesis August 2013 94 Tiivistelmä – Referat – Abstract Child marriage is a practice that exists in all the states of India despite efforts by the government and non-governmental organisations to discourage and outlaw it. This thesis is a study about cultural meanings of Hindu child marriage in India’s southern Rajasthani block of Bijoliyā. The fieldwork was done in 2012 in 28 villages of Bijoliyā Block during a period of three months. The data consists of semi- structured interviews, informal discussions and observations. Primarily, this thesis is a holistic analysis about the local perceptions and practices relating to child marriage with the aim to make the custom intelligible. My thesis examines the constitution of child marriage in an intersection of relationships pertaining to caste, kinship, gender, economy, politics and religion. The purpose is not only to explain how child marriage is multiply constituted but also to show how the intersecting relationships themselves are locally constructed, naturalised and differentiated. Theoretically, this is a study about personhood and relatedness in northwest India. Personhood is examined through the indigenous concepts of ’honour’, ’shame’ and ’merit’ and analysed in the framework of child marriage. Carsten’s theory of relatedness, Marriott and Inden’s concept of the inherently moral dividual person as well as the notion, advocated by Busby and Daniel, of permeable or malleable persons, among others, guide my analysis of the informants’ constant preoccupations with honour and shame that are connected to female behaviour. The idea of an active, meaning-producing subject fashioned by discourse runs through this thesis. Mines’s theory of civic, contextualised individuality is applied in an effort to examine the interaction between private individuality and the interests of the social group. The concept of ’merit’ is analysed in the context of mass child weddings. It is shown how marrying off premenarcheal girls is a way to transform economic resources into spiritual assets, and thus, to enhance one’s civic individuality both in this life and the next. In this study, it is suggested that North Indian persons are malleable (in)dividuals. They are individuals in the world, and as such, their attributes and behaviour are always judged and valued socially. As (in)dividuals, they are agents of their own destinies entangled in the webs of social relationships. It is argued that child marriage is one of the means to regulate transactions between inherently moral malleable persons. Child marriage upholds both individual and group honour and is in concordance with the principles advocated by the political Hindu nationalist organisation Rāṣṭrīya Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS) that has a strong hold in theBijoliyā Block. Avainsanat – Nyckelord – Keywords Honour, India, Intersectionality, Kinship, Marriage, Personhood, Relatedness Säilytyspaikka – Förvaringställe – Where deposited Muita tietoja – Övriga uppgifter – Additional information 1 The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) system is used in this thesis for the transliteration of Hindi and Mewari languages. There are some deviations from the IAST standard in the romanisation of nasal vowels and in the case of nuqtās, which appear mostly in Persian loanwords. Proper names of people, bigger cities and states appear in their usual English forms. 2 CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE | INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 4 1.1 LEGAL PERSPECTIVES ON CHILD MARRIAGE ........................................................................................................ 6 1.2 ERADICATION OF THE ”SOCIAL EVIL” ................................................................................................................ 9 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 11 CHAPTER TWO | METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES .............................................................................12 2.1 STUDYING CHILD MARRIAGE – ETHICAL AND PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................. 12 2.2 METHODS AND MATERIALS .......................................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER THREE | THEORETICAL APPROACHES AND CONCEPTS ..........................................................18 3.1 KINSHIP AS RELATEDNESS ............................................................................................................................ 18 3.2 FLUID PERSONHOOD................................................................................................................................... 20 3.3 POWER, INEQUALITY AND AGENCY ................................................................................................................ 26 CHAPTER FOUR | THE FIELD .................................................................................................................28 CHAPTER FIVE | GENDERED CONCEPTIONS OF HONOUR .....................................................................34 5.1 ARRANGED MARRIAGE ................................................................................................................................ 35 Monological voices – the authority of the elders ............................................................................ 36 Considering caste and kinship ......................................................................................................... 38 5.2 VEILED WOMEN AND GROUP HONOUR ........................................................................................................... 40 5.3 ”ARRANGED” DIVORCE – NOTIONS OF NATA PRATHA ........................................................................................ 44 CHAPTER SIX | THREATS TO HONOUR ..................................................................................................50 6.1 WHEN INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES MIX ......................................................................................................... 51 6.2 LOCALITY-BASED HONOUR ........................................................................................................................... 58 6.3 CHILD MARRIAGE IN AN INTERSECTION OF COMPETING HIERARCHIES .................................................................... 62 CHAPTER SEVEN | TRANSACTING (IN)DIVIDUALS .................................................................................67 7.1 ’MARRIAGE SQUEEZE(S)’ AND THE COMEBACK OF BRIDE PRICE ............................................................................ 68 7.2 DHARMIK GIFTS, PROFANE TRANSACTIONS ...................................................................................................... 71 7.3 MASS WEDDINGS OF CHILDREN .................................................................................................................... 74 7.4 PREPUBESCENT MARRIAGE AND THE ACCUMULATION OF PUNYA ......................................................................... 76 CHAPTER EIGHT | CONCLUSIONS .........................................................................................................81 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................... 87 ELECTRONIC SOURCES ...................................................................................................................................... 93 3 chapter one | INTRODUCTION Lakṣmi, 16, and her husband Rakesh are the first Indians who legally got their child marriage annulled. The couple had been made to tie the knot in their infancy. Lakṣmi only came to find out about the marriage when her in-laws demanded her to move in with them. Her brother, Hanuman, told her that she had been married off in 1996 with the consent of her family’s elders. According to the gaunā tradition of Rajasthan, girls are married off in their childhood, but conjugal marriage life is not consummated before they reach their teens. This is when they are sent to live with their in-laws. Lakṣmi sought help from a non-governmental organisation, and by virtue of the Child Marriage Restraint Act 2006, she was granted divorce from her husband who agreed to revoke the marriage. (The Times of India, 23rd April 2012; The Times of India, 25th April 2012; Helsingin Sanomat, 26th April 2012) Like Lakṣmi and Rakesh, many girls and boys around the world are married off before the minimum legal age for marriage. Marrying off girls is most common in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF 2001, 2). According to a UNICEF
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Indian History
    Indian History Ancient History 1.Which of the following ancient Indian Kings had appointed Dhamma Mahamattas? [A] Asoka [B] Chandragupta Maurya [C] Kanishka [D] Chandragupta-II Correct Answer: A [Asoka] ​ Notes: Dhamma Mahamattas were special officers appointed by Ashoka to spread the message of Dhamma or his Dharma. The Dhamma Mahamattas were required to look after the welfare of the people of different religions and to enforce the rules regarding the sanctity of animal life. 2.Who was the first Saka king in India? [A] Moga [B] Rudradaman [C] Azes [D] Ghatotkacha Correct Answer: A [ Moga ] ​ Notes: An Indo-Scythian king, Moga (or Maues) was the first Saka king in India who established Saka power in Gandhara and extended supremacy over north-western India. 3.Who was ‘Kanthaka’ in the context of Gautam Buddha? [A] Charioteer [B] Body-guard [C] Cousin [D] Horse Correct Answer: D [ Horse ] ​ Notes: Kanthaka was the royal horse of Gautama Buddha. 4.What symbol represents birth of Gautama Buddha? [A] Bodh tree [B] Lotus [C] Horse [D] Wheel Correct Answer: B [ Lotus ] ​ Notes: Lotus and bull resembles the symbol of birth of Gautama Buddha. 5.What symbol represents nirvana of Gautama Buddha? [A] Lotus [B] Wheel [C] Horse [D] Bodhi Tree Correct Answer: D [ Bodhi Tree ] ​ Notes: Bodhi Tree is the symbol of nirvana of Gautama Buddha. On the other hand, Stupa represents the symbol of death of Gautama Buddha. Further, The symbol ‘Horse’ signifies the renunciation of Buddha’s life. 6.During whose reign was the Fourth Buddhist Council held? [A] Ashoka [B] Kalasoka [C] Ajatsatru [D] Kanishka Correct Answer: D [ Kanishka ] ​ Notes: The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kundalvana, Kashmir in 72 AD during the reign of Kushan king Kanishka.
    [Show full text]
  • Feminism, Gender, Woman
    Feminism, Gender, Woman... A List of Articles, Books, Chapters in western languages available at the École Française d'Extrême-Orient Library in Chiang Mai, 131 Charoen Prathet Road Opposite The Alliance Française or at Louis Gabaude's home in Sansai Louis GABAUDE Chiang Mai - Sansai July 2016 Feminism, Gender, Woman... A List of Articles, Books, Chapters in western languages available at the École Française d'Extrême-Orient Library in Chiang Mai, 131 Charoen Prathet Road - Opposite The Alliance Française or at Louis Gabaude's home in Sansai (Contact: <[email protected]> More than 2000 References Note 1: This list includes records entered up to 2007 [Before my retirement from the EFEO]. For later acquisitions, consult the EFEO librarian, Dr. Rosakhon, at the library, or Louis Gabaude <[email protected]> Note 2: Records with "Inv. LGTAP" are located in Louis Gabaude's home in Sansai Note 3: Records with "Inv. LG + a number higher than 35000" are located in Louis Gabaude's home in Sansai L.G. ---. "Women and Buddhism in Thailand: A changing identity for religious women". 21 p. - NOTE: Manuscrit. - CALL Nr.: TAP. W872W: Inv. LGTAP 04544. [4544] A. A. "Enceintes dès le seuil de l'adolescence". >>> Croix (La) - L'Evénement (2001/02/21), p. 13. - CALL Nr.: TAP. A???E: Inv. LGTAP ???. [90000] Abbott, Susan M. "[Review of] Simmer-Brown, Judith. Dakini's Warm Breath: The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambhala Publication, 2001. xxv, 404 p.". >>> Pacific World (The) [Third Series], 04 (2002), p. 281-287. - CALL Nr.: PER. E. P001[3]-04: Inv. LGPER. E.
    [Show full text]
  • Women in Hindu Dharma- a Tribute
    Women in Hindu Dharma- a Tribute Respected Ladies and Gentlemen1, Namaste! Women and the Divine Word:- Let me start my talk with a recitation from the Vedas2, the ‘Divinely Exhaled’ texts of Hindu Dharma – Profound thought was the pillow of her couch, Vision was the unguent for her eyes. Her wealth was the earth and Heaven, When Surya (the sun-like resplendent bride) went to meet her husband.3 Her mind was the bridal chariot, And sky was the canopy of that chariot. Orbs of light were the two steers that pulled the chariot, When Surya proceeded to her husband’s home!4 The close connection of women with divine revelation in Hinduism may be judged from the fact that of the 407 Sages associated with the revelation of Rigveda, twenty-one5 are women. Many of these mantras are quite significant for instance the hymn on the glorification of the Divine Speech.6 The very invocatory mantra7 of the Atharvaveda8 addresses divinity as a ‘Devi’ – the Goddess, who while present in waters, fulfills all our desires and hopes. In the Atharvaveda, the entire 14th book dealing with marriage, domestic issues etc., is attributed to a woman. Portions9 of other 19 books are also attributed to women sages10. 1 It is a Hindu tradition to address women before men in a group, out of reverence for the former. For instance, Hindu wedding invitations are normally addressed ‘To Mrs. and Mr. Smith’ and so on and not as ‘To Mr. And Mrs. Smith’ or as ‘ To Mr. and Mrs. John Smith’ or even as ‘To Mrs.
    [Show full text]
  • The Earliest Textual Attestation of ' Dharmaśāstra '
    2020 November 1 The earliest textual attestation of ‘d harmaśāstra ’ and more: An analysis of chronology in ‘ A Dharma Reader ’ मेघ काणसुरम ् (Megh Kalyanasundaram) | [email protected] Abstract Which is the earliest extant textual attestation of the word ‘dharmaśāstra’ ? Is the birth of the Dharmaśāstra genre causally linked, and incontrovertibly indebted, to the Buddha and emperor Aśoka? Patrick Olivelle’s 2016 book ‘ A Dharma Reader - Classical Indian Law ’ 1 contains statements that appear to be pointed answers to the above questions, a pointedness that I find pregnant with serious revisionist implications of profound consequence not just to the textual history of the term ‘dharmaśāstra’ and the origins of the Dharmaśāstra genre but also to the history of the idea of Dharma itself and perhaps to some people of those traditions in which Dharma is seen as Sanātana. In this paper, I foreground aforementioned statements of Olivelle (who has been hailed by Dominik Wujastyk as the world’s leading authority on the history of Indian dharma), delineate some of their revisionist implications and present a critical analysis of some of his reasoning and conclusions thereof. In doing so, a case is made for the need to pay attention to attempts at altering chronology, particularly those that enable tendentious attributions through imagined cause-and-effect hypotheses accompanied by sweeping consequences. Keywords : Dharma , dharmaśāstra , dharmasūtra, Gautama, Chronology, Semantic history 1 https://www.amazon.in/Dharma-Reader-Classical-Historical-Sourcebooks/dp/0231179561 . Accessed on Nov 10 2020. The book retails at around INR 5,000/- in India. © Megh Kalyanasundaram 2020 November 2 I Background In An analysis of some aspects of 'Chronology' in 'The Early Upaniṣads' and some observations of consequence to the Global History of Philosophy before c.
    [Show full text]
  • Aghoreshwar Bhagawan Ram and the Aghor Tradition
    Syracuse University SURFACE Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Anthropology - Dissertations Affairs 12-2011 Aghoreshwar Bhagawan Ram and the Aghor Tradition Jishnu Shankar Syracuse University Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/ant_etd Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Shankar, Jishnu, "Aghoreshwar Bhagawan Ram and the Aghor Tradition" (2011). Anthropology - Dissertations. 93. https://surface.syr.edu/ant_etd/93 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Anthropology - Dissertations by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abstract Aghoreshwar Mahaprabhu Baba Bhagawan Ram Ji, a well-established saint of the holy city of Varanasi in north India, initiated many changes into the erstwhile Aghor tradition of ascetics in India. This tradition is regarded as an ancient system of spiritual or mystical knowledge by its practitioners and at least some of the practices followed in this tradition can certainly be traced back at least to the time of the Buddha. Over the course of the centuries practitioners of this tradition have interacted with groups of other mystical traditions, exchanging ideas and practices so that both parties in the exchange appear to have been influenced by the other. Naturally, such an interaction between groups can lead to difficulty in determining a clear course of development of the tradition. In this dissertation I bring together micro-history, hagiography, folklore, religious and comparative studies together in an attempt to understand how this modern day religious-spiritual tradition has been shaped by the past and the role religion has to play in modern life, if only with reference to a single case study.
    [Show full text]
  • Revista Inclusiones Issn 0719-4706 Volumen 7 – Número Especial – Octubre/Diciembre 2020
    CUERPO DIRECTIVO Mg. Amelia Herrera Lavanchy Universidad de La Serena, Chile Director Dr. Juan Guillermo Mansilla Sepúlveda Mg. Cecilia Jofré Muñoz Universidad Católica de Temuco, Chile Universidad San Sebastián, Chile Editor Mg. Mario Lagomarsino Montoya OBU - CHILE Universidad Adventista de Chile, Chile Editor Científico Dr. Claudio Llanos Reyes Dr. Luiz Alberto David Araujo Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile Pontificia Universidade Católica de Sao Paulo, Brasil Dr. Werner Mackenbach Editor Europa del Este Universidad de Potsdam, Alemania Dr. Aleksandar Ivanov Katrandzhiev Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica Universidad Suroeste "Neofit Rilski", Bulgaria Mg. Rocío del Pilar Martínez Marín Cuerpo Asistente Universidad de Santander, Colombia Traductora: Inglés Ph. D. Natalia Milanesio Lic. Pauline Corthorn Escudero Universidad de Houston, Estados Unidos Editorial Cuadernos de Sofía, Chile Dra. Patricia Virginia Moggia Münchmeyer Portada Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile Lic. Graciela Pantigoso de Los Santos Editorial Cuadernos de Sofía, Chile Ph. D. Maritza Montero Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela COMITÉ EDITORIAL Dra. Eleonora Pencheva Dra. Carolina Aroca Toloza Universidad Suroeste Neofit Rilski, Bulgaria Universidad de Chile, Chile Dra. Rosa María Regueiro Ferreira Dr. Jaime Bassa Mercado Universidad de La Coruña, España Universidad de Valparaíso, Chile Mg. David Ruete Zúñiga Dra. Heloísa Bellotto Universidad Nacional Andrés Bello, Chile Universidad de Sao Paulo, Brasil Dr. Andrés Saavedra Barahona Dra. Nidia Burgos Universidad San Clemente de Ojrid de Sofía, Bulgaria Universidad Nacional del Sur, Argentina Dr. Efraín Sánchez Cabra Mg. María Eugenia Campos Academia Colombiana de Historia, Colombia Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México Dra. Mirka Seitz Dr. Francisco José Francisco Carrera Universidad del Salvador, Argentina Universidad de Valladolid, España Ph.
    [Show full text]
  • Indian History Questions
    Indian History Questions 1. Who was elected as the permanent President of the Muslim League in 1908 ? (A) Nawab Salimullah (B) Syed Ahmad Khan (C) Aga Khan (D) Syed Amir Ali Ans : (C) 2. According to Sarojini Naidu who was ‘‘the ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity’’ ? (A) Syed Ahmad Khan (B) Hasrat Mohani (C) Maulana Azad (D) Mohammad Ali Jinnah Ans : (C) 3. Which of the following statements are not true of the Home Rule Movement ? I. The demand was for selfgovernment and not complete independence. II. The movement included promoting political education to build a base for selfgovernment III. It did not achieve much impact or popularity. IV. The movement was the part of the Congress activity. (A) I and II (B) II and III (C) III and IV (D) IV and I Ans : (C) 4. The two Home Leagues were founded in 1916. Their founders were— I. Annie Besant II. B. G. Tilak III. Motilal Nehru IV. Sardar Patel (A) I and II (B) II and III (C) III and IV (D) IV and I Ans : (A) 5. The partition of Bengal made in 1905— (A) Was annulled as a result of the Morley-Minto Reforms in 1919 (B) Was withdrawn in 1908 because of the immense protests it evoked (C) Was annulled by the king’s proclamation at the Delhi Durbar in 1911 (D) Continued till India got independence Ans : (C) 6. The basic defect of the Lucknow Pact was— (A) It was an agreement purely based on the bond of common hatred of the foreign rule (B) It was based on the wrong notion that Hindus and Muslims formed separate communities (C) It was a marriage of convenience without a pontiff (D) It was a pact between powerless potentates Ans : (B) 7.
    [Show full text]
  • Gautama One of the Saptarishis, Gautama Maharishi Was an Ancient Rigvedic Sage, Who Also Finds Mention in Buddhism and Jainism
    Newsletter Archives www.dollsofindia.com Ancient Rishis of India - Part 1 Copyright © 2019, DollsofIndia India is a highly spiritual land, which houses several Rishis, mendicants and Godmen. Hindu mythology prominently features Rishis, their wives and their families in several stories. In fact, many of these Rishis actually played the role of catalysts, helping Devas, Asuras, divine beings and earthlings release their karma, thus bringing good, joy and peace back into their lives. Even today, we can find rishis meditating in the secret crevices of the Himalayas and some hidden caves of the Gangotri and Yamunotri. These sages have chosen to move away from the maddening crowd of civilization and moved to those remote areas in order to attain ultimate peace, mukti and, finally, moksha or liberation, during this lifetime. In this month's article, we bring you a feature on some of the most ancient Rishis of India. While most of them are males, there are a few female yoginis and sages who are equally, if not more powerful. There are several hundreds of rishis that we can talk about. In this two-part series, we bring you the stories of some of the most important and most ancient sages of this land. Agastya Agastya was a much-revered Vedic sage, who was famous for his reclusive nature. He was a great scholar and was knowledgeable in multiple languages. He and his wife, Lopamudra, are the celebrated authors of hymns in the Rigveda and other Vedic literature. He is also venerated in Puranic literature of Shaktism and Vaishnavism. Agastya prominently features in several ancient Hindu scriptures and tales, such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction to Vedic Knowledge
    Introduction to Vedic Knowledge Parama Karuna Devi published by Jagannatha Vallabha Vedic Research Center Copyright © 2012 Parama Karuna Devi All rights reserved. Title ID: 4165735 ISBN-13: 978-1482500363 ISBN-10: 148250036 : Jagannatha Vallabha Vedic Research Center +91 94373 00906 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.jagannathavallabha.com http://www.facebook.com/pages/Parama-Karuna-Devi/513845615303209 http://www.facebook.com/JagannathaVallabhaVedicResearchCenter © 2011 PAVAN PAVAN House Siddha Mahavira patana, Puri 752002 Orissa Introduction to Vedic Knowledge TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Perspectives of study The perception of Vedic culture in western history Study of vedic scriptures in Indian history 2. The Vedic texts When, how and by whom the Vedas were written The four original Vedas - Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas Upanishads 3. The fifth Veda: the epic poems Mahabharata and Bhagavad gita Ramayana and Yoga Vasistha Puranas 4. The secondary Vedas Vedangas and Upavedas Vedanta sutra Agamas and Tantra Conclusion 3 Parama Karuna Devi 4 Introduction to Vedic Knowledge The perception of Vedic culture in western history This publication originates from the need to present in a simple, clear, objective and exhaustive way, the basic information about the original Vedic knowledge, that in the course of the centuries has often been confused by colonialist propaganda, through the writings of indologists belonging to the euro-centric Christian academic system (that were bent on refuting and demolishing the vedic scriptures rather than presenting them in a positive way) and through the cultural superimposition suffered by sincere students who only had access to very indirect material, already carefully chosen and filtered by professors or commentators that were afflicted by negative prejudice.
    [Show full text]
  • A Reply to Michael Witzel's 'Ein Fremdling Im Rgveda'
    A Reply to Michael Witzel’s ‘Ein Fremdling im Rgveda’1 (Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 31, No.1-2: pp.107-185, 2003) by Vishal Agarwal 11 August 2003 ~*~ Background: Recently, N. Kazanas published a sixty page article titled ‘Indigenous Indo- Aryans and the Rigveda’ in The Journal of Indo-European Studies (JIES), vol. 30, Numbers 3&4 (2002), pages 275-334. The article argues that the speakers of Indo- Aryan (IA) languages did not enter the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC, as the conventional Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) and its euphemistic versions hold. Kazanas further argued that the Rgveda, the oldest IA and Indian text, was composed mainly in the 4th millennium BC, and therefore, these peoples may have arrived into the Indian subcontinent around or before 4500 BC, not later. The article provoked nine comments, of which eight2 were quite short and were published in the same issue of the journal. The ninth comment, by Professor M. Witzel of the Harvard University, was published in the next issue (JIES vol. 31, No. 1-2 (2003), pages 107-185. Witzel’s comment is thus much longer than Kazanas’ article itself. In the latter issue of JIES, Kazanas wrote a 54 page ‘Final Reply’ (JIES, vol. 31, No.1-2: pp. 187-240, 2003) to all his nine reviewers. He has responded to most of Witzel’s important academic objections. My own critique here is meant to supplement Kazanas’ response to Witzel. I will not repeat what Kazanas has already included in his final reply. In my critique below, the page numbers within (...) refer to those in Witzel ‘comment’ as published in the journal, unless a different bibliographic reference is given by me.
    [Show full text]
  • A Note on Śramaṇa in Vedic Texts Brett Shults Introduction . 6
    A Note on Śramaṇa in Vedic Texts Brett Shults The recent publication of a book by Christopher Beckwith provides an opportunity to reconsider the use and meaning of the term śramaṇa in vedic texts. In this note some of Beckwith’s claims will be examined and refuted. This note will also expound on a model for understanding the verb √śram and its derivatives, placing the term śramaṇa in its semantic context. Such a model may contribute to the explanation of certain facts better than alternative theories. Introduction Christopher Beckwith’s Greek Buddha: Pyrrho’s Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia (2015) is a thought-provoking work. One of its provocative features is the manner in which Beckwith insists on a specific meaning of the term śramaṇa in antiquity and ancient sources. That understanding can be summarized as follows: “This word śramaṇa always and only meant ‘Buddhist practitioner’ in Antiquity” (129 n. 69). Beckwith’s claim about the term śramaṇa is central to his revisionist account of the development of religious traditions in India, and it is a claim that is restated throughout Greek Buddha. In one passage the claim is expressed this way: “The word Śramaṇa was the unambiguous term for ‘Buddhists’, and was still used exclusively in that sense in the Middle Ages” (54 n. 123). Another version of the claim appears in this form (69): . 6(5): 113–127. ©6 Brett Shults A NOTE ON ŚRAMAṇA IN VEDIC TEXTS Individuals who practiced Buddhism, including Buddha and his followers, were called Śramaṇas, a term that specifically and exclusively meant ‘Buddhist practitioners’.
    [Show full text]
  • Indian Culture & Heritage
    1 Chapter-1 Culture and Heritage: The Concept We all know that when we hear or say 'culture', we think of the food habits, life style, dress, tradition, customs, language, beliefs and sanskaras. Have you ever thought that human being has made an astonishing progress in various spheres of life whether it is language culture, art or architecture or religion. Have you ever wondered as to how it happened? Definitely, because we did not have to make a fresh start every time but we could go forward and reconstruct on achievements accomplished by our ancestors. All the aspects of life like language, literature, art, architecture, painting, music, customs traditions, laws have come to us as heritage from our ancestors. Then, you add something new to it and make it rich for the coming generations. It is a constant and never ending process. Man possesses unique characteristic from the beginning known as culture. Every nation, country and region has its own culture. Culture denotes the method with which we think and act. It includes those things as well which we have received in inheritance being a member of this society. Art, music literature, craft, philosophy, religion and science are all part of culture, though it also incorporates customs, traditions, festivals, way of living and one's own concept on various aspects of life. All the achievements of a human being can be termed as culture. 1.0 Aims:- After studying this chapter you will be able to:- • Know about meaning and concept of culture. • Acquaint youself with general characteristics of culture.
    [Show full text]