Volume 6, Issue 5(1), May 2017 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Founder and President Research Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Mumbai Lima Peru
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Prof. Igor Kondrashin Vice Chancellor, Patna University The Member of The Russian Philosophical Former Director Society Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Studies, New Delhi & The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Vizianagaram Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Department of Mechanical Engineering Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education GITAM University University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Department of Computer Science Coordinator University of Pune,Pune A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering Dr.S.Kannan University of Novi Sad, Serbia Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of English Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Hyderabad Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics Dr. Bipasha Sinha University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Prof. N Kanakaratnam Kalasalingam University Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi
Dr. K. John Babu Assistant Professor Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Department of Sahitya Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
Dr.T.V.Ramana Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Department of Economics, Andhra University Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Campus, Kakinada Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
Volume 6 C O N TIssue E N 5T(1 S) May 2017 S. Pg.
No No 1. Socio-Economic and Political Upliftment of Lambada 1 Tribes:A Case Study in Khammam District, Telangana State, India Bhukya Padma
2. Role of Civil Society and Human Rights in India 21 Y. Sivaramaiah
3. Readiness of Students for Sex Education in India: A 26 Review S.Thajoddin,Shaik Masood Ahmed and Arif Khan
4. Art and Architecture of Nageswaraswamy Temple, 32 Koduvai, Tiruppur – A Study Gandhimathi. D and Arul Mary. K
5. Political Liberalism and Liberal Democracy as A Means of 46 Freedom and Development Mandefro Tilaye Betre
6. Social Mobilisation and Vedic Tradition in Kerala: A 55 Study Based on Vedadhikaranirupana of Chattampiswamikal Princy Kuriakose
7. Dairy Value Chains Analysis in Selected Areas of 78 Gambella Region, Southwestern Ethiopia Jemberu Alemu Megenas and Ketema Tilahun Gelaye
8. Impact of Demonetization on Service Sector 101 K .Chandra Reddy
9. Dyadic Relationship, Quality of Marital Life, Perceived 109 Stress in Parents of Children with Autism N.Somasekhar
10. Changes in Consumer Buying Behaviour with the Advent 119 of Organised Retailing with Reference to Krishna District S. Madhavi 11. Public-Private Partnerships in Elementary Education: 130 The ‘Teach For India’ Programme Vidya K.S
12. Demographic Profile of Gadabas of Andhra Pradesh 151 V.Jayasri
13. Prospects of Urban Informal Sector 159 R. Ramakrishna
14. A Study of Heroism and Tragedy in Thomas Hardy’s 166 Novels with Special Reference to ‘the Woodlanders’ S.J.Earnest
15. Social Graces 180 Induri Parvathi (Bindhu)
16. Right to Life and Liberty with Special Reference to 185 Custodial Deaths Kadari Swamy
17. Challenges of School Learning Environment in Public 199 Secondary Schools of Iluababor Administrative Zone in Ethiopia Tekalign Minalu Tirfe
18. The Theory of Karma: As A Viewpoint Ethics in 226 Consciousness of Buddhists Phan Ngoc Day (Ven. Thich Giac Nhan)
19. Craze for Miracles: Study of R.K.Narayan’s The Guide 242 S.R.B.Chakravarthy
20. Telugu Patrikalu- Samajika Badyatha 246 R.Venkateswarlu and M.Ramakrishna Reddy
21. India’s Demonetization Policy-Prospects and Challenges 250 Sunkara Lalitha
22. Telugu Sahityaniki Kattamanchi Kavaitrila Sahitiseva 261 G.Usharani
ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Dr. K. VICTOR BABU Impact Factor :4.527(2016) M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect. The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action. The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL UPLIFTMENT OF LAMBADA TRIBES:A CASE STUDY IN KHAMMAM DISTRICT, TELANGANA STATE, INDIA Bhukya Padma Lecturer in Political Science Govt. Degree College Chodavaram Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh State, India Abstract:
The lambada community are the most vulnerable group among the other sections of the society. Most of the tribes lost their education and turned out to be unskilled labour suiting only low profile jobs like salesmen, helpers etc. A large group of young girls and women in the thandas are deprived of education, due to prevalence of social stigmas, cultural ethos and inaccessibility to educational institutions. Due to this many of the young girls remain at homes ending their school education at the very early ages, assisting their mother in house hold activities or their fathers in agricultural work turning up as unskilled labour.
The present study is an attempt to expedite the social, economical and political state of affairs affecting the livelihood of Lambada community in the Khammam district. The span for the study has been limited to one of the remotest districts of Telangana state. Till recent times, research was mostly confined to culture, trade and traditional issues concerned to the tribes in a broad way. Attempting for the Study of tribal socio-economic and political parameters is a constructive anticipation for the upliftment of Lambada community. The study is projected to scrutinize the correlation between social, economical and political policies of the State in historical context besides the expectations of Lambada tribes in the Khamman District. Study associated with the effects of social, economical and political concerns on Lambada tribes and their outlook in correlation with
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present Government policies has become an upcoming facet of recent economical and political exploration. The study aims in making efforts to study both socio-economic and political characteristics of Lambada community along with the implementation of Government policies in the above regards. The final point is the reflection or impact of implementation of Government policies on the expectations of Lambda community in Khammam district. Thus the present work focuses on the current living circumstances of the Lambada community, along with the policies under implementation by the Government. It also discusses the failures in implementation of the policies, reasons along with the detailed suggestions for proper execution of the programmes
Introduction:
‘Change for Success – succeed though change’ should be the mantra for a genuine worker working towards to the smiles of the Lambada tribes. It is the individuals’ responsibility to bring a change in the lives of the Lambada and the success can be achieved only when the inertia and lethargy are left behind in the roadway towards their development. At the same time one can succeed only when he can bring in a change in the mindsets of the Lambada tribeseducating them the means to be followed for their upliftment.
The human race on the earth struggled hard with the environment to dwell in for his survival. To suit to the environmental conditions he covered his body with the help of leaves. He searched for food and had been eating the raw fruits and vegetables. In order to protect himself from the deadly animals, he started fighting with them, prepared weapons to ease up their task. He started using fire for cooking, for the purpose of lighting and even for frightening the animals. He slowly started preparing shelter to live within. Formation of families and groups started and existence continued with the principles framed for each.
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With his intelligence man discovered and invented new things which had improved the safety in their lives. System of exchanging goods came into existence. Cultivation, animal breeding, poultries emerged. Development continued with much more brain storming, people started building houses for a safe living; started using animals for their transport; started wearing better clothes; food habits changed; started using herbs as a medicine – well organised societies came into lime light.
The present study makes a humble attempt to bring up lights in the lives of Lambada tribes by examining the historical and ecological insight of the subject. The study is focused on the social, economic and political conditions of tribes persisting in Khammam district and to examine the various measures undertaken by the Government for the upliftment of Lambadatribes.
It is against the background of above facts; it is felt that a thorough study is necessary and the Khammam district has been identified for the study because it is a backward region in Telangana andfirst hand information on Lambadasis available in this Region. Hence, a research study onSOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL UPLIFTMENT OF LAMBADA TRIBES - A Case Study in Khammam District,has been initiated.
Need for study:
The present study is to make a humble attempt to bring up lights in the lives of Lambadatribes by examining the historical and ecological insight of the subject. The study is focussed on the social, economic and political conditions of tribes persisting in Khammam district and to examine the various measures undertaken by the Government for the upliftment of Lambadatribes.
Objectives of the thesis are as follows:
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1. To study the geographical profile of the Khammam district along with distribution and lifestyle of Lambada Tribes of this district.
2. To chalk out the issues concerning the social, economical and political practices of Lambadatribes.
3. To scan and appraise the Government state policies.
4. To scrutinize the interest of Lambada tribes towards the state policies.
To draw in the conclusions by carefully tabulating the requirements and availabilities in the enhancement of better livelihood of the Lambadatribes.
SCOPE OF STUDY
The Khammam district has four revenue divisions viz. Khammam, Bhadrachalam, palvoncha and Kothagudem. The study under this thesis is limited to 101 thandas in the 11 mandals of Khammam district.
Fig: Revenue divisions of Khammam district
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study was undertaken by means of organized and quick evaluation techniques, with the goal of obtaining reality based quantitative and qualitative data from field interpretations and discussions with the Lambada families. The prevailing state policies for the upliftment of Lambadatribes are studied in detail. The impact of the state policies and the extent to which the state policies reached the tribes has been examined.
Sample Selection:
The lambadathandas of the Khammam district were selected as the area of study. Based on the inferences from the theoretical studies carried out by various research scholars, the areas which were over looked and those which are of prime importance for the point of study were selected. This process has a benefit over the conservative system of opting the representative sample, that it helps categorize vital area for potential interferences and development.
A sample of 5 to 6 respondents in the age group of 14 to 35 years were selected randomly and interviewed from each thanda of the khammam district where Lambadatribes are predominantly inhibited. The sample is limited in order to cover 101 thandasin 11 mandals of Khammam districtto the maximum possible extent with a total of 550 nos respondents selected randomly for the purpose of research study.
Overall Design:
The study was undertaken in three main stages, namely collection of secondary data, collection of primary data through field investigations and analysis.
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Primary Data:
Primary data is collected from contemporary administrative records, proceedings, reports, Brandies reports on forests and records pertaining to departments of health, revenue, Judiciary.During the course of study in fieldwork few personal interviews were conducted to collect first hand information to have in-depth analysis of the topic. Thus Primary sources were mainly collected from state Archives of Telangana and by visiting tribal 101 thandas in 11mandals of Khammam district as a part of field work with detailed set of questionnaires to the randomly selected respondents, along with open ended questions related to cause of socio economic and political upliftment of Lambada tribal tribes and impact of social changes to their traditional livelihood activities..
Secondary data:
Secondary sources such as Books, Journal and newspaper reports and articles published in this regard are used in our study that consists of published books, articles, journals and un-published works. These works helped us in formulating the conceptual and theoretical framework that is employed in the process of our study.
Based on the analysis and interpretation of the data thus collected, the report was prepared to address the key questions in the Terms of Reference.
Multi method approach was adapted by the evaluators to get a complete picture and address the key objectives and sub-questions of the evaluation.
Methodology and Tools:
The available secondary data is scrutinized for determining the methods of investigation and proper tools were developed for field investigations. These tools, in the form of questionnaires for interviews
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and Focus Group Discussions were used for field assessment. The methodology was pilot-tested and the tools were field tested in various Lambadathandas.
Lambada Tribes – the tribes under study:
The Lambada tribe is one of the oldest tribes, also known as Banjara, Boipari, Sugali or Sukali, Vanjari, Brinjari, Labani, Labana, Lambani, etc. in different parts of India. The Banjara tribe in Deccan claims to be the descendents of two brothers Mota and Mola, who tended the cattle of Lord Krishna. However, other historians disagree to this claim and believe that they are migrants from Persia or from European countries or Romany gypsies. Other source says that they hail from the Middle East, North Africa and Russia.
The name Banjara was given to them during the period of colonial rulers. They were also known as ghor (name of the language). However, the Lambada tribe can be seen mostly in the districts of mahabubnagar, Warangal, Khammam, Adilabad, Ananthapur, Cuddappah, Krishna, and these areas are called as Telangana. As per census, the lambada tribe consists of 6.3millions in the state of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
The Lambada tribe in Telangana region lives in “Thandas” (tribal hamlet) one or two kilometres away from the main village and nearer to the forest working together in groups (10-15 families). All disputes, conflicts tried before the Naik and elders, whose judgment is final on all matters. The eldest son of Naik succeeds the father as headman.
The customs of marriage, the religious life, beliefs, worship, festivals and their traditions are different from other civil society. The change and continuity among lambada tribe is still unable to bring them out of their social evils and folklore due to various myths. some of them can be quoted as celebration of Teej(fertility) festival for nine
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days to goddess Maremma, SheetlaBhavani festival (protective cattle), ToljaBhavani celebration, omen &ceremonies and community festivals, etc for which every individual irrespective of his financial status shall contribute and obey the village headman.
LAMBADA TRIBES
The Lambada children rarely go to schools. Most of the time they are forced to work. Forcefully they are carried away by their parents to the work places to support them. The smooth hand instead of holding a pen does a labour intensive job. They earn money along with their parents and this extra money becomes an extra source of income to their family. Low income of the family bounds them to the work keeping the school away. Children turn up to the school rarely as their requirement at work spot is of more time. This creates a break in the continuity of their education in turn spoiling their performance in examinations. It gets very difficult for them to move to the next higher class and remain in the same class for years together. They lose interest and this creates more dropout rate.
Lack of education entails the tribes to remain in the vicinity of ignorance. The concern towards the health and hygiene are of least priority leading to ill health. Awareness towards the communication facilities is low followed by lack of social and technical knowledge. Lack of proper nourishment leads to nutritional deficiency among the tribal tribes, reducing their immunity to fight against the deadly diseases and also reduces their potentiality towards productivity.
Present situation of Lambadas
Basically Lambada tribe led peripheral lives in thandas in Telangana. Some of them still follow a nomadic lifestyle. Primarily their life has always been harsh for them. Their culture is different from the mainstream cultures. Lambada rituals have nothing in common with the rituals of the plain people. Traditionally, Lambadas
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or Banjaras have moved in groups. They depended on forest produce and odd jobs for living their day-to-day life. Work was equally shared between husband and wife. Especially a strong family bond and a strong thanda bond were the hallmarks of Lambada life.
Dwellings
In most of the dwellings, the houses are arranged in rows facing each other with a street in between the two rows. The shapes of the dwellings are oblong or round with a tiny single entrance made with wattle or bamboos, without windows, made up of mud walls and thatched roofs. The most common and traditional type of house is called “Zupda” (hut) in their language, Lambadi. Zupda is generally divided into three portions with thatches, one portion is used as kitchen, the middle portion is used for sleeping, sitting and gossiping or to accommodate guests; and the third portion is used as store-room where they store their grain, metal boxes and other valuable materials. Entrance to the hut is very low and one has to bow one’s head to waist while entering into the hut.
Dress
The dress of male Lambada is very simple. In rural areas it resembles with that of caste Hindus in the neighbourhood. Men wear a white cotton shirt, a dhoti and a pagdi or turban on their head. Most of the men prefer red colour turbans or at least some red strips on it. They believe that the red colour brings them good luck.
The traditional dress of a Lambadi woman is very elaborate and colourful. The dress consists of a Pheita (Skirt) of coarse red cotton cloth embroidered nicely on the border and hung from the waist in many folds. The Skirt is long enough to cover the leg well above ankles. Some round pieces of small mirrors are fixed all over it.
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Fig: Traditional dress of Banjara women
FESTIVALS:
The festivals of Lambadas have three types of implications i.e. productive, protective and seasonal.
Teej:
It is celebrated during the heavy monsoon season and just before the sowing and broadcasting operation is commenced. Lambadas are conscious that the proper germination of the seeds and the crop yields are dependent upon the fertility of the soil.
Fig: TEEJ FESTIVAL
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Besides this, the fertility of their maidens needs to be protected for the procreation of a healthy race. Hence along with the protection of soil, the protection of the fertility of womenfolk is also ensured by the exclusive performance of various rituals of Teej festival by their unmarried girls.
Seetla:
It is another important annual festival of Lambadas performed in the month of June. Seetla is one of the seven malignant sister- deities. On the eve of the Seetla festival all men stand before the deities and supplicate with folded hands and observe the rites while women dance to the tune of a song praising Rama in the sacred festive atmosphere.
Holi:
A few days before the Holi, the Banjaras go around the nearby villages performing dances and singing melodious songs in their traditional way to collect money and grain. They sing a welcome song of Holi in order to declare the advent of New Year. Women and men exert themselves in singing and dancing and never leave any known person without extracting money or grain from them. The dancing women encircle the person and put him to so much of embarrassment that the man gives some money to escape the teasing and scolding of the women. The money collected is used for the celebrations of Holi festival. On the day of Holi, right from the early hours of evening, they go on beating the ‘Dappu’ (Drums) and produce enticing sounds in order to stimulate excitement both in women and men and children to come out of their houses to play ‘HoliJojera’ which is unique feature of the Holi celebrations of Banjaras.
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Fig: Lambada tribes performing festivals
Government Policies:
The government, both at Centre and State, has not only formulated a number of policies to safeguard the interests of the tribes but also has initiated a number of developmentschemes for the welfare and upliftment of the tribal communities.
Education schemes:
Bangaruthalli, Fee reimbursement scheme, Pre metric scholarship, Post matric scholarship, Gurukulams, tribal welfare hostels, AIE/EGS centers, Rajiv Gandhi national fellowship, schemes of hostels for ST girls and boys, scheme of coaching for scheduled tribes, Janshala, sarvasikshaabhiyan .
Health schemes:
Arogyasri, Ammahastham, JananisurakshaYojana, Girl child protection scheme, National rural health mission, Family planning insurance scheme, Tribal health services, Hospital development societies (RogiKalyanasamithi), Janashribheemayojana.
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Housing schemes:
Indira Awaasyojana, credit – cum- subsidy scheme for rural housing, Indiramma housing scheme, manabiyyam, Velugu
Financial/ employment benefit schemes:
Prime minister’s Employment generation programme, Rajiv YuvaKiranalu, Dwakra, Swarnajayanti Gram SwarojgarYojna (SGSY), Jawahar Gram SamriddhiYojna, ISB units (Individual)/ ISB (Small enterprises), Pavalavaddi, National old age pension scheme, SHG (Self Help Group) bank linkage, employment assurance scheme, CMEY, Girijan cooperative corporation Ltd (GCC), Minor irrigation, soil conservation, Horticulture, Fisheries, Sericulture, TRICOR
Data Analysis
A total of 550 respondents were selected from the 101 thandasin 11 mandals of Khammam district of Telangana state in India. Following data was obtained
Awareness towards education:
Out of 550 respondents, 258 respondents are aware of the schemes available for their utilization. However 298 respondents are unaware. Also within the set of tribes who are aware of the schemes, 68 respondents are not interested in availing the schemes, 71 respondents are interested and availing the schemes and 119 respondents are ignorant of the pattern of utilization of the scheme.
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Awareness towards health schemes
Out of 550 respondents, only 168 respondents are aware of the schemes pertaining to health being implemented by the Government. However 382 respondents are unaware. Also within the set of tribes who are aware of the schemes, 48 respondents are not interested in availing the schemes, 39 respondents are interested and availing the schemes and 81 respondents are ignorant of the pattern of utilization of the scheme.
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Awareness towards housing schemes
Out of 550 respondents, only 187 respondents are aware of the schemes pertaining to housing being implemented by the Government. However 363 respondents are unaware. Also within the set of tribes who are aware of the schemes, 48 respondents are not interested in availing the schemes, 59 respondents are interested and availing the schemes and 80 respondents are ignorant of the pattern of utilization of the scheme.
Awareness towards transportation schemes
Out of 550 respondents, only 154 respondents are aware of the schemes pertaining to housing being implemented by the Government. However 396 respondents are unaware. Also within the set of tribes who are aware of the schemes, 30 respondents are not interested in availing the schemes, 77 respondents are interested and availing the schemes and 47 respondents are ignorant of the pattern of utilization of the scheme.
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Awareness towards Government schemes pertaining to employment/ financial upliftment
Out of 550 respondents, only 164 respondents are aware of the schemes pertaining to housing being implemented by the Government. However 386 respondents are unaware. Also within the set of tribes who are aware of the schemes, 42 respondents are not interested in availing the schemes, 71 respondents are interested and availing the schemes and 51 respondents are ignorant of the pattern of utilization of the scheme.
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Awareness towards modern political system
Out of 550 respondents, 162 respondents have poor knowledge towards politics, 337 respondents have fairly good knowledge and only 51 respondents have excellent knowledge about politics.
Findings and suggestions: Educational problem in tribes is concerned and is closely related to their cultural practices and economy. Their children are enrolled in the schools, but they have to face the problem of nonattendance and dropouts due to their poverty and workload during peak agricultural season and the season of collection of some minor forest produce under Government or private contractors. Not all the schemes are known by majority of the respondents.
1. The Lambada tribes are isolated which is the main reason for their ignorance.
2. Lack of Proper communication facilities are leading to the ignorance. Sufficient communicative devices like radios, TVs etc. are to be provided for their awareness towards the world. This may also enhance their know how about the government policies.
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3. Many of the tribes complained about the lack of proper health centers in the thandas. They need to travel long distance to reach a RMP doctor. The availability of MBBS doctor is a difficult issue. Sufficient health centers are to be generated for emergencies. The pregnant women are deprived of the facilities available for them.
4. Most of the houses are katcha houses. Electricity is found available but with power cuts in many localities due to non availability of services. The land available to them has been occupied by non tribes. The non tribes snatch their land due to their ignorance and make them slaves in turn.
5. The affordable transport is bullock carts. Autos and buses are available rarely. They need to travel long distance for their market. Many of the areas don’t have the availability of roads.
6. Long distances are to be travelled to collect water. There are no proper sanitation means; as such the open defecation is primarily followed.
7. Most of the tribes are deprived of education and are turned into labourers. They assist their parents in the agricultural activities to earn money for their lively hood. At the same time due to lack of awareness they consume alcohol spoiling their health and money. In turn the debts are more and the tribes are subjected to slavery.
8. The Government institutions like ITDA, MADA, TCR, TI and also central and state, local Government and other institutions could involve the NGOs in preparation of glossaries, primers and text books etc and utilize their expertise. Encouragement and support NGOs to run innovative and experimental quality education schools in remote and inaccessible areas.
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9. Empowerment should be allowed and encouraged, but at the same time non tribal dominant culture should not force tribes to humiliate or undermine their culture.
10. Due to deforestation, many of these Lambadatribes are losing their livelihoods and they are unable to adjust with the rapid development in the society. They are unable to earn sufficient food for their families. Malnutrition is common problem among these people. Adjustment problems are more for these people in modern society. This type of problem can be resolved to some extent by encouraging the local NGOs, improving agriculture activities.
Conclusion:
It is visible from the facts that the tribes are in the vicious circle of ignorance. Many of the schemes introduced by the Government are unknown. This is because of lack of proper communication facilities. Government has to take the initiative in not only announcing the schemes but to ensure that they are reaching the required. Due to the social stigmas and the greedy non tribes the development of the tribes are far behind. The inertia in acceptance of new technology and the change in pattern of living are to be eradicated. Tribes are ignorant of their abilities and afraid of the change as they have failed in the hands of non tribes. The ITDAs have definitely brought in a ray of light in the lives of Lambadatribes. But the task is well ahead. The officials of ITDAs are to struggle hard in bringing up the revolutions, aiming the challenges with proportional planning. Improvement in awareness, education, health and financial generation activities should be their agenda ensuring 100% participation of the tribes. Tribes are to be educated to avoid the liquor. Improvised methods are to be charted out and a structured plan is to be chalked out to bring in genuine development in the lives of the Lambadatribes.
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REFERENCES
1. Tribal development in India – Educational perspective by Ajitmondal and jayanta mete, Indian streams research journal, vol- 2, issue11, dec 2012, issn:- 2230-7850).
2. The Linguistic and Cultural Identity of Lambada in Andhra Pradesh: A Sociocultural Study by UpenderMalothPhD Scholar, The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India.
3. The Linguistic and Cultural Identity of Lambada in Andhra Pradesh: A Sociocultural Study by UpenderMalothPhD Scholar, The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India.
4. Indebtedness among Konda Reddy tribal households in Khammam district of Telangana by GummadiNaresh, journal of Indian Research (ISSN: 2321-4155), Vol-2, No.4, October- December, 2014, 47-51).
5. A Study of Sexual Behavior on Yanadi Tribe - A Case Study of Slum Area in Tirupati Town, by Dr. B. RaveendraNaik , Dr. Penchalaiah, Dr. M. Ravindranad, ISSN - 2250-1991, Volume : 2 | Issue : 12 | Dec 2013.
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ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA
Dr. Y. Sivaramaiah Lecturer in Political Science Silver Jubilee Govt. College {A}, Kurnool Abstract :
The concept of civil society moved from civilized society to a socially located debating and acting groups emerged now outside the political arena. However, its identity fixes next door to politics. India land maintains a great lead in this movement with impinging on administrative and political setup the right to information, human rights, social advocacy, environmental preservation from public institutions. Human rights are universal, regardless of colour, ethnicity, faith, sexuality or socio-economic group. They are yours, nine, everybody’s, to cherish and to defend. Development and humanitarian NGOs, are positioning themselves within global alliances to be both propositional and protective of universal rights. But the operating environment for civil society organizations, is increasingly challenging : onerous bureaucratic obligations, harassment character assassination, threat to human life and expulsion from the country are daily challenges. This is a sigh that people power, collective citizen action and a united civil society posea genuine threat because they stand in the way of abuses of power and they uphold human rights.
Keywords : Human Rights, Civil Society, Civil Society Organization
Introduction
Though, since its origin, the human rights movement (HRM) in India has made significant interventions in the shaping of democratic politics, there has been, rather surprisingly, no serious reflection on the various shifts that it has gone through and the emerging trends, phases and discourses within it. In fact, a pertinent question, given the various new shifts, is: is there a single HRM at all in India today? Or, instead, are
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there multiple movements that either run parallel to each other or continue to work on mutually exclusive assumptions? It is equally significant to ask if there has been a gradual growth or decline of the HRM in terms of its overall impact since various organisations have been pulling the movement in different directions. This article attempts to trace the various phases and assumptions underlying each in terms of the inter-relationships between the state, civil society and democracy, along with locating the possible directions that the HRM might take and its implications for politics in general, and other radical social struggles in particular. The first organised initiative, perhaps, to form a civil liberties organization was taken by Jawaharlal Nehru on 7 November 1936, with the founding of the Indian Civil Liberties Union (ICLU) with Rabindranath Tagore as its president. Rights were articulated not only as guarantees against the arbitrary state action that was so much a part of British colonial rule, but also as the means necessary to achieve a more just and egalitarian socio-economic order. It was this two-pronged strategy that formed the basis of the anti- colonial struggle and the various instruments it set up, including the Motilal Nehru Committee of 1928 and the Karachi session of the Congress in 1931 which adopted the resolution on fundamental rights. The strategy was a derivative of the conceptual distinction between the natural rights tradition and the positivist tradition of articulating rights. In the former, rights are envisaged as inalienable, having their origins in nature, while in the positivist tradition ‘rights not only originate in the action of the state, but are also entirely dependent on it for their existence’ (Singh 2005: 32). The state is the source and arbiter of rights and can therefore legitimately even take them away in certain rare and wellspecified situations. The civil liberties phase of the HRM movement in the 1970s was primarily engaged with the state and was followed by the democratic rights phase around the natural rights tradition. The latter was looking to carve an autonomous civil societal
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sphere to locate and enlarge the scope of the language of rights. See Aswini Ray (2003) for a more detailed historical narrative, as well as the collection of papers submitted to the Indian civil liberties conference held in Madras on 16–17 July 1949, titled ‘Civil Liberties In India’, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi. I am thankful to Ujjwal Kumar Singh for suggesting this important collection. Human rights movements in India / 31 The history of the post-independence HRM in India can be traced back to the early 1970s. The movement of the 1970s was located in a liminal zone, between the shift from the Nehruvian era to Mrs Indira Gandhi coming to power and the emergence of an authoritarian state on the onehand, and the continued expectations from a welfarist state responsive to the popular demands of the polity and its marginalised, on the other. More than opposition to the state and the constitutional framework, it was the everyday misuse of institutions and the violation of procedures that formed the context for the beginning of the post-independence HRM in India.
State–civil society
In a meeting of Sarvodaya workers held in Bangalore in July 1972, Jayaprakash Narayan advocated that a broad-based organisation should be formed for the preservation and strengthening of democracy in India and that the organisation should consist of all those who cherished democratic values, but were not interested in power politics (Tarkunde 1991: 303). In an all-India conference convened in Delhi on 13–14 April 1974, a non-party organisation called the Citizens For Democracy (CFD) was formed with the objective of ensuring independence and autonomy, for purposes of democratic and constitutional functioning, of various institutions such as the judiciary, press, radio, bureaucracy, the office of the President, the Election Commission and the Planning Commission, among others. This experiment of building a pressure group for the more effective and
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responsive functioning of state institutions was abruptly cut short with the imposition of Emergency in the country on 25 June 1975 under Article 352 of the Constitution on the grounds that the ‘security and integrity of India was in grave peril due to internal disturbance’.2 Jayaprakash Narayan and many of his followers were placed under preventive detention. After his release, there appeared to be a need to expand the scope of the CFD in order to protect the civil liberties or fundamental rights of the citizens. In a well-attended conference held in New Delhi 2 Bipin Chandra (2003) completely ignores the role of JP in building the civil liberties movement, and therefore reaches a one- sided conclusion that ‘Total Revolution’ had fascist tendencies.
Human rights in India
Human rights in India is an issue complicated by the country's large size, its tremendous diversity, its status as a developing country and a sovereign, secular, democratic republic. The Constitution of India provides for Fundamental rights, which includefreedom of religion. Clauses also provide for freedom of speech, as well as separation of executive and judiciary and freedom of movement within the country and abroad.
In its report on human rights in India during 2013, released in 2014, Human Rights Watch stated, "India took positive steps in strengthening laws protecting women and children, and, in several important cases, prosecuting state security forces for extrajudicial killings." The report also condemned the persistent impunity for abuse linked to insurgency in Maoist areas, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur and Assam. The report also went on to state, "The fact that the government responded to public outrage confirms India’s claims of a vibrant civil society. An independent judiciary and free media also acted as checks on abusive practices. However, reluctance to
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hold public officials to account for abuses or dereliction of duty continued to foster a culture of corruption and impunity".
On a global level, India opts for a policy of "non-interference in internal affairs of other countries". However India is engaged in promoting stability and human rights in Afghanistan, pledging nearly US$2 billion for the country’s rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts, supporting education of girls, providing some police training, and granting asylum to a number of activists fleeing Taliban threats.
References :
1. Human Rights Watch. 2014. pp. 334–341.
2. "India: Repeal the Armed Forces Special Powers Act, Law Provides Impunity for Human Rights Abuses, Fuels Cycles of Violence", Human Rights Watch, 21 November 2007
3. "India: The Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act- a threat to human rights", AI Index ASA 20/019/2000, Amnesty International, 15 May 2000
4. "Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act, 1978 (Act No. 6 of 1978)", Refworld, High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations
5. Right to Food Campaign
6. National Campaign for People's Right to Information (NCPRI)
7. Police Reforms ordered by Supreme Court
8. Mitta, Manoj; Singh, Smriti (3 July 2009). "India decriminalises gay sex". The Times of India.
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READINESS OF STUDENTS FOR SEX EDUCATION IN INDIA: A REVIEW Dr. S.Thajoddin Shaik. Masood Ahmed Reader in Maths Lecturer in History Osmania College (A), Kurnool Osmania College (A), Kurnool
Mr .Arif Khan Lecturer in Maths Osmania College (A), Kurnool Abstract
Sex is a very sensitive subject and public discussion on sexual matters is considered as a taboo in Indian society. Family life education (FLE) or Sex education refers to a broad programme designed to impart knowledge/training regarding values, attitudes and practices affecting family relationships . The education that provides knowledge on physical, social, moral, behavioural, and psychological changes and developments during puberty is termed as Adolescent Family Life Education. It teaches the adolescents about the role of boys and girls in family and society, responsibility and attitude of boys and girls towards each other, etc. within social context. The real purpose behind family life/sex education is the transfiguration of a male child into manhood and of a female child into womanhood. Sex education also instills the essential information about conception, contraception and sexually transmitted diseases.
Keywords: Sex education, boys, girls , STDs , responsibility, attitude , social context.
Introduction
India has the largest adolescent population (243 million), followed by China (207 million), United States of America (44 million), Indonesia and Pakistan (41 million each).Adolescence (10–19 years) is an age of opportunity for children marked with a time of transition
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from childhood to adulthood; wherein young people experience substantial changes in their physiology after puberty, but do not instantaneously imbibe the various associated roles, privileges and responsibilities of adulthood. Due to growing incidences of HIV/AIDS, RTIs/STIs and teenage pregnancies, there is a need to impart sex education among youth. Many psychologists believe that sex education begins at an early age and continues throughout the life of an individual. It is a continuous process of developing attitudes, values and understanding regarding all situations and relationships in which people play roles as males or females. The problem of over-population also demands family life education, including family planning as a priority, as many of the young people are about to be married and should be aware of the responsibilities they have. A study on child abuse in India, conducted by the Ministry of Women and Child Development, reports that 53 percent of boys and 47 percent of girls surveyed faced some form of sexual abuse ( Government of India (2007)) .
Therefore, family life education might help the vulnerable young population to be aware about their sexual rights and empower them to protect themselves from any undesired act of violence, sexual abuse and molestation. India’s National Population Policy also reiterates the need for educating adolescents about the risks of unprotected sex. Pregnancy related problems comprise a leading cause of death among adolescents aged 15–19 years, mainly due to unsafe abortions and pregnancy complications (WHO (2006) Adolescents and youth in India experience several negative sexual and reproductive health outcomes such as early and closely spaced pregnancy, unsafe abortions, STI, HIV/AIDS, and sexual violence at alarming scale.
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Sex Education in Schools
A scheme for adolescent education programme in the school curriculum was promoted by the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) and the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India, which led to a major controversy in 2007. The ardent opponents argued for a ban on starting sex education in schools on the ground that it corrupts the youth and offends ‘Indian values’ (Gentleman A et al (2007), . Sengupta A et la.., (2009) ) They contended that it may lead to promiscuity, experimentation and irresponsible sexual behaviour. (Vishnoi A, et al..Thacker T et al (2009) . The critics also suggested that sex education may be indispensable in western countries, but not in India which has a rich cultural traditions and ethos. On the contrary, the proponents argued that conservative ideas have little place in a fast modernizing society like India, where attitudes towards sex education are changing rapidly. As fallout of this controversy, several Indian states including Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh and Goa declared that the course content as suggested by MHRD was unacceptable and thus banned the programme .
Though few politicians and religious leaders have opposed the introduction of sex education in schools, studies have shown that Indian adolescents and youth do not have sufficient information about sexual matters, thereby increasing the possibility of falling prey to various forms of sexual violence.
India has become the second largest hub of HIV/AIDS pandemic in the world. The proponents of sex education stressed the need for providing knowledge about HIV/AIDS, teenage pregnancies and information about sexual health. In a survey of college students conducted by the All India Educational and Vocational Guidance Association, it was reported that 54 percent of males and 42 percent of
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females did not have adequate knowledge regarding matters of sex (D’Souza AA et al (1979))
Readiness of students for Sex Education
Young people (10–24 years) constitute about 315 million and represented about 31% of India’s population. They not only represent India’s future in the socio-economic and political realms, but nation’s ability to harness the demographic dividend. In the course of transition to adulthood, young people face significant risks related to sexual and reproductive health. Since there are supporters and opponents towards introducing sex education in Indian schools, it is most important to understand the perception and attitudes of youth on this controversial issue. Majority of youth perceived family life education to be important. This highlights that Indian adolescents realizes the range of potential health risks and challenges lurking before them and demands the appropriate knowledge, skills and training to lead a responsible and healthy life style.
Majority of unmarried women, who perceived FLE to be important, reported that parents to be the provider of FLE, followed by teacher/school/college, brother/sister/sister-in-law and friends/peer respectively. Therefore, it becomes apparent that FLE need not be only part of formal school curriculum; it should also be equally augmented in the first place by parents at home to eliminate all the misconceptions, inhibitions and doubts of adolescents on various aspects of family/sex life. The study also indicates that relatives and friends/peers could also be important avenues that need to be appropriately tapped to help the adolescents learn about the basic issues/rules of family/sex life skills safely and comfortably either at home, school or neighbourhood.
In the era of globalization and modernization, there still persist steep socioeconomic divide in the knowledge, attitudes and perception
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of individuals in Indian society. The same holds true with regard to benefits of FLE. Whether it relates to the perceived importance of FLE, or actual prevalence of FLE among unmarried women in India, we found substantial differentials across socio-economic groups. This indicates that even after more than six decades of planned development efforts in India, large proportion of population living in rural areas, illiterate, marginalized social groups, continue to lag behind when it comes to the adoption of modern attitudes and healthy sexual behaviour. Hence, it is crucial for policy makers and program managers to take note of these socioeconomic hierarchies in Indian society, while designing and implementing any FLE program.
Conclusion
Finally, we summarize the key issues that emerge from this study. There exists a wide gap between the proportion of women who perceive FLE is important and those who actually received any sex education. It was also true that women who received family life education had better knowledge and awareness on reproductive health issues than counterparts. The level of awareness and knowledge regarding Family Life Education is more among the educated, better-off sections and those living in urban areas. The growing population, changing life styles and increasing incidences of HIV/AIDS is a great challenge. In order to prepare the youth to face these challenges, introducing sex education is an important step. The nation-wide surveys clearly illustrate that overwhelming majority of young women and men are in favour of introducing family life education.
References
1. D’Souza AA (1979) Sex Education and Personality Development. New Delhi: Usha Publications.
2.Government of India (2007) Study on Child Abuse: India. New Delhi: Ministry of Women and Child Development.
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3. Gentleman A (2007) Sex education curriculum angers Indian conservatives. The New York Times. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/24/world/asia/24iht- letter.1.5851113.html?pagewanted=print Accessed 2010 May 15.
4. Sengupta A (2009) India in denial of sex education. The Guardian. Available:http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/aug/16/sex- education-india/print Accessed 2012 Jan 30.
5. Vishnoi A, Thacker T (2009) No sex educations in schools, leads to promiscuity: House Panel. The Indian Express, Available: http://www.expressindia.com/story_print.php?storyId=44835 3 Accessed 2012 Jan 30.
6. WHO (2006) Promoting and safeguarding the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents, Policy Brief 4: Implementing the Global Reproductive Health Strategy. Geneva: Switzerland
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ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF NAGESWARASWAMY TEMPLE, KODUVAI, TIRUPPUR – A STUDY
Ms. Gandhimathi. D Ms. ArulMary. K M.Phil History (PT) HoD& Associate Professor Department of History Department of History PSGRKrishnammal College for PSGRKrishnammal College for Women Women, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, Coimbatore , Tamilnadu, India India
Abstract
Architecture is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to build his own shelter to live in. Man first began to create and fix his own shelter when he stepped out from the natural habitat of dense jungle covers. With the artistic faculties of man awakened in the search for larger and better-sheltered spaces, he began to build, with inherent aesthetic sense, shelters that seemed pleasing to the eye. Thus emerged architecture which is a combination of needs, imagination, capacities of the builders and capabilities of the workers.
Keywords:Art and Architecture, Dravidian art, Hindu culture, Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras.
1. Introduction 1.1 Indian Architecture
Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the country. Apart from these natural and obvious evolutions from the pre-historic and historic periods, evolution of Indian architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic developments. Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-continent, each in their way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian architecture. External influences have also shaped the nature of Indian architecture
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and so has the influence of different regions of the country. Let us have a look at the process of evolution of Indian Architecture.
1.2 Dravidian architecture
Dravidian architecture was an architectural idiom that emerged in the Southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India. It consists primarily of temples with pyramid shaped towers and is constructed of sandstone, soapstone or granite. Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in the ancient book Vastu shastra, the majority of the existing structures are located in the Southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana. Various kingdoms and empires such as the Cholas, the Chera, the Kakatiyas, the Pandyas, the Pallavas, the Gangas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas, the Hoysalas, and Vijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of Dravidian architecture.
1.3 Rock-cut architecture
Tamil Nadu architecture emerged thousands of years ago. It is mainly Dravidian. The Pallavas ruled from AD (600–900) and their greatest constructed accomplishments are the single rock temples in Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram, now located in Tamil Nadu.
Pallavas were pioneers of south Indian architecture. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as rathas in Mahabalipuram. Mention must be made here of the Shore Temple constructed by Narasimhavarman II near Mahabalipuram which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
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1.4 Chola architecture
The Chola kings ruled from AD (848–1280) and included Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola who built temples such as the Brihadeshvara Temple of Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram and the Sarabeswara (Shiva) Temple, also called the Kampahareswarar Temple at Thirubhuvanam, the last two temples being located near Kumbakonam. The first three among the above four temples are titled Great Living Chola Temples among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Cholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first king Vijayalaya Chola after whom the eclectic chain of Vijayalaya Chozhisvaram temple near Narttamalai exists.
1.5 Temple Architecture
The Hindu temple architecture is an open, symmetry driven structure, with many variations, on a square grid of padas, depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares. The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras. The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple builders, and its architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting other perfect geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express the Hindu way of life.
A Hindu temple or mandir is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos - presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life - symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma.
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A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called vastu- purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
1.6Tamilnadu Temple Architecture
Tamil Nadu is also popular as 'land of temples' for its grand temples that are architectural masterpieces. There are 30,000 plus temples constructed by rulers of different dynasties over the years. These Tamil Nadu temples are standing testimony to the rich Dravidian art and culture. Each temple showcases a distinctive style, built by Chola, Pallava, Nayak, Pandya and Vijaynagar rulers, who were great patrons of art and architecture.
2. Study of Nageswaraswamy Temple, Koduvai, Tiruppur 2.1 Koduvai History
Koduvai situated at 25 km distance from Tirupur.(Tirupur to Dharapuram road). Nageswaraswamy Temple, Vinniraintha Perumal Temple, Ganapathi Temple, Amman Temple are there in Koduvai. Koduvai peoples basically from agricultural family. They helped to needy by producing foodusing their land in Velampoondi. They appointed “Taranis” to maintain and administrate these lands.[12]
2.2Temple History
There lived a person in Kancheepuram about 1200 years ago born blind. As a staunch devotee of Lord Ekambaranathar, he worshipped Him every day without fail seeking vision boon. Lord granted him vision for one eye. When he begged for the vision of the
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other eye, Lord advised him to visit the temple of Lord Nageswarar accompanied by Mother Govardanambika in Koduvai in the Kongu region where he will be blessed with the vision for the other eye too. He duly followed the advice and recovered vision of the other eye too, according to hearsay stories.
The Deepa Sthamba – Light Post -of the temple is made of a single stone. There is a separate shrine for Sani Bhagwan. Behind this are the Navagrahas the nine planets on a stage-platform. Going round this shrine shall be the shrine of Lord Bhairava. Moon is before Lord Bhairava and Sun next. This is a stone temple – Kattrali Koil of 12th century. Lord Ganapathi graces from the Kannimoola corner. There is also a Vinayaka under the tamarind tree in the temple. Mother’s shrine is in front of Lord Ganapathi. According to epigraphic findings, Koduvai was known as Mullai Vanam earlier. Lord Nageswaraswami is all merciful to His devotees. Left of this shrine is Lord Nataraja. Lord Dakshinamurthi and Mother Durga are on the Goshta with Lord Chandikeswara nearby. Lord Muruga blesses the devotees with His consorts Valli and Deivanai.
2.3Temple's Art and Architecture
2.3.1 Common Terminologies
These terminologies are not specific to Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu, but common across all temples built in Dravidian architecture.
a. Sannidhi or Garbhagriha
b. Vimanam
c. Prakaram
d. Gopuram
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Figure 1: Temple’s inside view
a. Sannidhi or garbhagriha Garbhagriha or garbha is a Sanskrit word meaning the interior of the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctum of a Hindu temple where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Only pujari (priests) are allowed to enter the sanctum.
b. Vimanam Vimana is a term for the tower above the garbhagriha or Sanctum sanctorum in a Hindu temple. The towering roof of the other deities is also called the vimanam. These do not assume as much significance as the outer gopurams.
c. Prakaram A Prakaram, also spelled Pragaram or Pragaaram) in Indian architecture is an outer parth around the Hindu temple sanctum. These may be enclosed or open and are typically enclosed for the inner most prakaram. Typically a Hindu Temple prayer hall is built in front of the temple's sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) in the first prakaram.
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d. Gopuram A Gopuram or Gopura is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India. This forms a prominent feature of Koils, Hindu temples of the Dravidian architecture. They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone or metal finial. The gopurams function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.
The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Pallava dynasty. By the twelfth century under the Pandya rulers these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram. The gopuram rises from a square or rectangular granite or brick base to a pyramidal structure with multiple storeys. A temple may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine. Rajagopuram indicates the prime one of all the gopurams within the temple. It is typically the most commonly used gateway and the tallest of all.
2.3.2 Lingam
The Lingam is a representation of the Hindu deity Shiva used for worship in Hindu temple. The lingam is the principal deity in most Shiva temples in South India. The lingam is often represented with the Yoni, a symbol of the goddess or of Shakti, female creative energy. The union of lingam and yoni represents the "indivisible two-in-oneness of male and female, the passive space and active time from which all life originates". A complementary theory suggests that the Lingam represents the beginning and ending Stambha pillar symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva.
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Figure 2: Overview of lingam
The propagation of linga worship on a large scale in South India is believed to be from Chola times (late 7th century A.D.), through Rig Veda, the oldest literature details about worshipping Shiva in the form of linga. Pallavas propagated Somaskanda as the principal form of worship, slightly deviating from the Shaiva agamas; Cholas being strict shaivas, established lingams in all the temples. The relation between Shiva and the lingam extends to the Indus Valley civilization, where several remains, such as the round stone caps at Harappa and the well- known seal of polycelphalic yogi (saint), have led scholars to attribute the primordial native origin. Svayambu lingam indicates a lingam that comes into existence on its own accord and not erected by human beings. Some of the temples are built around the lingam, with its position maintained as the sanctum.
The temple structure is divided into five lingams with the main one at the sanctum supplying power to the rest. The others are dhvaja lingam or flag lingam (signifying flag pole), bhadra lingam or prosperous lingam (signifying the balipeetha), stupa lingam (signifying vimana tower) that raises over sanctum and the sacrificer or officiating priest.
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2.3.3 Temple's specialty
Figure 3: Lord Saraswathi statue
The devotee can worship Mothers Durga, Lakshmi and Saraswathi in a single temple here. The temple has a beautiful garden – Nandavanam – with Jasmine, Arali, Nandhiavattai plants. Mothers Lakshmi and Saraswathi adore the artificial tank in the temple. There is a 7 feet tall anthill here. Those seeking wedding boon pray here. They strongly believe that their prayers would be responded as soon as possible. Above all, the temple is famous for Rahu-Ketu serpent planet worship for relief from their adverse effects.
2.3.4 Festivals and Poojai Details
PUJA or POOJAN is a prayer ritual performed by Hindus to host, honour and worship one or more deities, or to spiritually celebrate an event.
The chief festivals of this shrine are Iypasi Annabishekam (October-November), Margazhi Tiruvadhirai (December-January), Mahashivarathri in Masi (February-March),Purattasi Navarathri in September-October, Theerthavari in Masi full moon day, Deepavalli,
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New Year days, Masi month special days and Pongal.These festivals and other auspicious days and events related to Lord Shiva are celebrated in grand manner in this temple.
3. Conclusion Temple has very old evidence, 700-year-old hero-stone was discovered by a team of four archaeologists at Nageswaraswamy Temple, Koduvai, Tiruppur.
Figure 4: Unique hero-stone
The stone has developed cracks but three lines of inscriptions in Tamil are clearly visible on it. It is interesting that the stone was erected by the hero’s mother. Usually the practice is for villagers to do that in order to commemorate some act of courage. Historian/archaeologist K. Ponnusamy said that this fact made the stone unique. [11]
The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Pallava dynasty. By the twelfth century under the Pandya rulers these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size.
There is a fish emblem sculpted on the temple entrance ceiling. This templegopuram constructed by Pandya king [8] identified from
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the presence of the dynasty's fish emblem sculpted on the ceiling. The Pandyas sculpted two fishes facing each other when they completed gopurams figure 5 (and left it with one fish, in case it was incomplete). [9]
Figure 5: Fish on the temple ceiling
As we know that when you try to touch or harm a tortoise, it will take his legs and head inside his shell, hence this signifies that even humans should withdraw all his senses from our material world, which in Hindi we say Moh-Maya nahi rakhni chahiye.
Figure 6: Tortoise on the temple ceiling
Further when a tortoise lays eggs, it has a peculiar way of hatching them. She does not sit on top of them to hatch them but focuses her attention by constantly looking at them. The energy from her eyes hatches the eggs. This inspires a spiritual aspirant to focus his entire attention one pointedly towards Lord Shiva. Also the importance
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of 'Darshan', focussing ones attention on the image or the Lingam of Shiva, is explained by the symbolic use of a tortoise in the temple.
The outstanding features of Dravidian temple architecture are its two types of tower—the Vimana and the Gopuram. These two represent the final manifestation of two ancient forms and traditions, and have attained maturity under the Cholas and the Pandyas.
Temple Inscriptions
There are 8 inscriptions identified by Tamilnadu archaeology department in this temple as follows:
203/2004:On the jagathi in the west wall of the sanctum sanctorum of Nageswaraswamy temple. Tamil, Kongu Virapandya. r.y. 6. C.A.D 1262. Gift of money for a lamp by an individual, Manjan alias Kaliganasambandan of vellala community from Koduvayil limited in Pongalurka nadu. [10]
204/2004:On the jagathi in the north wall of the sanctum sanctorum of Nageswaraswamy temple. Tamil, Kongu Virapandya. r.y. 12. C.A.D 1267. Gift of palanjsalakai for a twilight lamp by an individual, name lost. It was received by siva brahmanas of the temple. [10]
205/2004:On the jagathi in the south wall of the sanctum sanctorum of Nageswaraswamy temple. Tamil, Kongu Virapandya. r.y. 14. C.A.D 1269. Gift of 4 accus by Cirukali cirupillai alais Sannatha nirainthan from semputhi clan of vellala community for burning a perpetual lamp. [10]
206/2004:On the jagathi ofsouth wall of Nageswaraswamy temple. Tamil. 13thcentury A.D. Gift of 4 accus by an individual by name Nangaimakan. The gift was received by sivabrahmins. [10]
207/2004:On the door jambofsouthern entrance of Nageswaraswamy temple. Tamil. Kongu Vikrama Chola II r.y. 12 C.A.D. 1275. Gift of
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door jamb by Sadaiyan Kannan of Semputhi clan in vellala community. [10]
208/2004:On the south wall of maha mandapa of Nageswaraswamy temple. Tamil. Kali 4825 A.D. 1724. Mentions the construction of mahamandapa by Chinnaiyan son of Pillai gounder of Othala clan in vellala community. It refers to architectural terms such as tun, pavukkal, uttiram, varipadai etc. [10]
209/2004:On the southern entrance of Kurattuvacal of Nageswaraswamy temple. Tamil. Kali 4815 C.A.D. 1714. Gift of kuradu of ten parisaram by Chinnaiya gounder of Goundamplayam. [10]
210/2004:On the northern entrance of Kurattuvacal of Nageswaraswamy temple. Tamil. Kali 4815 C.A.D. 1714. Gift of inner kuradu of vada parisaram by Chinnaiya gounder of Goundamplayam. [10]
References
[1] Tamil Architecture: Hindu Temples in Tamil Nadu, Chidambaram Temple, Shiva Temples of Tamilnadu, List of Temples in Tamil Nadu, Thirukadaiyur, Publisher: books llc, wiki series, 2011 ISBN 10: 115811995X ISBN 13: 9781158119950
[2] L Basham, “The wonder that was India”, Pan Macmillan, 2004
[3] Dr.A.Swaminathan, “History of India upto 1707”, Deepa pathippagam, Chennai. First edition-December 2004
[4] Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978- 0710202345, Routledge, pp 68-69
[5] Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2, ISBN 81-208-0223-3
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[6] Meister, Michael (1983). "Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples". Artibus Asiae. 44 (4): 266–296. DOI: 10.2307/3249613. JSTOR 3249613.
[7] https://www.britannica.com/topic/South-Indian-temple-architecture
[8] Encyclopædia Britannica (India) 2000, p. 64.
[9] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thillai_Nataraja_Temple,_Chidambar am
[10] Dr. Seetharam gurumurthi IAS, “Coimputtur Mavatta Kalvettukal Vol. – 2, State Department of Archaeology, Chennai – 600 008, 2007.
[11] News Papers The Hindu, Tamilnadu, Tirupur, November 5, 2015
[12] T.S.Sridhar IAS, “Coimbatore District Archaeological Guide”, State Department of Archaeology, Chennai – 600 008, 2005.
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POLITICAL LIBERALISM AND LIBERAL DEMOCRACY AS A MEANS OF FREEDOM AND DEVELOPMENT
Mandefro Tilaye Betre Instructor of Philosophy MeddaWelabu University, BalleRobe Ethiopia Abstract
Political Liberalism is a political philosophy founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles. Liberals support ideas such as free and fair elections, civil rights, freedom of the press, freedom of religion free trade and private property.
Liberal democracy is a form of government in which representative democracy operates under the principles of liberalism (political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics.) such as protecting the rights of minorities and, especially, the individual. It is characterized by fair, free, and competitive elections between multiple distinct political parties, a separation of powers into different branches of government, the rule of law in everyday life as part of an open society, and the equal protection of human rights, civil rights, civil liberties, and political freedoms for all persons. To define the system in practice, liberal democracies often draw upon a constitution, either formally written or uncodified, to delineate the powers of government and enshrine the social contract. After a period of sustained expansion throughout the 20th century, liberal democracy became the predominant political system in the world.
Development the process in which someone or something grows or changes and becomes more advanced. For this paper development seen as expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy. The paper written in focus of Development as human freedoms rather than Gross national
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product(GNP),Gross domestic product(GDP),industrialization, rise in personal income, technological advancement etc. The aim of this paper is to analyze the concept of political liberalism, liberal democracy and to convey how liberalism enhances freedom and flourishes development.
Key word: Political liberalism, Liberal Democracy, Freedom and Development.
Introduction
Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. The central theme of liberal ideology is commitment to the individual and the desire to construct a society in which people can satisfy their interest and achieve fulfilment (Heywood2015:24).
“Liberals believe that human beings are first and foremost individuals, endowed with reason this implies that each individual should enjoy the maximum possible freedom consistent with a like freedom for all. However individuals are entitled to equal legal and political rights, they should be rewarded in line with their talents and their willingness to work “(Ibid)
Liberals support ideas such as free and fair elections, civil rights, freedom of the press, freedom of religion free trade in resent time these world view is dominant in the world and, liberal political parties remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence on many countries and private property.
Liberal democracy is a political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual as a crucial step in politics.
1) Political liberalism
Different scholar like John Locke, Adam smith, Thomas paine, Mill etc had contribute a lot for liberalism. “The outlook of liberalism broadly follows the traditional establishment by john Stuart mill in his
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arguments for protecting individual freedom against the power of majority” (cotingham, 2008:683)
The word liberal was first adopted as apolitical label in Spain Cortes at cadez in 1810,to depot the opposite of servile, liberal is unservile state.”(Watson and allen, 1957:1) Encyclopaedia of Britannica defines liberalism as “political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics.
Oxford dictionary of philosophy define the term as-
“A political ideology centred upon the individual (individualism), thought of as possessing rights against the government, including rights of due process under the law, equality of respect, freedom of expression and action, and freedom from religious and ideological constraint. Liberalism is attacked from the left as the ideology of free
markets, with no defence against the accumulation of wealth and power in the hands of a few, and as lacking any analysis of the social and political nature of persons. It is attacked from the right as insufficiently sensitive to the value of settled institutions and customs, or to the need for social structure and constraint in providing the matrix for individual freedoms.”(Black burn, 2008:209)
Liberals typically believe that government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others; but they also recognize that government itself can pose a threat to liberty. As the revolutionary American pamphleteer Thomas Paine expressed it in “Common Sense” (1776), government is at best “a necessary evil.” Laws, judges, and police are needed to secure the individual’s life and liberty, but their coercive power may also be turned against him. The problem, then, is
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to devise a system that gives government the power necessary to protect individual liberty but also prevents those who govern from abusing that power.
Laski defines, "Liberalism as the expression less of a trend rather than of a temperament. It implies a passion for liberty; find that passion may be compelling. It requires a power to be tolerant; yen sceptical about opinions and tendencies you hold to be dangerous, which is one of the rarest human qualities. “Liberal political philosophy explores the foundation of principles most commonly associated with liberal politics: freedom, toleration, individual rights, constitutional democracy &the rule of law.” (Craig, 2005:598)
“Liberals hold that political organizations are justified by the contribution they make to the interests of individuals interested which can be understood apart from the idea of society and politics” ibid.
Sometimes countries try to form their version of liberalism for both social and political seek. Example “Russian was adopted the liberalism form which was called Russian liberalism in the century between peter the great death in 1725 and the Decembrist uprising in 1825 various political thinkers proposed the introduction of representative institutions in to Russian government and recommended that serfdom be abolished in the empire” (Craig, 2005 vol.5: 605)
Russian liberals argued that social progress in the empire had almost always come about at the states initiative they could scarcely imagine building a just society without cooperation of strong state.( craig,vol.5 2005: 606)
“But following October, 1917 Bolshevik revolution liberalism was banned in Soviet Union it re-emerged in altered form, during communisms collapse when neo-liberals claimed for liberalism a prominent position in normal constellation of Russian political forces. the main goal of post soviet liberalism are defence of civil and
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political right, the establishment of rule of law the assertion of individual property, rights and the gradual construction of market economy.” Ibid
“There are 2 basic forms of liberalism both argue against moral majority of views of homosexuality and abortion both argue for greater sexual, political and economic equality but they disagree about which of these two traditional liberal value is fundamental and which is derivative.
1) Liberalism based on neutrality takes as fundamental the idea that government must take side on moral issues, and it supports only such egalitarian measure as can be shown to be the result of that principle.
2) Liberalism based on equality takes as fundamental the idea that government treat its citizen equally & insist on moral neutrality only on degree of equality requires it rests on positive commitment to an egalitarian morality and provides, in that morality firm contrast to
the economics of privilege”.(cottingham,2008:684_685)
1.2 Types of Liberalism
A) Classical Liberalism is a philosophy committed to the ideal of limited government and liberty of individuals including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and free
markets. “It is the socio political theory that stress freedom from undue governmental interference and views the state as guarantors of the basic liberties and rights of individual” (miller, 1984:449)
Classical liberalism developed in the nineteenth century in Western Europe, and the Americas. Although classical liberalism built on ideas that had already developed by the end of the eighteenth century, it advocated a specific kind of society, government and public policy required as a result of the Industrial Revolution and urbanization.
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Notable individuals who have contributed to classical liberalism include Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo. It drew on the economics of Adam Smith, a psychological understanding of individual liberty, natural law and utilitarianism, and a belief in progress. Classical liberals established political parties that were called "liberal", although in the United States classicalliberalism came to dominate both existing major political parties. There was a revival of interest in classical liberalism in the twentieth century led by Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman.
B) Modern liberalism (Social Liberalism) some philosophers make consider it as a same, the proponent of this form of liberalism belief as social justice included on this ideology. It believes that the legitimate role of the state includes: Unemployment, health care, addressing economic and education. Modern liberalism views the good of the community as harmonious with the freedom of all individuals. This ideology parties and ideas tend to be considered centre left or centrist. Centrism also known as centre left is the practice or ideal to promote policies which stands different from the standard political right and political left.
It is the belief that liberalism should include a social foundation. Modern liberalism seeks to balance individual liberty and social justice. Like classical liberalism, it endorses a market economy and the expansion of civil and political rights and liberties, but differs in that it believes the legitimate role of the government includes addressing economic and social issues such as poverty, health care and education Under modern liberalism, the good of the community is viewed as harmonious with the freedom of the individual Social liberal policies have been widely adopted in much of the capitalist world, particularly following World War. Social liberal ideas and parties tend to be considered centrist or centre-left. The term social liberalism is used to differentiate it from classical liberalism, which
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dominated political and economic thought for several centuries until social liberalism branched off from it around the Great Depression.
C) Contemporary liberalism argues in favour of positive state action to promote the individual pursuit of the good life and as such relies upon the state doing more than simply guaranteeing to individual choices in how they want to live. So there is like redistribution of resources by the state to allow for a greater equality of opportunity to pursue the good life than would be possible under a predominantly market-led system. (Mill and king 1995:3)
2) Liberal democracy It is a form of government in which representative democracy operates under the principles of liberalism such as protecting the rights of minorities and, especially, the individual. It is characterized by fair, free, and competitive elections between multiple distinct political
parties, a separation of powers into different branches of government, the rule of law in everyday life as part of an open society, and the equal protection of human rights, civil rights, civil liberties, and political freedoms for all persons. To define the system in practice, liberal democracies often draw upon a constitution, either formally written or uncodified, to delineate the powers of government and enshrine the social contract. After a period of sustained expansion throughout the 20th century, liberal democracy became the predominant political system in the world.”Like representative democracy liberal democracy is compromise, specifically, it seems to integrate the authority of democratic government with simultaneous limit on their scope by definition liberal democracy is limited government.”(Hague and Harrop_:89)
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To express my position I have similar view with Sylvia Chan which states
“The universal goodness liberal democracy is almost always assumed it will bring economic development, social harmony, enhancement of human rights etc. in this atmosphere of triumphalism, there is a little critical reflection on the concept of liberal democracy itself.”(chan2002:3)
Liberalism and liberal democracy realize freedom. I highly agree with Amertya sen concept of freedom as it is central to the process of development for two distinct reasons
1) The evaluative reason: assessment of progress has to be done primarily in terms of weather the freedoms that people have are enhanced
2) The effectiveness reason: achievement of development is thoroughly on the free agency of people. (sen2010:4)
To conclude, I strongly believe as liberal democracies will a means for economic, social, political development, peace and security. The principle of liberalism and philosophy of liberal democracy such as protecting the rights of minorities especially the individual, its character of fair, free, and competitive elections between multiple distinct political parties, separation of powers into different branches of government, the rule of law in everyday life as part of an open society, and the equal protection of human rights, civil rights, civil liberties, and political freedoms for development. The relation between political liberalism, liberal democracy, growth and development is that it will be a means for development:As a means of development; while the right and freedom of people respected they will encouraged to practice in better manner in their profession and in behalf of spending their life, time, money and power for struggle to quest of their basic rights and freedom they will be on work and it will be a means to growth and
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development. Even though there are many concepts towards development my conception of development for this paper is of development as expanding the real freedom that people can enjoy”. To assure the real freedom that people can enjoy liberalism and liberal democracy is preferable. Political liberalism and liberal democracy realize freedom. Freedom is a means of development so the concept of liberalism and liberal democracy are inseparable with concepts of freedom and development.
References
Amertya sen,(2010),Development as freedom, Oxford university press, New Delhi India.
Andrew Heywood 5th Ed,(2015) ,political Ideologies, palgrave macmilan,Uk.
Selvia Chan,(2002),liberalism, democracy and, development, Cambridge university press.
Edward Craig(Ed),(1998),vol5 ,Routage Encyclopedia of Philosophy ,USA and Canada.
Ed ward Craig(Ed) vol 6,Routage Encyclopedia of Philosophy,USA and Canada.
Good in E.robert,pettit Philip and pogge tomas(2nd edn.contemporary political philosophy vol.2 blackwell publishing
Hague rod and harrop martin,comparative government and politics, an introduction (8th edn.)palgrave macmillan publisher. mills,mike and king,fraser(ed),(1995),the promise of liberalism, comparative analysis of consensus politics, Darton publishing
Rajeev Bharggava and Ashok Achariya,(2017,)political theory An Introduction, Pearson India education service pvt Ltd, Newdelhi,India
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SOCIAL MOBILISATION AND VEDIC TRADITION IN KERALA: A STUDY BASED ON VEDADHIKARANIRUPANA OF CHATTAMPISWAMIKAL Princy Kuriakose Research Scholar Dept of Comparative Literature SreeSankaracharya University of Sanskrit Kalady, Eranakulam, Kerala
The Social condition of Kerala during 19th Century was considered as the transitional point of Kerala Society. The society had to face the drastic changes in the period. Before analyzing the social condition of Kerala in 19th century, we have to understand the social structure of Kerala that continued till the peak time of colonial interventions. A clear cut four –fold charturvarnya system did not exist in the case of ancient Kerala society. As distinct from the ancient European states of Greece and Rome, and most of the earlier Asian states of Egypt and Babylonia, the social division into an exploiting minority and exploited majority assumed in India the form of the four- fold system of varna to begin with, and then of the multitude of castes which in their turn proliferated in to various sub-castes. The first three varnas formed the upper castes of, Indian society, while the last, the sudra, constituted the overwhelming majority of the labourers (EMS, 1984:16).
An integral part of the Dravidian social structure which was developing in the southern parts of India as a parallel to the vedic Society in the North, Kerala had, down to the colonial era, features of socio-cultural life which marked it off from both like Northern vedic and Southern Dravidian structure of social stratification. The peculiarity in social and family life and land relations of Kerala marked off from the cultures of North Indian vedic order and other parts of south India.
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As in the other parts of India the Brahmanas were the top of social hierarchy in Kerala Society. They were the first stratum of Kerala society. The Kshatriyas, very few in numbers, was not treated as the only one ruling class of the society. Most ruling families were non Kshatriyas in Kerala.TheNairs were the traditional warriors of Kerala in ancient times. Sometimes they performed the functions of the Kshatriya with those of the Vaisya and the Sudra. The lack of the middle two varnas made the dignity of Nairs as Kshatriyas and Vaisyas. But the term Sudra indicated the Nair community. They were called as Sudras but considered as the very next stratum of the Brahmanas. All the downtrodden community was not included in the group of Sudra. Majority people were out casted and they were not considered as the part of vedic or Brahminic order. They were not included in the four- fold system in the pre-colonial times in India.
The main characteristic of Kerala Society during nineteenth century was the deep social stratification based on the jati System. Purity was the pivot on which the jati turned. The feeling of Jati system was strong and rigid because the ideas regarding purity and pollution were also rigid. Dignity of the labour was not concern of the society. So the manual works were left to the depressed people. The octopus grip of the feudal lords coupled with that of jati system had its far reaching effects which inflicted mental slavery on the last stratum, who were made to believe that their very existence was for the benefit of the upper cast feudal and religious lords. The higher caste people believed that they have the right to punish the down trodden people (Mahadev Desai, 1937:17).
It was very difficult to draw the difference between the caste hierarchy and class hierarchy in Kerala. In other words the social hierarchy and the economical hierarchy were intertwined to each other in the society. The class and the cast or Jati, reinforced and coincided each other (F.Osella and C.Osella, 2000:23). In the social situation of
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Kerala, the depressed communities faced both social and economic deprivation. Socially the Jati system was a means of oppression and economically a means of exploitation. In his book, Bhaskaranunny gives a detailed description on various Jaties and Upajaties prevalent in the society of Kerala during the early 19thcentury. It is considered that there were 64 castes in the Kerala society. They were the Brahmanas-8, the Nyunavargas-2, The Antaralajas-12, the Sudras-18, the Silpis -6, the Patitas -10, and the lowest-8, (1998:175). But the census report of India mentions that the Kerala society was divided into 1992 castes, which were again divided in to 1070 subdivisions. The Tamil Brahmanas, Namputiris, few Kshatriyas and and the Nairs constituted the high elite castes in the society. The Ezhavas, Tiyyas, the Channars, the Pulayas, the Parayas and few others were categorized as low castes(Menon P.KK, 2001:56).
Untouchability and unapproachability had cropped up in the middle of 19th century. The low caste people were prohibited from walking through public roads, entering temples and using ornaments and public facilities. The higher caste people would be polluted by the touch of all other castes below them and by the approach of all castes lower than the Nairs. According to the grade of caste, each community was allotted a certain distance to go near a Namputiri (SubrahmanyaIyer, 1932:25) According to William logan the Pulaya should be 64 feet away from a Namputiri, the Ezhava 12 feet and the Nair 4 feet. Even kings had to observe the untouchability rules. Kings, being Kshatriyas in general, could not touch a Namputiri and should be 2 feet away from him (1995:118)
The second half of the 19th century of Kerala has witnessed a considerable change in every field of social life. Social reformation and mobility are the main features of this era. The strong elements of orthodox feudal concepts have to face a sudden attack from all side of
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social life. The conflict between colonial modernity and tradition paved the way to the social transformation of Kerala. The Social concept, rites, customs, religion observations, family life, social hierarchy and other practices, mentioned above had to address the drastic changes. Reformation in the field of social life was the hall mark of this period. A large number of individuals and movements came forward to bear the flag of radical changes in the society. The renaissance in India’s socio political field in the beginning of the 18th century AD attained its top in the 20th century. Kerala has made considerable contribution to strengthen this nationwide phenomenon. It cannot be analyzed without considering the international changes and the complexity.
There was no single or simple reason before the process of renaissance and social reformations. In Europe, renaissance in literature in the form of translation of the religion text Divine Comedy, in to common language, was considered as the pioneer steps of western renaissance in 16th century (P. Govindapilla). But it was only a single reference changes in society culture polities and other fields came into existence. The inventions of steam engine, Industrial Revolution, Colonial interventions etc. are considered as the main causes of social mobilization and renaissance in all over the world. The concepts like equality, freedom, democracy, socialism, humanism and other egalitarian views were taken as the tools for social reformations. Modern education played a main role in renaissance. Monarchy was sided to democracy; political boundaries expanded to new nations; villagers and the mob became citizens; member of a caste transformed to a new individual. The centre of all conversation becomes the human being. The human centered views were developed and the existence of self-dignity and the birth of indented person opened every door to new society.
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The time of the beginning of the renaissance process in Kerala is not easy to determine, the indigenous renaissance movements can be seen in ancient times of Kerala Society when the cultural and literary reformation had been developed by the activities of Ezhuthachan and Bhakti Movements. During the second half of 19th century, as a result of colonial intervention and the continuity of reacting to the tradition of indigenous thoughts brought with it the tendencies of modern renaissance movement in Kerala.
The strong and power full reformative movements the sense of modern renaissance, came only after the direct interventions of colonial powers in India. The leaders like Rajaram Mohan Roy, DayandaSaraswathi and JyotiraoPhule deeply influenced every nook and corners of Indian society. There was a chronological gap for three or four centuries between modern Indian and western renaissance. The modern renaissance in India which was spread all over the country including Kerala, during the 19th century, influenced all the populace with variations. Mainly two factors – colonial hegemony and the cast oriented social system differ Indian renaissance from the western. Some of the historiansbelieved that modernization and renaissance in India were the profitable result or colonial dominance (Majumdar R.C, 1962:24)
Religious reformations were the primary steps of renaissance. Most of the renaissance leaders were initially religious reformers in Kerala. The internal inequality of the religion was addressed by these leaders. Religion had a main role in the society of Kerala during this period. Besides the sematic religion, the majority of the people were forced to search their identity of religion. Hundreds of jatis and upajaties were pressured to become the members of new born Hindu Religion. The low caste people were considered as the members of Hindu religion. It is noted that the question on the space of avarnas
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in religion was one of the issues addressed by the leaders. The Report of the temple enquiry Temple enquiry committee in 1932 discussed this problem in detail: “Are avarnas Hindus? It is in this state of divided views that we have to deal with this problem. On the threshold of this controversy, we are met by the question whether the avarnas are Hindus. The demand for temple entry is conditioned primarily upon an affirmative answer to this question. Some of the opponents of temple entry maintain that, in the sense in which alone the question is relevant to the issue, they are not Hindus” (SubrahamanyaAiyar V S, 1934:44). After a brief discussion on the term Hindu, the Report says: “Certain religions are found to have risen in India subsequently like Jainism and Buddhism, or been introduced in to India like Christianity and Mohamadism. Indian who did not follow any of these religions was lumped together as followers of Hinduism” (47).
The position of religion during the early decades of nineteenth century of Kerala was very complex. Besides the Muslims and Christian religion, the majority of the people had no specific religion. In other words the castes and sub castes of Kerala had to search their religion. This searching mentality for a religion was the creation of the influence of colonial culture through western education of the newborn middle class in the society. The religious reforms mainly focused the internal equality of each religion they represented. The orthodox elite class did not recognize the low caste people as the members of same religion. But the creation of the middle class leaders tried to protest the caste rigidity and proclaimed that there are enough space for these people in Hindu religion. Conversion of the low caste people to other religions like Christianity and Muslims had re-inforced the process of reformation in the so called Hindu religion. Though the religious reformation was considered as the initial step of social renaissance, the Kerala society kept its mode quite different. The religious reformers had to construct a Hindu religion based on anti-caste movements. It is noted that they
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have two faced activities; to construct a religions by destructing the castes; to reform a religion by destructing the castes. So the anti-caste movement was the centre process of the most of the reformers in Kerala.
The depressed people were not admitted in government schools. But the missionary schools had open for the low caste people. These people were expelled from government services during 19th century. Dr. Palpu and his father ThachankudyPappu faced this discrimination (VelayudhanPanickasery, 1970:14). The activities in education improved the standard of literacy both in the higher and the lower strata of the society. While the percentage of literacy of thePulayas and Ezhavas were 0.09 and 1057 respectively in 1891, it rose to 17 and 46.5 percent respectively in 1941(Cherian: 465). The educational activities encouraged by the colonial powers made a new culture of using western goods. It was one of the main aims of colonialism. It also changed the taste of new educated middle class. They looked for western house, food, dress, manners, luxuries, professions, family organization etc. But in the other side the western education become a powerful instrument in increasing the number of those who learnt to think independently. It equipped the new middle class to think about his future with self- dignity. It also helped the backward communities to increase their views on the world and imbibe modern ideas. Gradually they were forced to replace their unwanted customs and rites in connection with the caste discrimination. They had to think about the imbalance of the concepts in their own religions. They started to compare their rites and customs with the new ideas introduced by the new education. The educated new group from both low caste and higher caste realized the inquality in their religion and society. They tried to reconstruct the society and create favourable conditions for social change. (Ramachandran Nair S, 1999:3)
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Life and works of Chattampiswamikal
Chattampiswamikal, one of the main leaders of social reformation in Kerala was considered as the fighter against caste discrimination in Kerala. Born in a Nair family, he had to address the hierarchy of jati system and the supremacy of brahminic concepts in the society. The caste of Chattampiswamikal is an unavoidable element when a researcher tries to approach him for a study. The social condition of Kerala during 19th and 20th century has already discussed in the first part of this study. Caste discrimination was the main issue which the leaders had to face. Chattampiswamikal was a child born from a sambadham relation of a Brahmin. Most of the Nair family followed the system of sambandham and matriarchy or the marumakkathayam. Every rite or custom of each caste and subcaste was created for the interest of brahminic hegemony in the society. The sambandha system was also shaped with the interest of brahminic interests. It was not considered as the legal marriage but a Brahmin can approach the Nair woman only for sexual relation. He had the right to meet with the girl in her house or taravadu. The karanavars of the house believed that the sambandha relation of the woman in the family with a Brahmin is a way for social dignity. It is noted that the Brahmin man can stop his relation without any permission and the child born from this relation had no right on the properties of his father. Brahmins never considered these children as their progenies. This custom had developed in the basis of the Brahminic interests. Only the elder son of the Brahmin family has the right to marry a Brahmin girl. All the younger brothers had to follow the custom of Sambandham. Due to these systems, no wealth especially the land, of the family would be parted. The marumakkathaya system or matriarchy was also moulded for the interests of Brahminic supremacy. The myths, smrtis and other texts in ancient Kerala clearly gave the sanction of the sambandha
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system of Brahmins with the sudras, better known as Nairs (Padmadas K.L, 2016: 7-8).
Chattampiswamikal was born on August 25, 1853 at Ullurkode of Thiruvananthapuram. Nangammappillai was his mother and his father’s name was Anandasarma. Like most of the fathers of the sambandha system, Anandasarma never cared his son. The son had no right to approach his father, because he is born from a sudra lady. As a result of this social custom, most of the Nairs had to face this social dilemma. Though they were the progeny of higher caste of Brahmana, they were treated as sudra. Sudra had no right to approach the Brahmin even he is born from a Brahmin. Kunjanpillai faced this problem. The early name of Chattampi Swami was Ayyappan and he was called Kunjanpillai. His boyhood life was very miserable. Poverty was very common even in a Nair family in those days.
The leaders were usually called Chattampi or Chattanpillai means one who controls the others based on same laws. Then Kunjanpillai became a Chattampi of gurukuala. The name Chattampi was never given up till the end of his life. He became a deep scholar in Malayalam, Tamil, Sanskrit and Mathematics. He began to learn more subjects like music and arts and read more books related with all subjects. According to some scholars, Kunjanpillai participated in the work of the building of secretariat at Trivandrum as a labourer (MaheswaranNair, 1995: 57). After some years he became a clerk in the same building. He gave up all these jobs and started to wander. He met more scholars and participated in the organizations of social reformations. He got hundreds of disciples from Thiruvananthapuram to Irigalakkuda. Chattampiswamikal gave more attention on literary field and started to write books. Though he had disciples from many castes, most of the disciples of Chattampiswamikal were educated Nairs
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(Maheswaran Nair, 1995: 31-100). After a long fruitful journey of life, ChattampiSwamikal died on 5th of May 1924.
Works of Chattampiswamikal
The life of Chattampiswamikal had many facets, that of a social activist, religious reformer, philosopher, musician, writer and a great orator. His writings have contributed a great deal to the process of social mobility and reformation in Kerala. He was well versed in Malayalam, Sanskrit and Tamil. His knowledge in music gave more popularity and beauty to the stotras he composed. He wrote a number of books including philosophical works, criticism on society, translations, stotras, prose and poetry.
Chattampiswamikal was a great writer in the field of culture and renaissance. Though his works are very few in number, the books of Chattampiswamikal deeply influenced on the common people. The important works of Chattampiswamikal are Kristumatachedanam, Pracheenamalayalam, Adibhasha, Advaitachinthapadhathy, Advaitaparijatham, Brahmathatvanirbhasam, Nijananthavilasam, Jeevakarunyanirupanam, Manonasham, Mokshapradeepakhandanam, Srichakrapoojakal,Punarjanmanirupanam, Paramashivasthavam, Tarkarahasyaratnam,Deshanamangal andVedadhikaranirupanam.
Vedadhikaranirupanam
Vedadhikaranirupanam is the important work which clearly reveals the vision of ChattampiSwamikal on society and culture. The work declares the social concept and reformative tendencies of a renaissance leader who strictly believed in an egalitarian society. The core concept of the book is against the social stratification based of varna system. He affirmed the right of the out casted people to learn the sacred texts; especially the Vedas. As the name of the work indicates, the content of the book is a long discussion against the ban of
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the vedicreligion on the right of the sudras to learn vedic texts. The work deeply analyses the issue and searches for the authority of Vedas. The authority to learn Veda, according to orthodox concepts, is only the twice born people or dvijas. Chattampi Swami rejects this concept and states the right of sudras to learn Veda and the education of other subjects related with Vedic corpus.
Vedadhikaranirupana¸ is a work which is written with a view to the deconstruction of traditional view that the sudras should be restricted from the Vedic education. This tradition cannot be treated as more usual concept which was derived gradually in time to time. It has a clear historical course throughout the traditional scriptures. Here, the aim of ChattampiSwamikal clearly reaches at the space of Sri Sankara who is believed as the strict opponent of the vedic education of depressed class and sudras. In his bhashya of Brahmasutra, Sankara vehemently opposed the vedic education of sudras and recognize that the only authority of Vedas is the twice born. He uses more space to explain this argument and cites vedic scriptures and even the smriti texts which was considered as the secondary source of pramana.
Chattampiswamikal considered the concept of Sankara on education of sudrasthe result of Brahminic hegemony in the society. The concepts of Sankara were deeply influenced on the elitebrahmin groups in Kerala and the sudra class, better known as Nairs, was to force to follow these customs strictly. Chattampiswamikal tried to destruct the Brahmin oriented concept of education and gave more importance to problem of common education.
He divided the book Vedadhikaranirupana in to five chapters. The chaptorisation of the work is highly systematic. Among these chapters, the first chapter Vedaswaroopam gives a detail description on the Vedas and its categories. So the first chapter can be treated as an introductory note to vedic corpus. In the second chapter,
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Chattampiswamikal analyses the infalliability of Vedas. He explains the various arguments about the authenticity of Vedas as pramana. The third chapter named Adhikaranirupana is the core of the book. Criticism of Chattampiswamikal on the views of Sri Sankara related with the rights of sudra education are discussed here. He cites various upanishads, brahmanas and other Vedic texts to criticize the orthodox concepts on vedic education of the sudras. Chattampiswamikal gave more attention to defend Sri Sakara’s arguments explained in the apasudradhikaranabashya in Brahmasutra. He declares that the arguments of Sri Sankaraon the education of sudra are completely nonsense. No Veda restricts the sudra from the vedic education. More over many of the arguments and contexts in the vediccorpus give permission to the common people to learn Veda irrespective of varna or gender. Pramanantharavichara, the fourth chapter, discusses the other evidences for the right of education. In this chapter, Chattampiswamikal gives a brief discussion on the Smriti texts and dharmasutras where the education of sudras is permitted. He gives more examples for the invalidity of sudras which vehemently opposed the vedic education of sudra. The fifth chapter of the work is highly considerable here. The name of the fifth chapter, Yuktivicharam, clearly shows the influence of modern and western concepts on the views of Chattampiswamikal. Yukti or reason is one of the main tools of renaissance leaders in colonial milieu. So the last chapter is the final argument of Chattampiswamikal for the right of the education of common people based on reason of human beings.
Most of the theists Philosophers and scholar believe that the Vedas are aparusheya. According to them the Vedas are not manmade. Some of the theist traditional scholar says that it has an author and the God alone is the protector and the universe created by god is the Veda. The former group is called srautas and the latter is prapanchavedis (Chattampiswamikal, 1990:1). Chattampiswamikal also discusses the
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arguments of the Charvakas on the Veda and its authors (17). He reveals that the Brihaspati has opined that the Vedas have their authors and these authors are money mongers, prodgals and nishacharasor rakshasas (17). It is considerable that Chattampiswamikal does not try to defend them. He gives the logical possibilities behind this opinion of the Brihaspati school of thought.
Though he is a lover of vedic tradition he do not accept the unwanted custom of the vedic religion; especially the vedic rituals including the yagas. He, being an advaita philosopher, rejected the animal sacrifices in this tradition and gave more examples for the rejection of Karma theory. He underlines that the fundamental reality and the duty of the man are not the rites but it is the knowledge on the ultimate reality based on Advaitic concepts. He does not want the infallibility of vedic Corpus. He does not compel for the divine origin Vedas. He wanted to say that the author of the Vedas is human being:
“It is just a decision of false prestige hence irrational. Unless a unanimous and clear decision is made among those scriptures so as to say such and such is god’s creation and some of them is manmade, none shall be assigned to god’s creation. It is highly logical and rational to think that everything is created by human beings. What is the benefit in considering these manmade as god’s creation, on the strength of aprescription that it is god’s creation?” (8).
Whoever kills animals for the rites of shaktipooja or for the sacrifies there is no other way of repentance than Kumbhipaka hell. For the sake of pitrukarma or for the sake of filling up of one’s own belly, a person who kills an animal should fall on the raurava hell. If the bloodshed by the animal tied on the yupa opens the door of heaven to them for whom the door of hall is opened. The discussion of Parameshwara and Parvati in Padmottarapaurana¸ reveals all these facts (6-7).
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The rites like the sexual intercourse of the brahmacari with the widow in the yaga of paundhareka, the reference of the lady placing the sexual intercourse of the brahmacari with the Kulata in the reference of ‘mahavratakhyayajnebrahmacharitvaryoratamabhimatam’ are never accepted by the noble men while thousands of Vedas recognised it. That is why the learned people tried to reject the elements that is accepted in the common rites without considering the time and space in the Vedas. (7)
Chattampiswamikal argues that the vedic scriptures are not infalliable. The unwanted elements in the vedic scriptures should be rejected. If all the words in the vedic corpus are truth, it should be produced by the ultimate reality or the god. But, according to him, there are many contradictions and unwanted elements in the vedic literature. So we can say that these are created by the human beings. He says:
“It is logical and rational to say that all those things are created by human beings. What is the use in considering those creations of men as the creation of god, on the strength of a prescription that it is god’s creation?”(8)
So, according to Chattampiswami, there is no want to despise the opinion that the men who were considered as the gods are the authors of Veda. Not only that it should not be condemned on the pretext is that it not a divine creation but also it is undoubtful that it will only be advantageous and useful, if we identify its qualities and perform them with honour (9-10) Here, he gives a clear indication that the Vedas are not beyond criticism. The Vedas can be considered as the creation of learned men. It may not be considered as the fault proof text. Men are not perfect and their creation is not also accepted as perfect. Thus the directions of Vedas are also treated as imperfect. It shouldn’t be explained without considering time and place.
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Vedadhikaranirupana mainly tries to prove two facts that the vedic literature depicts a clear picture on the right of Kshatriya on the teaching of Veda and the right of sudra to learn Veda. He gives examples from the vedic text for the right of Kshatriyas to teach Veda and the right of sudra to learn it.
Thus, at first Chattampiswamikal explains the right of Kshatriyas to teach Veda. He cites the story of the king Ajatashatru who taught the brahmavidya to the Brahmin Gargya in Brihadaranyakopanishad (2.1.14).
Though the Gargya was aware of the fact that traditionally Brahmin is only competent to teach, yet accepting the direction of the king that he has to learn more about the Veda that he has already aquired. Ajatasatru consented to teach Gargya. Here, Chattampiswamikal argues that there are some anti- traditional elements in this example. The tradition was not the only element in the Vedic education (20).
In another context, Pracheenasala, Satyaprajna, Indradhyumna, Jana, Budhila and Uddhalaka approached the king Ashvapati to learn about the Brahmavidya (CH 5.11:6-7).
In the fifth chapter, of the Chandogyopanishad, the son of Asuri, svetaketu having been defeated by the king Pravahana¸a son of Jivala on the topic of Vedanta complained his father and informed the same (Chattampiswamikal, 21). The father and son of approached the king Pravahana¸ to learn the knowledge of Brahma. Accepting the requestthe king said that it is always the Kshatriya have the right to teach Brahmvidya. Therefore l can teach you both (CH.5. 3.17).
Considering all these facts, Chattampiswamikal declares that all these examples from the Veda itself, are evidence to disprove the opinion that the Kshatriya is not empowered to teach the Vedas (25).
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After the brief discussion on the right of the Kshatriyas to teach the Veda, Chattampiswamikal explains the sudras to learn Veda depicted in the Vedic corpus.
To establish the vedic approval of the right of sudra to learn Veda, Chattampiswamikal gives instances from various upanisads. At first, he describes the story of Janasruthi in Chandogyopanishad. It is noted that the same instance is used by Sri Sankara as the justification for the rightlessness of the vedic education of sudra. The story is interpreted for the right of vedic education of sudra by Chattampiswamikal. Here, he cannot continue his discussion without opposing the arguments of Sri Sankara revealed in the bashya ofBrahmasutra. He gives a brief discussion on the story of Janasruthi in the fourth chapter of Chandogyopanishad. Janasruthi approached the sage Raikva to learn Brahmavidya. But Raika refused and ridiculed him saying that, being a sudra he might keep his cows with himself. Janasruthi approached again the Raikva with more wealth and his daughter. Raikva,then, accepted his appeal and advised him the secret of the vedic knowledge (26-27)
After the explanation of the story of Janasruthi, Chattampiswamikalproclaims that the commentary of the five sutras of Brahmasutra, named apasudradhikarana, forged and made the sudraJanasruti as kshatriya. This is against the fact. He is sudra by caste and he got vedic knowledge from Raikva. But, here, the commentators stated him as a Kshatriya Chattampiswamikal says that if Janasutri was a Kshatriya he could vindicate it to Raikva. He did not want to return with more wealth. He never tried to reveal that he was a Kshatriya. So, according to Chattampiswamikal, Janasruti was a sudra and the avayavartha is not applicable here (28).
Chattampiswamikal vehemently opposed the interpretations of Sankara on the five sutras. Most of the scholars can understand that
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the meaning of the term sudra is the fourth varna. Knowing this fact, Sankara and other commentators deny the fact with heavy effort and valor. By seeing all these efforts made by the commentators, one can say that if the argument against the sudra did not established the commentators are afraid of that the Janasruti could get the place of sudra. Here, the panic of the commentators is very clear. Chattampiswamikal discloses this trepidation of the orthodox commentators (28). He expresses the various facets of the arguement that the avayavartha of the term sudra is not suit for the context. Here, the term undoubtedly indicates his caste. The refutation of Raikva at the first time of Janasruti’s approach also reveals that he was a sudra. According to Chattampiswamikal, there is no reason to reject a kshatriya in the story of Janasruti. If Janasruti is a kshatriya, no reason for the rejection is explained at the first chance (29).
For a deep knowledge, Chattampiswamikal cites the translation of apasudradhikarana of Brahmasutrasankarabhashya from his book Pracheenamalayalam(31-36). He refused and opposed the arguments of Sankara and interpreted the references used by him. The story of Jabala revealed by Sankara is also interpreted towards the right of vedic education of sudra (29).
Chattampiswamikal gives two examples for the right of sudras to learn Veda. The vedic scriptures sometimes treated the sudras as the authority of Vedas. The AitareyaBrahmana¸ describes the story of a hunter named Kavashana. He learnt Vedas and had participated in the sacrifices along with the Brahmins and enjoyed all the privileges of a Brahmin (2-3). While the sages were doing a sacrifice in the banks of the river Saraswati, they noticed the presence of Kavasha, the son of Ilusha and a Dasi among them. Being a non-Brahmin and a hunter they questioned that how can he perform the yaga with him, and they expelled him. They sent him to a desert so that he could die without drinking water from the river Saraswati. But the thirsty Kavasha
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started to create a hymn having fifteen verses begins with aponaptriyampradevatrabrahmangaturetu. Soon the river Saraswati began to flow around him. Knowing these, the sages exclaimed and decided to bring him back. They started to perform the sacrifice named aponaptriya with the help of Kavasha(AB, 8.1).
The same tale can be seen in the KaushitakiBrahmana(12.3). After the citation Chattampiswamikal says that when the sukta named aponaptriya created by a hunter in loneliness before attaining the status of a sage is included in the Veda, who can able to say that there is no right to learn Veda(Chattampiswamikal: 39).
The second instance he cites from the Veda is Kaksivan, the son of a sudra lady Usik is also treated as an intellect in the RigVeda (1.18.1). Thus he concludes that no reference can be seen in the vedic corpus to expel the sudra from the vedic education.
Besides the justification of the right of vedic teaching and learning from Vedas, Chattampiswamikal gives more evidence from other sources to state the right of vedic education for the sudra. He aimed at two points of arguments that the Vedas are the primary source and the smritis and other texts, according to tradition, should be treated as secondary evidences. He states that no references can be seen against the education of sudra in smriti text. If there are some indications which can be traced, it is invalid because it is contrary to the vedic tradition. If any contradictory arguments can be proclaimed in both Vedas and smritis, the former should be treated as valid (43).
One can understand the subjects from the Smritis that we fail to see in Vedas. The subjects that are not seen in both Vedas and Smritis shall be accepted from Puranas. If there is any contradiction among these three scriptures the Smriti is stronger than Puranas and the Veda is stronger than Smriti.(43) Chattampiswamikal
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again gives two citation from JabalaSmriti and VyasaSmrti to prove the eminence of Vedic texts among other scriptures.
The discussions and explanations in the fifth chapter of the Vedadhikaranirupanaof Chattampiswamikal can be considered as the indication of the transitional phase of the visions of the society towards modern concepts. The fifth chapter depicts the vision of a rationalist philosopher. Chattampiswamikal uses the reason as a tool for discussion and it was a paradigm shift from the orthodox methodology. He asserts that the statement that the sudra has no right to learn Veda is entirely irrational. That is why; he asks that whether the statements that sudrashalln’t attain the knowledge of the Vedas coincide with the logic? (51). He also depends on the concept and logic of other religions. It is against the fundamental ideas of every religion. Chattampiswamikal affirms that the orthodox Brahmins believe that the shabda of the Veda is important and the artha or meaning is not necessary. He says that it is absolutely wrong. One should consider the gem as important as its case. The orthodox Brahmins believe that the box of the gem is priceless than the gem. The meaning of Veda is important. Chattampiswamikal proclaims that the sudras are usually permitted to learn the puranas. Most of the puranas contain the statements and the mantras of the Vedas. So they can understand the meanings of Veda. Then how can the Brahmins stop the sudras from the Vedic wisdom? (53) He says that no one can argue that the sudras have no right to learn puranas because some of the authors of the puranas are sudras. He mentioned the name of the author of Suktasamhitha. Moreover, he refers the name of Parashara and Vyasa who were the sons of women from downtrodden community. The orthodox reply that the fathers of the both men were Brahmin is also illogical. If the varna of somebody has been decided by the varna of the father as in the case of the aforesaid men, the varna of Pandu, Dhridharashtra and Vidura can also be treated as Brahmin. But the
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first two are Kshatriyas and the third one is considered as sudra because of the varnas of their mothers. Here, Chattampiswamikal gave more attention on the discussion of the criteria of the varna. It is also noted that the karma should be treated as the criterion of ones varna. It shouldn’t be the birth. If one argues that the birth is the only criterion to decide ones varna, most of the sudras or Nairs in Kerala should be treated as Brahmins because they are progenies of Brahmins as in the case of Vyasa and Parashara (55-56). He again affirms that if the orthodox Brahmins try to argue that the birth of a person should also considered as a criterion of his varna, the Vedic reference of Kavasha and the tale of Vishwamitra should be rejected. Both of them are converted their birth varna (Ibid).
Chattampiswamikal proclaims that no Brahmin has the right to obstruct the sudras from his education. He criticized that after attaining all vedic knowledge, even if he is Vedic intellect, if he doesnot perform his duty for the society, he would be the Brahmin donkey (55). Chattampiswamikal declares that there is the right for every person to attain the knowledge irrespective of caste, religion and gender. There is no tax for knowledge (54). He concludes: “Finally, when somebody says that the sudra should not eat, who agrees with it? Like the food is necessary to live in the world, the knowledge is essential not only for this world but also for any world. So, being a sudra, if one has been denied of knowledge, there is no justification for it. It might be not only due to the jealousy but also because of the perplexity of the degradation of the Brahmins. Their selfishness and vested interests are also the reason for this issue. They wish to distribute the knowledge only through their hands because they want to lead the people to their own way and like to earn profit from it. No one should obey these procedures. The Christians and Muslims permitted everyone to learn their sacred texts. How can we think that if the sudras learn the Vedas, the greatness of these texts would be decreased? If the greatness of the
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Vedas, which is treated as the purifier of the conduct of everybody, became low because of the study of sudras, how can this greatness remains? How can it purify the people? Is there any object that purifies the fire in the world? Therefore, there is no degradation of the greatness of the Vedas if anybody learns it. In other words, the degraded status of the sudra class can attain better position in another phase. So all the men who have the longing and good conduct are eligible for knowledge. If someone despises another as kindless for not giving food for a hungry man, then what name shall we call a person who denies the knowledge that is more essential than food. Learning assimilates even the hard action. The heart and justice of the butcher are the example for it. So, learning the obduracy, it should be better to give the knowledge everybody who wants to learn with a view that it is the ultimate duty and compassion” (60-61).
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Balakrishnan PK(ed) 2000 JathivyavasthayumKeralacharithravum, Kozhikode, Pooma Publications.
Bhaskaranunni P. 1988 PathompattamNoottandileKeralam, Thrissur, Kerala Sahitya Academy
Chandrika B 2012 Vedadikaranirupana, Feroke, Vidyarthi Publications.
Chattambiswamikal 2005 Aadibhasha, Thiruvananthapuram, Mathrubhumi Books.
ChattampiSwamikal 1990 Vedadhikaranirupanam, Chengannur, NityaBharathi Books.
Chattampiswamikal 1997 KristumataCcedanam, Elamakkara, KurushetraPrakashanam.
Cherian PJ(ed) 1999 Perspectives on Kerala History (Vol II) Kerala, State Gazetteer.
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E.M.S. 1984 Kerala Society and Politics, New Delhi, National Book Centre
E.M.S. 2009 KeralamMalayalikaludeMathrubhumi, Thiruvananthapuram, Chintha Publishers.
GanganathJha 1999 Manusmriti, Delhi, MotilalBanarasidas.
Jeffrey Robin 1976 The Decline of Nair Dominance, Sussex University Press.
Keith, Arthur Berriedale 1998 RigvedaBrahmanas: the Aitareya and KaushitakiBrahmanas of the Rigveda, New Delhi, MotilalBanarasidas
Krishna Warrier AG 2009 BrahmasutraSankarabhashya (Volume II), Thiruvananthapuram, University of Kerala.
Krishna Warrier AG 2009 BrahmasutraSankarabhashya(Volume I), Thiruvananthapuram, University of Kerala.
Logan Williams 1995 Malabar Asian Educational Service, New Delhi.
Mahadev Desai 1937 The Epic of Travancore, Ahmedabad
Maheshwaran Nair K. 1995 ChattampiSwamikal- JeevithavumKrithikalum, Thiruvananthapuram, Dooma Books.
Majumdar RC(ed) 1962 The History and Culture of Indian People, Bombay, BharatheeyaVidhyaBhavan.
Majumdar RC(ed) 1962 The History and Culture of Indian People, Bombay, BharatheeyaVidhyaBhavan.
Menon PK 2001 The History of Freedom Movement of Kerala (Vol I) Thiruvananthapuram. , Department of Cultural Publication
Olivelle, Patrick 1999 Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press.
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Osella C and Osella F 2000 Social Mobility of Kerala, London
Padmadas K.L. 2016 The Concept of Dharma Theory and Praxis, New Delhi, New Bharatiya Book Corporation.
PanikkasseryVelayudhan 1970 Dr.Palpu, Thrissur.
Ramachandran Nair S 1999 Social and Cultural History of Colonial Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram.
SubrahmanyaIyyar 1932 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee.
Swami Swahananda 1975 Chandogyopanisad ,Puranattukara ,Sree Ramakrishna Math
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DAIRY VALUE CHAINS ANALYSIS IN SELECTED AREAS OF GAMBELLA REGION, SOUTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA
Jemberu Alemu Megenas and Ketema Tilahun Gelaye Gambella University, College of Agriculture and Natural Resource
ABSTRACT
Analysis of dairy value chain was conducted in selected districts of Gambella regional state, south western Ethiopia from March 2016 to September 2016 to examine how the chain is organized, coordinated and functioning including linkages between the key actors along the value chain. Purposive and simple random sampling was employed as sampling techniques to select a total of 120 smallholder dairy farmers. Data was collected from respondents through semi-structured questionnaire survey. The results revealed that, large proportion (53.3%) of the sampled dairy producers’ was aged between 45 and 64 years, with 53 years being the average age for sampled dairy producers. Most (66.7%) of the sampled dairy producers were male. About 3.3% and 4.2% of the sampled milk producers attained primary and secondary level education and most (55.8%) of the sampled milk producers had experience of more than 5 years in milk production. Dairy cattle keeping were the primary occupation by 66.7% of sample dairy producers. Majority (66.7%) of the sampled milk producers were not visited by community animal health workers to their homes for treatment of sick animals. Plastic utensils were identified as the most common type of utensils used for milk handling by milk producers in the study area. Most (62.5%) of the sampled dairy producers used on foot as means of transporting milk during milk selling. Constraints that were reported by relatively large proportion of respondents were diseases and deaths of animals (19.1%) and unreliable fodder availability especially in the dry season (18.1%). Out of the total interviewed dairy farmers, 99% of the respondents sold their raw milk through informal milk marketing channels. Most (43.3%) of these consumers were below 18 years of age. Small scale operations at all stages of the value chain with dairy producers, keeping medium dairy herds, traditional processors operating under capacity and marketing agents handling small quantities of dairy products were identified. Strengthening of dairy farmers in milk value www.ijmer.in 78
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chain, adequate inputs providing and further research on the improvement of dairy sector in the region are recommended.
Key words: Dairy, Districts, Milk, Value Chain
INTRODUCTION
Livestock ownership currently supports or sustains the livelihoods of an estimated 70% of the world’s rural poor population (Geleti et al., 2014). The dairy cow is one of the most important investments a farmer can make to improve their standing (ILRI, 2003) because of their inherent value, the nutritional valuable milk produced, the work they can perform, and the way it can help diversify farming activities. The importance of the dairy cow is expected to increase as food imports to sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are projected to more than double by 2030 under a business as usual scenario (The World Bank, 2008).
More than 80% of the Ethiopian population is dependent on agriculture and of which livestock production plays a significant role (Bureau of African Affairs, 2006). The contribution of livestock and livestock products to the agricultural economy accounts for 40%, excluding the values of draught power, transport and manure (Geleti et al., 2014). Ethiopia has a huge potential for dairy development, with the number of milking cows estimated to be around 9.9 million heads (CSA, 2008). Cattle milk constitutes the larger population of the milk produced nationally (83%), with the remainder coming from goats and camels (MoARD, 2007).
In Gambella region, livestock production is the main economic stay of larger segment of the society (Ketema, 2007).The sub-sector is facing a number of constraints: pure and cross-bred dairy cattle accounts for less than 1%; their productivity is low (CSA, 2008) and the quantity and quality of the feed resources used in feeding them is inadequate (Tolera, 2008; Tefera, 2010). A studyby (Tesfaye et al., 2010) indicated that only 0.15% of farmers practice on farm improved forage production and use of protein and energy feeds is negligible (0.8%). Similarly, market-orientation of the sub-sector was reported to be limited due, among others to high transaction costs (Ahmed et al., 2004). www.ijmer.in 79
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Value chain in the present context is used to refer to a range of actors and activities from production to consumption and the dynamic relationships between actors involved in the dairy production systems (Rich et al., 2011; Seife et al., 2012). Development of a vertically integrated and coordinated milk value chain is thus an important option to reduce operational and transaction costs to meet consumers’ demand and to encourage partnerships along the chain (Costales et al., 2006; Mendoza and Thelen, 2008).
Based on the nature of dairy production being studied, dairy value chain consists of various stages which, among others, can include: input supply, production, processing, marketing and consumption (Geleti et al., 2014). It may also encompass a range of value chain enablers interacting within the border of a given commodity value chain or beyond border in different ways to sustain the operation of the entire chain than dealing with specific inputs required at a given stage of the chain (Debele and Verschuur, 2014).These necessitates visualization of the whole value chain segments from input supply to consumption through a value chain lens and analyze it using a chain framework to better understand the constraints embedding in the chain and be able to initiate holistic value chain development interventions in Gambella region. Therefore, the study was designed for the following objectives: To analyze the dairy value chain in the Gambella milk shed in order to provide information for improving linkages between actors and efficiency of the dairy value chain.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
StudyArea
The study was conducted in Gambella Regional State (Itang special district, Lare and Makuey districts) which are located in the southwest part of Ethiopia, situated in the lowlands of the Baro-Akobo River Basin between latitudes 6022' and 8030' N, and longitudes 33010'and 35050' E, and the region covers a total area of about 34,063 square kilometers (GRS, 2003). The annual rainfall and mean annual temperature in the Regional State are 1,247 mm and 34.37 0C, respectively (IAR, 1990). The major cattle breed is the Nuer (zebu) which is a very good performer in dairying and beef production provided proper management
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levels (GRS, 2003) and considered to have high tolerance to tsetse challenges (Alemayehu, 2004).
Based on the 2013/2014 Census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), the Gambella Region has total population estimation of 406,000 (CSA, 2013/2014) and livestock population of Gambella 360,462 cattle, 39,564 sheep and 83,897 goat (CSA, 2010/2011)
Study districts
Figure 1: Map of the study area
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Site Selection, Sample Size and Sampling Procedures
Three representative sites (districts) were selected purposively based on their livestock population and milk shed. A total of 120 farmers and pastoralists were included in the study sites in collaboration with livestock experts for gathering farm level primary data by the use of the formula by Arsham, 2007 (0.25/SE2) and to be more accurate 20% additional sample was included. A value chain framework were used to identify actors; involved and their core functions (Anandajayasekeram and Gebremedhin, 2009).
Data collection
Primary data were gathered through a combination of techniques; key informant interview, focused group discussion and personal farm visits and discussion with farmers using semi- structured questionnaires between March 2016 and June 2016. Secondary sources of information relevant to the subject were collected from various published and grey literatures and were reviewed to extract additional information to complete the primary data.
Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA)
The PRA was conducted in March 2016 before the actual data collection. It was designed to capture data and information that were used to identify the constraints facing the actors along the dairy value chain and to identify marketing channels. The PRA exercise started with discussions with officials from the regional office of Agriculture, Cooperatives (Makuey districts) and office of Livestock and fishery Development to obtain their views on the general status of the dairy sector and dairy value chain in the region. Depending on availability and willingness of respondents to participate in the PRA; selection of members of focus group discussions followed purposive sampling where members were selected from a population of actors who kept dairy animals, processed, sold or bought milk products.
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Questionnaire survey
A structured questionnaire was designed to collect both qualitative and quantitative data from the sample actors, to capture general background information of the respondent, to collect information on milk production, capturing information on traditional milk processing, and gathering information on milk marketing and to collect information on milk consumption. With the exception of section five, all the remaining sections incorporated cross cutting information such as milk handling practices and preservation.
Statistical analysis Data collected through semi- structured questionnaire survey was coded, entered, edited and analyzed by using SPSS statistical software of version 20.Chi-Square tests and descriptive statistics were used to analysis of the survey data collected from smallholder dairy farmers through semi- structured questionnaire survey in the study area.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio Economic Characteristics of Sample Dairy Producers
Age distribution
Age can affect experience, wealth and decision making which in turn affect how one works and hence can influence individual productivity (Singh et al., 2003; Hoppe, 2002).Table 1 reveals that, a large proportion (53.3%) of the sampled dairy producers’ was aged between 45 and 64 years, with 53 years being the average age for sampled dairy producers. Most (57%) of those aged 45 to 64 years of age were found in Lare district.
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Table 1: Age structure of sampled dairy producers Districts Variables Itang (n=30) Lare (n=50) Makuey (n=40) All districts (n=120) Age (Years) Maximum age 73 73 73 73 Minimum age 35 35 35 35 Mean age 54 52 53 53 % of respondents who are: Below 30 years 0 0 0 0 old 30 to 44 years old 30 27 29 28.7 45 to 64 years old 55 57 54 53.3 Above 64 years 15 16 17 16 old
Gender distribution
Table 2 indicates that, most (66.7%) of the sampled dairy producers were male, with Lare district having most (72%) males participating in dairy production. Mishili et al. (2002) in their study on dairy production in Morogoro municipality reported similar findings that more males than females were involved in milk production. Table 2: Gender structure of sampled dairy producers
Variable Itang (n=30) Lare (n=50) Makuey (n=40) All districts % (n=120) Gender Male 18 36 27 66.7 Female 22 14 13 33.3
Education level and experience in milk production
Level of education in milk production is relevant in learning and understanding new milk production practices. About 3.3% and 4.2% of the sampled milk producers attained primary and secondary level education (Table 3). Lare and Makuey district had more respondents with secondary and primary level of education respectively compared to Itang. The level of education has a significant value on house hold and dairy production x2 =0.736 and p-value of 0.007 which means the higher the education level the lower house hold and higher dairy production.
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Table 3: Education level and experience in milk production Districts Variables Itang (n=30) Lare (n=50) Makuey (n=40) All districts (n=120) Education level Non educated 28 46 37 111 Primary 1 1 2 4 Secondary 1 3 1 5 Post-secondary 0 0 0 0 Experience in milk production 1-2 years 3 7 5 15 3-4 years 10 15 13 38 More than 5 years 17 28 22 67
Table 3 reveals that, most (55.8%) of the sampled milk producers had experience of more than 5 years in milk production. Experience of more than 5 years is an indication of gradual development of competence in milk production. Longer experience in dairy business would enable the milk producers to increase productivity and improve quality of products.
Household size
The total average household size for sampled households in Lare and Makuey district was 10 household members while the total average household size of sampled households in Itang district was 9 household members. It appears that, the average number of people in a household for Lare and Makuey district was higher compared to Itang district.
Table 4: Household size and age structure Districts Minimum Maximum Average Lare 5 19 10 Makuey 5 19 10 Itang 6 18 9 All districts 5 19 9.5
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Occupation of heads of sampled households
Dairy cattle keeping were the primary occupation by 66.7% of sampled dairy producers. A slightly higher proportion (70%) of the sample dairy producers in Itang district indicated keeping cattle as their primary occupation compared to sample households in Lare (68%) and Makuey (60%). Only few (7.7% and 10%) in Itang and Makuey districts respectively reported dairying as their secondary occupation. Most (68.7%) households reported crop production activities as their secondary occupation.
Dairy production
Source of initial capital for dairy production Capital is essential and enables people to utilize opportunities that emerge in production or marketing of a product. The source of capital can be from own savings or credit (Schrader et al., 2005). At the study area, own saving was the main source of startup capital reported by 52.5% of sampled dairy producers, with Lare (56%) district having the highest proportion of respondents using own saving. Only 32.5 % of sampled dairy producers reported use of family forthe source of initial capital for dairy production.
Cattle herd size and structure
According to Sarwatt and Njau (1990), herd size is an important determinant of milk production. The average total herd size was 11 dairy cattle for Lare district; however the average total herd size for Itang district was slightly higher at 15 cattle than Makuey. In Lare district, the average dairy herd size consisted of 6 cows, 3 heifers, 2 bulls, and 3 calves. In this case, the maximum herd size was 40 cows, 7 heifers and 10 bulls and 15 calves. The minimum herd size was 2 cows, 3 heifers and 1 bull. For all districts in the study area, the minimum size of dairy herd was 6 dairy cattle while the average size was 31 dairy cattle and the maximum size was81 dairy cattle. Data also shows that, the sampled milk producers in Lare district kept more cattle than producers in Itang and Makuey districts.
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Dairy cattle feeding management
Most (99%) of sampled dairy producers practiced grazing as a feeding system with Lare and Makuey district having more producers (100%) practicing this feeding system than Itang district (Table 5). This is completely dis agreed with a study by Urassa (1998) in Tanga noted that animals are zero grazed and partially grazed on nearby pastures. Availability of grazing land influences farmers to send out animals to graze. Farmers however still have to purchase other feeds to supplement grazing. Table 5: Dairy cattle feeding management
Variables % Distribution by district All Lare Makuey Itang
Type of feeding system Zero grazing 0 0 0 0 Semi grazing 0 0 1 1 Grazing 100 100 99 99 Use of Purchased feeds Yes 5 3 3 11 No 45 37 27 109
Animal diseases and treatment
Majority (66.7%) of the sampled milk producers were not visited by community animal health workers their homes for treatment of sick animals. Only 10.3% of the sample dairy producers took their animals to the veterinary clinics for treatment. This was done in order to avoid the extra costs of paying transport, over and above the costs of treatment. After administering drugs to the animals, most 90(90%) of the sample milk producers reported that they waited either between 1 to 2 days or 3 to 5 days before milking the treated animals. The recommended duration is to wait for 2 days before milking a treated animal. The commonly treated diseases were mastitis, Pasteurellosis, Anthrax, CBPP, LSD and foot and mouth disease.
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Table 6: Distribution of sampled producers by mode of treatment of animals Variables % Distribution by District Lare (n=50) Makuey(n=40) Itang (n=30) All districts Animal Treatment Own treatment by use 26 20 20 22.5 of purchased drugs Take animal to vet 34 37.5 33.3 35 clinic Visited by CAHWs at 10 10 13.3 10.8 home No treatment 30 32.5 33.4 31.7
Milk production by season
Milk production varies with season. The average milk produced per day in the study area was 8 liters of liquid milk and 16 liters of liquid milk for the dry season and wet season respectively. However in Itang district, milk production levels were higher than in Lare and Makuey districts. The dry season occurs from February to May whilst wet season occurs from May to October with short dry spell for December. The amount of milk a cow can produce is directly related to the quality and quantity of feed she eats. The average milk production per cow per day for the sample producers in all district in the wet and dry seasons were 2.5 liters and 1.25liter per cow per day respectively.
Milk handling and preservation practices
Milk handling and preservation practices are among the important factors influencing milk hygiene and shelf life of milk. The type of utensils used, cleaning methods and preservation methods are essential in ensuring quality during milk handling. Plastic utensils were identified as the most common type of utensils used for milk handling by milk producers in the study area.
Most (77.5%) of sampled milk producers indicated using plastic utensils. All of the sampled dairy producers in Itang district used plastic utensils for milk handling and preservation. This is probably due to the fact that plastic utensils are relatively cheaper than aluminum utensils and therefore more affordable. Hygienically, however, plastics are discouraged due to the
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difficulties in cleaning them. About 47.5% of the sampled milk producers indicated that they cleaned their utensils with warm water and soap and sand. A study by Nyagori (2001) reported a similar finding, that cleaning of utensils was among the few quality control strategies used by small-scale farmers. Apart from cleaning utensils, hygiene was not observed during milking. All the sample milk producers reported to not wash their hands before milking and straining the milk after milking.
Milk is a highly perishable product; it requires special treatment to avoid deterioration of quality and total spoilage. Such treatment adds value to milk. The results in the study show that there is very little value addition to raw milk at the producer level. Treatments done after milking were mainly boiling. Refrigerating and boiling of milk was done to increase shelf life of milk. None of the sample households reported formal processing of milk into products of high value. Only natural fermentation of milk into sour milk was practiced by few (10.3%) of the sample producers.
Means of transporting milk
Due to the perishable nature of milk, the success of dairy marketing depends highly on the efficiency of transportation (Omore et al., 2004). Most (62.5%) of the sampled dairy producers used on foot as means of transporting milk during milk selling with all of the sampled dairy producers in Makuey district using this means of transporting milk. Other means of transporting milk in Itang district included public transport, use of bicycle and delivering milk on foot. The domination of on foot as means of milk transportation implies lack of access to other means of transport and therefore high losses due to milk spoilage particularly when moving long distances. On foot delivery implies larger share of the buyers are from the neighborhood. As a result this leads to lack of competition within the local milk market since milk is consumed and traded only within small radius and hence slow growth in milk supply.
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Constraints faced by dairy producers
Identification of constraints was necessary so as to recommend strategies, which will ensure improvement of milk production activities in the dairy sub sector. Table7 shows major factors that constrained dairy production in the study area. Constraints that were reported by relatively large proportion of respondents were diseases and deaths of animals (19.1%) and unreliable fodder availability especially in the dry season (18.1%). The problems of animal diseases and deaths were more evident in Makuey than Lare and Itang districts.
Table 7: Constraints faced by dairy producers in the study area Constraints % Distribution by district Lare (n=50) Makuey (n=40) Itang(n=30) All districts Animals diseases and 13 15 10 19.1 deaths Lack of capital 12 7 4 8 Unreliable fodder 30 33 26 18.1 availability Low selling prices 10 12 3 11 Unreliable market 17 13 17 15 Theft of animals 15 14 10 7 Lack of improved 3 6 30 11.8 cattle breeds
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Low volume of Perishability of Lack of Shortage of milk the products processing improved breeds/ production due during long facilities Lack of cross breed cow Low income to no Distance of such as facilities for Shortage of consumers supplement marketing plastic cup storage of animal feeds. did not want feeds Absence of cold and others processed absence of to buy milk Low availability chain High cost products artificial of animal feeds Lack of of milk insemination transportation equipment
Input supplying Marketing Producing Processing Retailing Consuming
Figure 2: Factors affecting milk value chain in the study areas.
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Constraints to milk processing
Unlike producers, processors reported the problem of high competition with imported milk
products as one of the major constraints in milk processing business. Overall, this problem
was reported by 18.8% of the sample milk processors with Lare district having a high
(44.4%) proportion of the sample milk processors facing this problem. This is an indication
that, there is a challenge to the local processors and other actors to improve milk quality,
standards, and prices of milk so as to be able to compete with the imported milk products,
which are of high quality standards. Other constraints reported by the sample milk processors
in their order of importance include; low availability of raw milk, low quality of milk
products, unreliable market and insufficient milk.
Quality assurance and marketing techniques for processed dairy products
Aside from helping to ensure the standard of produced milk, hygiene and quality assist in
boosting the image of milk generally as a healthy product and thus may have a promotional
effect on milk consumption. Some processors did test the milk quality and some did not use
any clear method of quality control. In some cases, visual observation was the only method
used to determine quality. This method was used by 33.3% of the sampled milk processors
66.7% of the sampled milk processors in the study district did not perform any quality check.
Regarding marketing techniques for the processed dairy products, promotion by own talk
was the major marketing technique practiced by the sample milk processors. However, a
large proportion of sample milk processors in the study districts did not use any marketing
techniques.
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Marketing of milk and milk products in the study area
Out of the total interviewed smallholder dairy farmers, 99% of the respondents sold their raw
milk through informal milk marketing channels. Whereas 1% of the respondents were sold
their milk and through formal channels which is contractual agreements. There are many
milk marketing channels through which smallholder dairy farmers sell their dairy products.
However, most of the dairy farmers in the study area preferred to sell their milk through
informal chain where they get high price per liter of milk. This finding have similarity with
the finding of Valk and Tessema (2010) who reported that 98% of milk produced in rural
area were sold through informal chain whereas only 2% of the milk produced reached the
final consumers through formal chain. The proportion of total production being marketed
through the formal markets still remains small. Van der Valk and Tessema (2010) reported
that informal milk marketing channel is characterized by no licensing requirement to operate,
low cost of operations, high producer price compared to formal milk marketing channel and
no regulation of operations. Because of this, most of smallholder farmers in study area want
to sell their dairy products where they get high price. This system of milk marketing channel
still remained dominant in the study area.
Milk Consumption
An attempt was made to assess frequency of milk consumption of interviewed respondents.
Results indicate that 23.3% of the sampled milk consumers consumed milk only three times a
week, followed by 46.7% of the sampled milk consumers who drank milk once every day. As
a proxy indicator of consumption pattern, respondents were requested to indicate who in the
household consumed milk. The results show that, most (43.3%) of these consumers were
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below 18 years of age. In a few cases, milk was consumed in a household when there was a
sick person or there was a guest.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
From the study conducted small scale of operations at all stages of the value chain with dairy
producers, keeping medium dairy herds, traditional processors operating under capacity and
marketing agents handling small quantities of dairy products. Little value addition through
processing, which was found to be largely informal and underdeveloped traditional
processing of milk practiced by few farmers who processed a narrow range of products and
the study revealed Poor quality control system, poor handling facilities and poor preservation
of the milk products. Most producers, marketing agents and informal milk processors
handled milk and milk products using plastic containers, which are prone to bacterial
contamination. Seasonality of milk supply with relatively high supply in the wet season and
low supply in the dry season is due to variation in fodder supply. There are many factors
affect milk value chain. Among these factors, shortage of animal feeds which leads to
reduction of volume of milk produced by small holder dairy farmers is identified as one of
the major factors which affect milk value chain of the study area. Farmers do not use
concentrate feeds to improve their milk production. This consequently affects overall
reduction of volume of milk produced by smallholder dairy farmers to deliver enough
volume of milk to milk processing and to local market. Dairy value chain development
comprises extension, input supply (feed, bull services, and veterinary services) milk
production, dairy processing and milk and milk products marketing but there is nothing at the
study area. Therefore the following recommendations are forwarded.
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To strengthen the position of smallholder dairy farmers in milk value chain adequate
inputs should be provided for small holder dairy farmers in the study areas.
For better marketing of milk and milk products, dairy farmers should be organized
into dairy cooperative to sell large volume of milk.
Interventions in this sector can have a food security or nutritional orientation, but
from value chain perspective the option of interventions are very limited at the study
areas.
Government sectors and non-government organizations should focus on the feeding
and water resource management in dairy sector
Provide continuous training and development program, infrastructure and facilities to
the individual farmers as providing dairy cattle and cattle sets to induce the farmers in
the dairy farming.
Provide the awareness through the knowledge based training program on feeding and
water resource management, maintenance of dairy cattle, artificial insemination etc.
Further research should be focused on the characterization of Nuer breed cattle,
artificial insemination, and feeding and water resource management in dairy sector.
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VOLUME 6, ISSUE 5(1), MAY 2017
IMPACT OF DEMONETIZATION ON SERVICE SECTOR
K Chandra Reddy Asst Professor Department of MBA KITS Engineering College, Guntur, AP Abstract
This paper attempts to study the impacts of demonetization on different service sectors in India. Demonetization is a process of banning currency notes. It is not a new strategy that it had already been done for two times. Demonetization and remonetisation both are playing an important role in sustainable growth of Indian economy. It is a process to end flowing of black money and controlling of corruption in the country. This paper gives awareness about inception of RBI and its change of currency notes before independence and till the date. It explains the problems which are faced by educational institutions, realtors, retailers, hotel business and public in India. These can be discussed in two ways
Keywords: Demonetization, remonetisation, RBI, black money, problems..
Introduction:
“Demonetization is the removal of currency notes from circulation.” The main principle of this demonetization is withdrawing the active circulating currency notes and remonetising the same with new currency. However it is not a simple process. The demonetization and later remonetisation process was very hard for the Indian Government and RBI.
The movement of demonetization was under attack towards tackling black money, corruption and terrorism In India. For the uplifting the GDP of Indian economy. The terms Shadow of Indian economy Black money is the currency of unreported income. It refers to unlawful
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money earned from illegal sources which has not been disclosed to the government. Fake Indian Currency Notes network will be closed by the demonetisation measures. Taking out banned notes of circulation will have a lasting impact on the syndicates producing Fake Indian Currency Notes. Thus affecting the funding of terror networks in country.
The government choose to replace only the currency which was in circulation. In the other words, the rest would be accessible only as electronic transfer money. For the encouraging cashless transactions. Even though there were various reactions from public, observation was that the people were determined and understood by the government in its decision to cleanse of the black money in Indian.
The real estate and retail outlets are the important sector in India service industry. We know that, black money is used to purchase high end consumer goods like gold, precious metals, precious stones, real estate..etc. Real estate may see major path correction due the demonetization, the effect of this 2016 demonetization Reduction of interest rates in business investments. In retail sector the sales of branded products and services fell down. The purchasing powers of people slow down. Many of retail shops are faced struggle due to this demonetization in India. It also effect on education
HISTORY OF DEMONETIZATION & REMONETIZATION IN INDIA
There are three times demonetized in India before independence and after independence (1938-2016).The Reserve Bank of India was set up on the basis of the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission. The Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 (II of 1934) provides the statutory basis of the functioning of the Bank, which commenced operations on April 1, 1935. It was nationalised in 1949
1934-- 500, 1000 notes are introduced
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1938--10,000 notes introduced
1946 January -1000, 10,000 are banned.(Demonetization)
1954-Reintroduced 5000, 10000 notes
1978 January - 1000,5000,10000 notes are banned (Demonetization)
1987 October -500 notes are reintroduced
2000 November-1000 notes are re introduced
th 2016 - November 8 500, 1000 are banned (Demonetization)
th 2016 November 10 Reintroduced 500 note, newly introduced 2000 notes
Literature of Review:
The Prime Minister of India has announced (2016 November 8th) that Rs.500 and Rs.1000 currency notes would no longer be recognized legally as a currency (S. V.Gangier.& Ranganath B., 2017).
The Indian government to circulation of Rs 500&1000 notes by replacing them with new Rs.500 and Rs.2000 notes, aims to embark on the black money, corruption, terror financial support and fake currency (Sherline T., 2016).
“India's demonetization drive is affecting access to medical care” the article describe the effect of demonetization on day to day payments of agricultural wages, small business shops payments and also health services in country denied to patients who lack of valid currencies. Without access to the right forms of currency the life-saving medicines will likely hit people hard.( Karikalan Nagrajan, 2016)
“Demonetization-Challenges for Rural India”, the researcher had explained the different reasons why a government has taken the footstep of removal of legal tender of 500 and 1000 currency notes. The
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researcher talk to common man problems in rural area and government focused on cash less transactions how it is possible in rural areas.( Ashish Kumar Tripathi, 2016)
Objectives
To Know the history of demonetization in India
To analyse the impact of demonetization in various service sectors.
Methodology
This paper is prepared through secondary data, collected from sources like Research Papers, websites and news papers, text books. The main purpose of this paper is to give a awareness of Demonetization and its effects on services sectors.
Demonetization impact in Real Estate
The Real Estate Investments can be divided into 3 segments 1. Primary Sales 2. Resale 3. Land Transaction. In this three segments no sales and no resale, no land tractions last 4 to 5 months. In simple terms of Real estate is land/home sold out to buyers directly by developer or builder of goodwill Ventures Company. It is called primary sales. As and when a resale of the property happens, it goes into the secondary market. In the Primary market of real estate black money does play a vital role.
In this sector the banks &collection of funding channels have accounted for only a small part of all transactions in this gap. Due to this demonetization in the real estate Poor sales in land, apartments of houses leading to almost low prices, high unsold inventory results many of companies are struggle for lack of liquid cash of their investment. They are faced difficulty in the payments of salaries and wages of workers
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In recently The “Real Estate Regulation and Development Act “2016 (RERA-2016) was passed. The Benami Transactions Act and now the demonetization move will ensure that going operating. Because of the black money will go to in this sector. The RERA will put a lot of unorganised Realtors, Developers brokers out of the market as they will not be able to start any project before they have all compulsory certificates with them. Moreover, approvals have been slow and input cost, including labour cost, is set to go up," The Developers and investors who have conducted their transactions clearly and legally to panic.
Demonetization impact in Retail Outlets
Demonetization has impacted the retail industry due to a liquidity crisis. As the Indian retail industry generates a lot of Traditional cash transactions, the retail shops divided into three most important types such as essential product shops (food, water, milk, medical and fuel filling station ...etc). Need based retailing shop (textiles, jewellery, gold, foot wears, books and stationery.)The service renders based shops (recharge shops, ticket booking, entertainment places, theatres) etc.
The essential product shops was faced lot of problems due to this demonetization The sales of retail products and services decreased due to lack of proper cash and also replace of new currency notes. the next type of retail outlet is need based, here the customer not interested to purchase of dress’s, gold mobile phones due to insufficient of cash in their hands. To Control and Use of availability Services by availability of cash in hand. The Services like money recharge to mobile, watching movies, planed tours
In India All the retail outlets were impacted by the demonetization movement because there is no provision of digital payment mode like mobile payments, swiping machine and net transfer for their sales. At
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that movement customers are reduced their purchasing power up to 40% .In some time the retailer are given credit based sales to customers. In India Most of the retailer accepted the demonetization process for the national interest.
Demonetization Impact in Education
Money in the education system nursery admissions to professional higher education flows in many forms. See a student paying the fee to a college. This fee include —admission fee, tuition charges, transportation charges, swimming pool ,Gym fee, money for uniform, text books cost, subject material cost. The total amount paid by parents is faced difficulties from the various sources .and also students are disturbed in their studies. The flow of Indian students to foreign countries may also decrease.
The college managements also faced difficulty in day to day activities like wages, salaries of teachers &lectures and universities fees and other payments. Some time they will find difficult to sell the B category seat called management quota seats.
Demonetization Impact in Hotels
Restaurants &Hotels sector is depending on the one level of labour manpower employed on daily wages or weekly payments. Abrasion was concern for the industry and the impact of demonetization .since the hotel& Restaurants owners were facing crisis and were not in the position to pay their employees’ wages and salaries
Although the number of people is visiting hotel& Restaurants had decreased, at that time people are the looking who either accepted old currency notes. Hotels are acquired of raw material in form of grocery, vegetables and fruits. The vendors selling in such goods belong to the unorganized sector where trading is done in
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cash. A few Hotels &Restaurants owners are shut down either temporarily due to the decision of demonetization.
Conclusion
Demonetization is a big challenging decision taken by the Indian government for the development as well as the economy of the country in future. The common man, though he suffered, now is gradually comprehending the decision of the government. Owing to the demonetization, there are several implications that have to be faced by the middle class people, students realtors, retailers and owners of hotels & restaurants. Citizens of India faced problems like less consumption of goods, and limited usages of transportation because of non availability of liquid cash. Several businesses were also disrupted due to demonetization. Government of India and RBI didn’t know that Indian citizens should have to bear this type of problem for a long time, but the government has given so many remedies to the citizens of India for time to time. It affects service market very severely. Demonetization makes the public and shopkeepers to get habituated to cashless transactions, like using debit card, paytm, BHIM, digital valets, internet & mobile banking to buy goods and services.
Reference:
1 Ms. Yashna Samuel article on A Study On Demonetisation And Its Impact On Indian Economy International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies (IJIRAS) Volume 4 Issue 2, February 201 ISSN: 2394-4404 2 Sherline. T. I. (2016). Demonetization As a Prelude to Complete Financial Inclusion. International Education & Research Journal, E-ISSN NO-2454- 9916 3 Dr. Ganiger, S., & B, Rangantha (2107). Demonetization and its impact on Social Development. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 7(1), 770-771.
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4 Dr. Milind Peshave, Shailendra Dareker Research paper on Demonetization A viewpoint of the restaurant industry International Journal of Commerce and Management Research - ISSN: 2455-1627 5Karikalan Nagrajan article of India's demonetization drive is affecting access to medical care -2016 6 Ms. Kokila&Dr.R.Ushadevi, article on The Impact of Demonetization on Retailing – An Analysis in International Journal of Commerce, Business and Management ISSN: 2319–2828 7 Prof Sandeep Kaur article on Demonetization and Its Impacts in India, International Journal of Research ISSN: 2348-795X 8 K. Veerakumar on his paper A Study On People Impact On Demonetization International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Arts and Humanities ISSN (Online): 2456 – 3145 9 Ashish Kumar &Tripathi research paper Demonetization-Challenges for Rural India” 10 Geeta Rani paper on Effects of demonetization on retail outlets International journal of applied research ISSN 2394-5869, 2016 2(12)400-401 11 Lokesh Uke Paper on Demonetization and its effect in India. International Journal of Economics and Management Studies ISSN: 2393 – 9125 volume4 issue2 February 2017 12 WWW.RBI.COM 13 WWW.IIFL.COM 14 www.square yards.com Impact of demonetization on real-estate by 15 www.rahuldeodhar.com Black money and demonetization by RAHUL DEODHAR 16 Times of India News paper 17 The Hindu news paper
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DYADIC RELATIONSHIP, QUALITY OF MARITAL LIFE, PERCEIVED STRESS IN PARENTS OF CHILDREN WITH AUTISM
N.Somasekhar Research Scholar Dept of Psychology S.V.University, Tirupati INTRODUCTION
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders which are characterized by qualitative deficits in areas of reciprocal social interaction, verbal and non-verbal communication, and a preference for repetitive, stereotyped behaviors and interests. These characteristics must be present before 3 years of age in order to meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) IV criteria for an ASD diagnosis. Recent reviews of ASD epidemiological studies have reported higher estimates of incidence and prevalence than earlier studies and the current median ASD prevalence estimate is about 62 in 10,000.
AIM
To examine the Dyadic Relationship, Quality of Marital Life and Perceived Stress among parents of children with Autism in relation to parents of children with other disabilities.
OBJECTIVES
To determine the Dyadic relationship, Quality of marital life and Perceived stress among parents of children with autism in relation to parents of children with other disabilities.
To understand nature of relationship among dyadic relationship, marital quality and perceived stress between two groups.
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METHODOLOGY
SAMPLE
Study sample consisted of a group of 40 parents of children with autism and control group 40 parents of children with other disabilities such as speech and hearing impaired. The study adapted purposive sampling technique. The parents who are attending the intervention sessions in child development centers in Hyderabad,
Parents were contacted after obtaining the required permission from the consultant in-charge of the cases. The parents of both groups (autism group and disability group) were briefed about the objectives of the study and written consent was taken from those willing to participate.
TOOLS
Socio-demographic data sheet:
A data sheet was developed and employed for the current study to collect information on the relevant variables such as age, gender, educational level, socio economic status, domicile, and no. of years of married life.
Dyadic adjustment scale:
The original Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) was developed by spinier (1976) frequently used scale to measure adjustment in relationship. The revised DAS (RDAS) have been developed for assessment of dyadic adjustment. The RDAS consists of 14 items which evaluate a couple’s agreement on decisions and appropriate behaviour, as well as marital satisfaction and marital cohesion. The scores of the RDAS range from 0 to 69, with a “distressed relation” having the lowest score. Higher score indicates better the dyadic relationship.
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Marital quality:
It is a multidimensional scale in English developed by shah (shah, A, 1991).Norms for the marital quality scale are available for a sample of 332 married persons from the general population. Factor structure identified through principle component factor analysis shows 12 factors in the marital quality scale; Understanding, Rejection, Satisfaction, Affection, Despair, Decision Making, Discontent, Dissolution Potential, Dominance, Self Disclosure, Trust and Role functioning, with number of items ranging from 1-9. The range for the total score is 50-200. Higher score indicates poor quality of marital life.
Questionnaire on resource and stress (QRSF-F):
It is developed by Holroyd (1974). The QRS-F has been widely used measure the impact of a chronically ill child on other family member. It consist of total 52 statements and the respondent have to indicate whether each of these statements hold TRUE/FALSE for them. The QRF Consists of four domains .The reliability of QRSF is 0.95 and validity is 0.93 true score one and false score zero. Number of score indicates stress in mother higher the score higher the stress indicate.
PROCEDURE:
Parents of children with autism and speech and hearing impairment were screened and those meeting the study criteria were recruited and informed consent was obtained. Parents of both study and control groups were administered the measures in one-to-one situation and in single session. If parents expressed any doubts or difficulty in comprehending the any part of the questionnaires the same was attended and required clarifications were given immediately. After collecting the socio-demographic data, parents in both groups were initially administered dyadic adjustment scale (DAS), followed by marital quality scale (MQS) and Questionnaire for resource and stress.
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The order of administration of questionnaires remained same across the groups. The parents were thanked at the end of the administration of questionnaires and send them back to the in-charge therapists/consultants.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
To determine significance level between two groups parametric (Student’s “t”) test was employed. The correlation analysis was carried out using Pearson’s product moment method to understand the degree of relationship between variables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present study compared the dyadic adjustment, marital quality, sources of stress in the parents of children with autism to the parents of disability children. Table -1shows the mean age of parents of autism group (AG) is 29.12 (±7.09) and the mean age of disability group (DG) is 30.80(±8.46). There is no significant difference was observed between the groups with respect to age.
Table 1:-shows the socio demographic characteristics of both groups (autism and disability groups). Higher proportion of females in both the groups that is AG=90% and DG= 87.5% was observed. Most of the subjects belong to nuclear family in both groups AG=80% and DG=77.5% whereas 20% and 22.5% parents belonged to joint family respectively. Majority (65%) of the sample studied up to 10th standard in autism (65%) as well as disability (52.5%) groups. Almost three forth (¾) of the sample belong to urban area in AG and exactly three fourth belonged to the same domicile that is 75% in the DG. The 42.5% of parents in autism group and 35% of the parents of disability group have the marital life history of 4-8 years whereas others (both the groups) have more or less than the mentioned time in their marital life.
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As shown in Table - 2 there is a significant difference between Autism Group and Disability Group with respect to the scores of R-DAS, MQS, and QRS-F. The dyadic adjustment scale which consist of 3 dimensions which are consensus, satisfaction and cohesion. In AG group the mean and SD scores in consensus 22.17(1.73) satisfaction 12.75(1.75) and cohesion 11.95(2.12). Which is significantly lower when compared to Disability Group where scores consensus 24.70 (2.49) of satisfaction 15.32 (2.06) and the mean score of consensus was 14.55 (2.13). However there is a significant difference between Autism Group and Disability Group in any of the dimension in dyadic adjustment scale.
The 12 dimensions of marital quality scale, all domains of mean and SDs are in Autism group is significantly higher when compared to Disability group. The following domains such as Satisfaction (AG=12.35±1.76; DG=9.25±2.04), affection (AG=14.62±2.77; DG=10.37±2.24), despair (AG=4.52±1.03; DG=3.32± 1.22), decision making ( AG=13.90±2.92; DG=10.92±2.20) , discontent (AG=4.25±0.89; DG=3.15±0.92), self-disclosure (AG=5.60±1.10; DG 3.55± 1.06) , trust (AG=1.97±0.61; DG= 1.52±0.50) , role function (AG=11.80±2.54) DG=7.70±2.46) on Marital quality scale is significant at 0.001 level. Understanding (AG=19.65±3.16 DG=18.00±3.11); Rejection (AD=13.72±3.29; DG=21.45±3.18) is significant at 0.05 level. There is no significant difference in two groups on the dissolution (AG=2.05±0.63 DG=1.92±0.65). The overall marital quality (AG=118.48±16.61; DG=94.47±15.20) was significantly poor in autism group compared to disability group and it is significant at 0.001 level.
In the 4 domains of Questionnaire Resources of Stress Form, scores of Mean and SDs of family problems (AG=12.92±2.28; DG=8.87±1.45), pessimism (AG5.92±1.20; DG5.20±1.13), child character (AG=9.47±1.63; DG=6.85±1.45) and physical incapacitation (AG=3.10±0.84; DG=2.10±0.77) are significantly (at 0.001 level)
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higher in autism group when compared to disability group except pessimism. The overall parental stress (AG=31.42±4.18 DG= 23.02±3.77) was significantly higher in autism group compared to disability group and it is significant at 0.001 level.
As seen in the Table - 3 the all marital quality sub scale scores between parents of children with autism and parents of disability children were positively correlated with the sub scales of resources of stress questionnaire.
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The relationship between the dyadic adjustment scale domain of cohesion and marital quality sub scales such as satisfaction, affection, despair, decision making, discontent, self-disclosure, trust, and role functioning scores were negatively correlated at 0.05 level.
The relationship between satisfaction domain in DAS and marital quality sub scales of satisfaction, affection, despair, decision making, discontent, role functioning were negatively correlated at 0.05 level.
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The relationship between the consensus domain in DAS and marital quality sub scales of satisfaction, affection, decision making, and role functioning and self-disclosure were negatively correlated at 0.05 level.
The findings of the present study reported parents of autism children have high level of perceived stress, poor marital quality and less dyadic relationship when compared to parents of disability children.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the present study suggests that the autism as compared to other disability conditions exerts greater degree of stress in parental group and affect the dyadic adjustment and marital relationship. Furthermore, the parents of children with autism perceive greater stress than the parents of children with other sensory impairments. These findings may have relevance in the management of caregivers’ burden and stress of autistic children.
REFERENCES:
Holroyd, J. (1974) ‘The Questionnaire on Resources and Stress: An Instrument to Measure Family Response to a Handicapped Family Member’, Journal of Community Psychology 2: 734–9.
Shah, A (1991). Assessment of Marital-Life. Thesis submitted to Bangalore University, Bangalore: National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences.
Spanier, G. B. (1976). Measuring dyadic adjustment: New scales for assessing the quality of marriage and similar dyads. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 38, 15–28.
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CHANGES IN CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR WITH THE ADVENT OF ORGANISED RETAILING WITH REFERENCE TO KRISHNA DISTRICT
S. Madhavi Assistant Professor Gudlavalleru Engineering College Gudlavalleru Abstract:
The Indian Retail sector has come off age and has gone through major transformation over the last decade with a noticeable shift towards organised retailing. Modern retail formats, such as hypermarkets, superstores, supermarkets, discount and convenience stores are widely present in the developed world, whereas such forms of retail outlets have only just begun to spread to developing countries like India in recent years. In developing countries, the retailing business continues to be dominated by family-run neighbourhood shops and open markets. A sample of 820 Customers from three different cities in Krishna district namely Vijayawada (Commercial Capital of A.P.), Machilipatnam (District Headquarters), Gudiwada were selected through simple random sampling method. The study helps to formulate new marketing strategies with the changes in consumer behaviour.
Key words: Organised Retailing, Unorganised Retailing, Consumer Behaviour, Developing Countries, Retail Formats.
1.1 Introduction
The retailing environment has seen a tremendous growth in the size and market dominance of the larger players, with greater store size, increased retail concentration, and the utilization of a range of formats (Hollingsworth, 2004) 1 . This has intensified the level of competition in retail business, stimulating retailers to reposition and diversify their retail formats, and innovate in their distribution systems. The maturity
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of core markets, the erosion of traditional shopping patterns through urbanization, and social and demographic changes of developed markets, have stimulated several major players to focus more on establishing a presence in developing markets (Euro monitor, 2005; Planet Retail, 2006) 2 .
The Indian Retail sector has come off age and has gone through major transformation over the last decade with a noticeable shift towards organised retailing. A T Kearney, a US Based global management consulting firm has ranked India as the fourth most attractive nation for retail investment among 30 flourishing markets. The retail market is expected to reach a whooping Rs. 47 lakh crore by 2016-17, as it expands at a compounded annual growth rate of 15 per cent, accordingly to the ‘Yes Bank - Assocham’ study.
The retail market, (including organised and unorganised retail), was at Rs. 23 lakh crore in 2011-12. According to the study, organised retail, that comprised just seven per cent of the overall retail market in 2011- 12, is expected to grow at a CAGR of 24 per cent and attain 10.2 per cent share of the total retail sector by 2016-17. “Favourable demographics, increasing urbanization, nuclearisation of families, rising affluence amid consumers, growing preference for branded products and higher aspirations are other factors which will drive retail consumption in India,” said DS Rawat, Assocham Secretary General. The spread of organized retailing in different countries varies depending upon the socio-economic factors related to the country. In the developed economies, organized retail is in the range of 75-80 per cent of total retail, whereas in developing economies, the unorganized sector dominates the retail business. The share of organized retail varies widely from just 1.00 per cent in Pakistan and 4.00 per cent in India and 36.00 per cent in Brazil and 55.00 per cent in Malaysia. Modern retail formats, such as hypermarkets, superstores, supermarkets, discount and convenience stores are widely present in
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the developed world, whereas such forms of retail outlets have only just begun to spread to developing countries like India in recent years. In developing countries, the retailing business continues to be dominated by family-run neighbourhood shops and open markets. Table 1.1 indicates the percentage of organised trade in various countries.
Table 1.1 : Percentage of Organized Trade in various countries
Country Organised Trade (%) India 4 China 17 Poland 20 Indonesia 30 Russia 33 Brazil 35 Thailand 40 Malaysia 55 USA 85 With the changing demographic features and improvement in quality of life of urban India, the Indian retail sector is witnessing a tremendous growth. The total retail sales in India are expected to grow from US$ 353.0 billion in 2010 to US$ 543.2 billion by 2014 (The BMI India Retail Report, May 2010)3. As per AT Kearney's annual Global Retail Development Index (GRDI), 2010 India is ranked fourth in the list of most attractive market for retail investment. India has one of the largest numbers of retail outlets in the world.
1.2 Need for the study:
With the changing demographic features and improvement in quality of life of urban India, the Indian retail sector is witnessing a tremendous
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growth. The growth in organized retailing has been the national trend over the last decade, with many organized retail chains developing larger stores that specialize in providing a wide selection of produce in a particular product range, lucrative pricing, one stop shopping etc. Krishna district is an administrative district in the Coastal Andhra region of Andhra Pradesh. Machilipatnam is the administrative headquarters and Vijayawada is the most populated city in the district. It has an area of 8,727 km2 (3,370 sq mi) and had a population of 45, 29,009 as per 2011 census of India. There are 50 Mandals (267 Villages) in Krishna District, Vijayawada is the largest city and administrative headquarters of Krishna district is Machilipatnam. With the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh into Telangana and Andhra, new capital Amaravathi is taking a shape and a numerous organised retail formats has been established which affects the consumer behaviour. Hence, there is a need to study the changes in consumer buying behaviour with these new retail formats.
1.3 Objective of the study:
In developed countries organized retailing is the established way of selling consumer products. India is on the radar screen in the retail world and global retailers and at their wings, seeking entry into the Indian retail market. Therefore, in this scenario, the major objective of the present study is to analyze the changes in consumer buying behaviour with the organized retailing outlets.
1.4 Methodology
Descriptive research method has been used in the present study. Descriptive studies are designed to obtain pertinent and precise information concerning the current status of phenomena and whenever possible, to draw valid general conclusions from the facts discussed. The main purpose of the study is to find out the reason for changes in
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consumer buying behaviour with the arrival of organised retailing with reference to Krishna district.
1.5 Data Analysis
1.5.1 Demographic profile of Consumer:
Frequency Percentage Gender Male 374 45.60 Female 446 54.39 Age Below 20 Years 120 14.63 20-29 Years 260 31.70 30-39 years 380 46.34 Above 40 Years 60 7.31 Qualification High school 108 13.17 Inter 266 32.43 Graduation 374 45.60 Post Graduation 82 10.00 Income Less than 192 23.41 Rs.20,000 Rs.20,000-30,000 386 47.07 Rs.30,000-40,000 154 18.78 Above Rs.40,000 88 10.73
From the above table it is clear that, 45.60% of the respondents are male and 54.39% of the respondents are female. 14.63% of the respondent’s ages less than 20 years old, 31.70% of the respondent’s ages between 20-29 years old, 46.34% of the respondent’s ages between 30-39years old and 7.34% of the respondent’s ages above 40 years old. 13.17%of the respondents passed secondary education, 32.43% of the
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respondents completed intermediate, 45.60% of the respondents completed their graduation and 10% of the respondents completed their post graduation. 23.41% of the respondent’s earning less than Rs. 20,000/-, 47.07% of the respondents income lies in between Rs. 20,000/- – RS.30, 000/-, 18.78% of the respondents earn in between RS. 30,000/- – Rs. 40,000/- and 10.73% of the respondents earn above Rs.40,000 /- .
1.5.2. Store preference:
Store Preference
60.00% 34.87% 50.48% 40.00% 14.63% 20.00%
0.00% Organized Unorganized Both
Opinion It can be understood from the above graph that, 50.48% of the respondents prefer organized retailing while making a purchase, 34.87% of the respondents prefer unorganized retailing and 14.63% of the respondents prefer both organized and unorganized retail stores. Majority of the respondents prefer organized retail stores as it is more convenient than unorganized retail stores.
1.5.3. Type of the retail store preferred:
Type of the Retail Store
31.21% 68.79% Branded Showrooms Malls
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It is observed from the above graph that, 31.21% of the respondents would like to shop in branded showrooms and 68.79% of the respondents like to shop in Malls. People buy brand names for a variety of reasons. People sometimes buy brands because they believe the brands contribute to greater social acceptance. Consumers develop loyalty to brands that provide a consistent, high-quality experience.
1.5.4. Provision of Facilities in Organized Retail Stores:
More facilities provided in Organized stores
84.87 P 100 e r 50 c g 15.12 e e 0 n Yes t No a Opinion It is observed from the above graph that, 84.87% of the respondents accepted that facilities provided by the organized retailing stores are better than that of unorganized retailing stores. Organised retail stores offer distinguish facilities to customers such as Availability of parking facility, Volume of products, Product variety, Expected price, Phone order facility, Facility for home delivery, Credit facility, Convenience of working hours, Goods return policy, Goods exchange policy, Loyalty programme and so on.
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1.5.5. Provision of Qualitative products:
Provision of Qualitative products 11.22%
88.78% It can be found from the above graph that, 88.78 % of the respondents opined that products that are available in organized stores are of more quality than that of unorganized retail stores. The attractiveness of these stores was mainly based on product or service quality and price, but location and the behaviour of the shop assistants were also cited as influential. Ranking as “my favourite shop” was a combination of tangible qualities and intangible services.
1.5.6. Convenience with Payment Method in Organized Stores:
Convenience payment method
83.9 100
50 16.09
0 Yes No Opinion
It can be found from the above graph that, 83.9% of the respondents opined that payment method is more convenient at organized retail stores as consumers can use cash or plastic money for their purchases. By adopting and using plastic money, clients/customers can reduce the
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risk of losing hard earned cash and overcome change problems currently being faced on the retail market.
1.6 Conclusion
The Retail Industry in India has come forth as one of the most dynamic and fast paced industries with several players entering the market. But all of them have not yet tasted success because of the heavy initial investments that are required to break even with other companies and compete with them. There is a huge potential for the growth of organized Retailing in Krishna District. By following some of the strategies it can rise tremendously and can reach each and every nook and corner. The India Retail Industry is gradually inching its way towards becoming the next boom industry. Unorganized retailers in the vicinity of organized retailers experienced a decline in their volume of business and profit in the initial years after the entry of large organized retailers. The adverse impact on sales and profit weakens over time. There was no evidence of a decline in overall employment in the unorganized sector as a result of the entry of organized retailers. There is competitive response from traditional retailers through improved business practices and technology up gradation. Consumers have definitely gained from organized retail on multiple counts. Overall consumer spending has increased with the entry of the organized retail. While all income groups saved through organized retail purchases, the Present Study revealed that lower income consumers saved more. Thus, organized retail is relatively more beneficial to the less well-off consumers.
The change in consumer buying behaviour has come due to increased income, changing, lifestyles, and patterns of demography which are favorable. Now the consumer wants to shop at a place where he/she can get food, entertainment, and shopping and all under one roof. This has given organized retail market a major boost in Krishna district. While
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on the other hand, the traditional stores are shops where the various product available are the range of product really required by the customers. They cautiously take care of the choice of the customers and bring the product which is demanded by them. Retailers try to satisfy them with the wide range and at the same time maintain a good relationship to retain them and consequently convert them into their loyal customer. The shopkeepers keep latest products in their stores and then learn how it is actually affecting the sale of products although these stores have comparatively less product range the selection made is quite relevant. However good is the ambience and wide is the product range, when it comes the selling price of the various goods, traditional shops are always more efficient than these newly evolved stores. These retail shops lacking the interaction with the customers have miserably failed in building base with loyal customer. No matter how much the companies talk about Customer Relationship Management (CRM), when it comes to the implementation they endeavour it only through the discount sales driven by their profit motive. Thus, in India it is quite doubtful that the organized retail will be ever able to overcome the unorganized retail completely. The values, culture and beliefs of the customers prompt them to go the same retail shop where they can get the product required, at low price and with least waiting time for billing. No matter how lucrative is this sector and how bright is the market; the organized sector in retailing has to go a long way to understand the customer requirement.
References:
1. Hollingsworth, 2004Cuthbertson eds Retail Strategy the view from the bridge, Elsevier Butterwoth Heinmann, OxfordPublications.
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2. Euro monitor, 2005; Planet Retail, 2006 Euromonitor. (2005) Cosmetics and toiletries in the UK, Country Report, September 26,section 11/3.
3. The BMI India Retail Report, May 2010"BMI India Retail Report Q4 2010" from Business Monitor International Journal.
4. Ailawadi, Kusum L., Harlam, Bari A., Jacques, Cesar and Trounce, David (2006). “Promotion Profitability for a Retailer: The Role of Promotion, Brand, Category, and Store Characteristics”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol 43, November, pp 518–535.
5. AT Kearney's annual Global Retail Development Index (GRDI), 2010 GDP growth, improved ease of doing business, and better clarity regarding foreign direct investment (FDI) regulations put India in 2nd place.
6. Balasubramanian, Rajagopal R. and Mahajan, Vijay (2005). “Consumers in a Multichannel Environment: Product Utility, Process Utility, and Channel Choice”, Journal of Interactive Marketing, Vol 19 (2), pp 12–30.
7. Bhattacharjee, Chittaranjan (2009). “Preferences of Different Formats of Retailing for Food and Grocery Shopping”.
8. Berman, B. and Evans, J.R. ( 2001). Retail Management, (8th ed) , Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall.
9. Deepika Jhamb and Ravi Kiran (2012)7, in their study conducted on “Emerging trends of organized retailing in India.
10. Devgan, Deepak and Kaur, Mandeep (2010). “Shopping Malls in India: Factors affecting Indian Customers’ Perceptions”, South Asian Journal of Management, Vol 17 (2), April–June, pp 29–42.
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PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: THE ‘TEACH FOR INDIA’ PROGRAMME
Vidya K.S. PhD Research Scholar Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies Jawaharlal Nehru University,New Delhi
Post-independence, elementary education in India was envisaged as a key institution through which “equality of opportunity and social justice could be achieved” (Nambissan and Rao 2013). While there was some presence of non-state philanthropic institutions involved in elementary education across the country, the responsibility of the nation-state was seen as central to the provision of education after independence in 1947i (Ibid).
This study begins with an overview of some landmark policy reforms in elementary education in India and then moves towards locating economic reforms and privatisation measures through the 1990s, the changing nature of non-state actors in school education, the move towards Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in government schools and the increasing focus of the government school as a site for implementing diverse programmes and technologies to repair the system and make it more efficient through controlling teachers’ work, routines and improving learning outcomes. The ‘Teach for India’ programme, an off-shoot of the ‘Teach for America’ programme will be examined as a case-study within this broad framework of reforming the government school system.
Kothari Commission and school reforms
The Indian State’s engagement in the realm of elementary education has differed across the decades. Where in the 1950s elementary education lost out to the “Nehruvian emphasis on higher education, science and technology as instruments for economic transformation” it
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was only with the Kothari Commission Report in 1964, that it re- entered public discussion forcefully (Batra 2012). Three significant recommendations made by the Report included the introduction of a common-school system, integrating courses of general and professional teacher education in universities and increasing the educational expenditure leading to an estimated investment of 6 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the education sector (Ibid: 220).
The Kothari Commission Report for the first time post-independence brought back into focus the central role of the school teacher in elementary education. School teaching, in the Indian context, has a complex history due to colonial rule (Kumar 1991; Rao (2014). There were wide variations across the country with regard to duration of training, course curriculum as well as age and educational requirements for entry into teacher education institutesii. Before the 1970s, education was largely the responsibility of state governments and training of school teachers largely took place in institutes outside the purview and regulation of the University system (Batra 2012, Batra 2006, Khora 2011).
These antecedents to school teaching were sought to be addressed and rectified post-independence through policy reforms such as those recommended by the Kothari Commission in 1964. However, Batra (2012) observes that the “turbulent political climate of the late 1960s and the 1970s did not allow much momentum and reform on the subject” and it was only with the National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1986 that new developments in the field of elementary education came to the fore.
The 1980s saw reforms seeking to improve conditions of schooling in terms of infrastructure and facilities as well as addressing concerns of curriculum, teacher training and development. Apart from the formal schooling system, the period also saw the legitimising of a parallel non-
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formal system of education. Where on the one hand the NavodayaVidyalayas were set up to cater to the growing rural elite, on the other hand the centrally sponsored Operation Blackboard programme focused on providing minimal facilities to all primary schools. The objective of Operation Blackboard was to provide students studying in primary schools with the necessary institutional equipment and instructional material to facilitate their education. Provisions were also made to appoint additional teachers to those primary schools that had an enrolment of more than a 100 students (Ibid).
This mass scale expansion of the school education system brought people from a variety of socio-economic backgrounds into the teaching profession. There was much concern about the failing standards of teacher training as was highlighted by the Chattopadhyay Commission Report (1983-85) which called for reforming teacher education programmes institutionally. It emphasised the need to locate teacher education within the higher education system in order to bring more depth and rigour to the training programmes (Batra 2006, Govinda 2002).
At this juncture, there were two sets of trajectories in the landscape of teacher education and recruitment. Where at the national level, the central government pushed for professionalising teacher education through the establishment of District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) across the countryiii, at the same time the changing economic climate saw states like Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh move to hiring part-time teachers with lower qualifications than full- time teachers. Programmes such as ‘ShikshaKarmi’(1987) and the ‘Himachal Pradesh Volunteer Teacher’ scheme (1984) set the precedent for a range of para-teacher projects that were launched through the early 1990s. (Batra 2012, Batra 2006, Govinda and Josephine 2005, Ramachandran et al. 2005, Kumar et al 2001). Teachers increasingly came to be regarded as a cost and their position in a majority of
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countries as the largest single category of public sector employees meant that they rarely escaped from the impact of policies of economic restructuring and adjustment (UNESCO Report 1998).
The late 1980s and 1990s saw the opening up of the economy and implementation of structural adjustment programmes that severely restricted the State from spending on the social sector, largely education and health. Commitments made by the international donor community at the Jomtein conference in 1990 saw external assistance influencing and shaping educational policies in the country in a big way (Govinda, 2002; Kumar et al, 2001).iv This period also saw the growing emphasis on “‘quality of schooling’ through the creation of ‘Minimum Levels of Learning’, a direct outcome of the NPE 1986” (Sarangapani 2010: 44). Sarangapani (2010) notes that the focus of this discourse on ‘quality’ was directed towards reforming government systems of schooling for the poor “efficiently and cost-effectively” (Ibid: 47). International global organisations such as the World Bank and their affiliates became key agents of reform.
Neoliberal reforms in the 1990s: Rising presence of global organisations
A significant programme was the World Bank sponsored District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) which was started in 1994 in 42 districts of seven states of India. Close to 85 per cent of the project was financed by the central government and the remaining 15 per cent was shared by the concerned state government. The central government share was largely resourced through external assistance. It was gradually expanded through diversified sources of international funding to include more districts in different states across the country. The programme led to several infrastructural developments including the setting up of more schools, drinking water facilities, toilets, village education committees and resource centres for academic support and
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training of teachers. Other foreign funded programmes in the field of primary education launched during this period include the Bihar Education Project (UNICEF), LokJumbish (Swedish International Development Agency), Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project (UK foreign aid) and the MahilaSamakhya project (Dutch assistance) (Batra 2012).
The institutional structure of the DIETs were also extended further through the creation of Block Resource Centres (BRCs) and Cluster Resource Centres (CRCs) that were aimed at providing resource support to schools and teachers (Govinda 2002). Decentralisation and devolution of political power to local government bodies such as the Panchayats characterised several programmes during this decade with the passage of the 73rd and 74th amendments in 1994v.
While there was some acceleration with regard to educational reform in some states across the country as political leaders doggedly sought to improve Human Development Indices, the uneven structure of neoliberal economic policies resulted in states competing with each other for scarce resources to improve primary education. Batra (2012: 221) notes that “the increasing resignation of policymakersto the declining capacity and credibility of thepublic education system, perceived resource constraints,and international and national pressures to achieve highenrolment and literacy rates in short periods of time ledthe government to choose ‘economically viable’ but ‘suboptimal’options, thus compromising quality”.
Instead of filling up the several vacancies for primary teachers across states in the country, most states took the economically viable route out by appointing para-teachers under various schemes.vi This choice for recruiting para-teachers also gained much steam with increasing studies that pointed to the growing spate of cases of teacher absenteeism in government schools across the country.
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The Absent Teacher: PROBE and other research studies
The Public Report On Basic Education in India (PROBE) published in 1999, was a landmark study based on an extensive survey of 200 villages in the low-income states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The study brought attention to the processes of teaching and learning within the classroom showing the disjuncture between curriculum and social reality of children and the mechanical rote-based methods of pedagogy being used. It broke popular perceptions of how low-income families were disinterested in the education of their children and pointed to the growing phenomenon of teacher absenteeism in government schools. It showed that one-third of the head-teachers were absent and little teaching happened in schools even when teachers were present (Ramachandran et al. 2005).
This phase of interrogation into the teaching-learning transactions within the school was further fuelled by a range of studies funded by international organisations such as the World Bank. The government school and the absent government school teacher became the key focus of these studies. Increasing comparisons were made between government and private schools and their respective learning outcomes. A study by Kremer et al. (2005) funded by the World Bank, that covered 20 states in India showed that only 45 per cent of teachers were actively engaged in teaching. Teacher absence rates varied sharply across states with 15 per cent in Maharashtra to 42 per cent in Jharkand. Absence rates were found to be higher in low-income states and there were high rates of correlation between teacher absence and poor physical conditions of schooling (Ibid).
These studies discussed various facets of teaching conditions and teacher motivation in schools drawing links between the social status of teaching and the pay scales involved. No clear correlation could be found between pay scales and teacher motivation. There were also
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differences in the kinds of work that regular and para-teachers were involved in. Where regular teachers were found engaging a greater number of clerical and administrative tasks that went beyond their profile of school teaching, para-teachers were shown to be more involved in the daily tasks of teaching and controlling discipline within the classroom (Ramachandran et al. 2005). Concerns of accountability centring around school teachers’ work and further disciplining of the Indian State’s role brought new private actors within varying capacities of funding and provisioning into the elementary school system. Public- Private Partnerships (PPP) included infrastructure, resource based support in the form of curriculum, training and ensuring better grassroots governance.
Parallel Paradoxes:Landmark policy reforms and PPPs
The twenty-first century brought a series of important policy reforms in the field of elementary education that sought to make the Indian State more accountable to its vast population of children enrolled in a range of government schools across the country. Paradoxically, this period was also characterised by a greater entry of private corporate actors in the field of public education through Public-Private Partnerships (PPP).
Discussions on curriculum and free and compulsory education for all children came into the public domain with the National Curriculum Framework, 2005 (NCF) and the Right to Education Act, 2009 (RTE). The NCF, 2005, was a commendable accomplishment that not only sought to revise a curriculum that was tainted with religious overtones by the previous government but also sought to strengthen the idea of developing a more child-centred pedagogical approach that connected curriculum to the diverse social realities of the child. Through the NCF, 2005, the task of the school teacher gained more importance as she was
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seen as a central agent in facilitating the process of learning within the classroom (Batra 2012; Batra 2006).
Aspects of the NCF, 2005, found much resonance and strength in the RTE, 2009 and the National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education, 2009 (NCFTE). The NCFTE, 2009, acknowledged that quality teacher education was essential for achieving educational goals. Keeping the progressive goals of the NCF, 2005, in mind the document outlined several measures in training teachers in the pedagogical skills necessary to adapt to the diverse learning conditions of children and developing sensitivity towards contemporary issues and problems.
As a landmark policy measure, the RTE, 2009, made the Indian State accountable to provide free and compulsory education to all children in government schools from six years up to the age of 14 years. In the context of school teachers, the RTE stipulated quality guidelines on teacher education determining length of academic preparation as well as level and quality of subject matter knowledge. The recent Justice Verma Commission (2012) recommendations also reiterated the necessity of locating teacher education programmes within the ambit of the University, in order to broaden the academic curricular content of these programmes.
These progressive policy reforms in the recent years seek to make the Indian State more accountable in arenas of public education. However, these discourses of reform are also contradicted by important transitions in the field of elementary education over the last decade that advocate an increasing reliance on partnerships with the private corporate sector in provisioning and funding. These ideas of reform see their manifestations in policy documents and programmes.
The SarvaShikshaAbhiyan (SSA) which was launched in 2001 to take forward the work of the DPEP programme used PPPs as one of the key modes of funding and delivery. In an analysis of Tenth Plan (2002-
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2007) and Eleventh Plan (2007-2012) documents, Srivastava (2010: 542) notes that it was in 2002 “that the Working Group on Public- Private Partnership was established under the Prime Minister’s Office, through which the PPP Sub-Group on Social Sector was established in 2003”. She shows that “despite repeated assertions of ‘a greatly expanded role for the state’ in social sectors, namely education, proposed PPP strategies result in a diminished role for the state in the areas of education financing, management and regulation in favour of privatised strategies of delivery” (Ibid: 541).
The justification for PPPs was made through explanations that stated that budgetary allocations could not meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and other development targets and hence it was necessary to broaden investment options by bringing in private actors and organisations on board. The emphasis on PPPs called for an expanded role for NGOs and voluntary organisations without fully defining models of partnership between state and private actors, roles of engagement and effective regulatory frameworks for private parties involved (Srivastava 2010).
The explicit mention of the corporate sector within the domain of PPPs in the Eleventh Plan document indicates a significant paradigm shift. The nature and character of private corporate actors that these documents describe needs to be distinguished from the several private- State collaborations that have existed within the realm of elementary education, even before independence. These collaborations have differing histories of engagement in the field of education and consequently differing perspectives of reform as well (Nawani 2002, Kumar 2008).
One form of private-State collaboration that does not fall within the diverse domain of PPPs is the government-aided school. This model, as Kumar (2008: 8-9) shows has a long and diverse history across the
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country and often has its roots in the grant-in-aid system of the colonial period. Some of these schools had gained much reputation as centres of excellence started by private initiatives during the colonial period, which later gained state support (Ibid). Another form of private-State collaboration that also needs some definition in the context of PPPs is the ubiquitous Non Governmental Organisation (NGO). Nawani (2002) documents the changing character and role of NGOs in the education sector across the country. “Variously called ‘voluntary agencies’, ‘action groups’, or ‘activist groups’”, she notes that “NGOs are complex and heterogeneous in nature and differ from each other in several respects” (Ibid: 121).
The growth of NGOs through the late 1980s saw the linking of voluntarism with liberalisation. Nawani (2002) finds that during this period voluntary organisations got greater access to finances through international organisations to further the agenda of development. In the field of elementary education, she broadly categorises three types of NGOs: the first type has education as its central concern and thus all its activities revolve around education, the second type “pursue[s] several objectives and consider[s] education as one of the most integral” and the third type considers education as one of its several concerns, not particularly the central or primary concern (Ibid: 123).
While these parameters allow for a certain classification of NGOs working in education, it also becomes important to understand the various meanings of education that these organisations employ in their work. This becomes central to understanding their “goals, strategies and activities” (Ibid). For example, Nawani (2002: 123) distinguishes between NGOs that regard education as an important end in itself imparting literacy and numeracy skills to people than those emphasising the “‘empowering’ effects of education” that “enable people to develop a critical, questioning attitude. For example, according to her, NGOs such as Eklavya and Nirantar have a different
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perspective on education than organisations such as the Aga Khan Foundation that follow a management oriented model of school improvement (Nawani 2002: 29).
It is this type of NGO, one that follows a particular managerialist framework in reforming education, that Kumar (2008: 9) defines as the emerging ‘corporate NGO’ that is finding much voice and validation within the recent PPP discourse. This kind of NGO “openly competes with the state and frequently asserts that the latter is redundant, so it might as well reconcile to handing over its responsibilities, especially those pertaining to the education and health of the poor” (Ibid). He writes:
This perspective has a number of attractions. One is that the state’s overall responsibility gets transformed into specific tasks, at least some of which can be outsourced. Other attractions have been added by means of advocacy, and these include a greater scope for flexibility and decentralisation, reduction in the risk of political pressure influencing decision-making, and introduction of the concept of “stakeholders” to refer to the beneficiaries (Ibid: 10).
The various areas where corporate organisations and their affiliated NGOs can enter the field of elementary education through PPPs has been given some shape in the Twelfth Plan (2012-2017) document. These include investment in infrastructure facilities, school management, teacher training and provision of a range of educational services.
Some operational models of PPPs in school education
One can find the involvement of corporate actors in a number of arenas, most notably school adoption, teacher training and provision of computer services in schools (Dasra report: ‘Making the Grade: Improving Mumbai’s Public Schools’). Corporate players such as Bharti
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Airtel, Tech Mahindra Foundation and Michael and Susan Dell Foundation are in plans to take over the management of poorly performing municipal schools in Mumbai and Delhi under the school adoption PPP model (Teltumbde 2013, Menon 2013, PPP Policy Draft SDMC Delhi August 2013).
Teltumbde (2013) notes that in the case of Mumbai, none of the parents or concerned stakeholders were consulted with regard to this move. The proposal to hand over more than 1,100 schools was based on studies regarding school enhancement conducted by the World Bank and Department for International Development (DFID). The proposal is to be managed under the existing Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the Bombay Municipal Corporation and will involve NGOs such as Akanksha, Aseema and Nandi Foundation (Ibid: 10).
As part of PPPs in educational services, “IT companies such as Solaris, Java, Oracle, NIIT and Everonn train both pupils and teachers”.“NIIT, SugataMitra’s parent organization, is a nodal player in the growth of the state-school education business and in educational software development. It is reported to have a ‘presence in 2000 Government schools in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Karnataka’” (Nambissan and Ball 2010: 337)
Teacher training has also received much focus over the past decade as the school teacher is being conceived as one of the key variables in improving school performance and preparing students for a competitive labour market. Several corporate organisations are involved in a number of teacher training programmes with differing approaches. Some key examples of PPPs in this area have been outlined in the ‘Making the Grade: Improving Mumbai’s Public Schools’ report. NGOs such as Akanksha, Doorstep School, Life, Muktangan, Naandi and ‘Teach for India’ that are involved in different capacities of teacher
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training in Mumbai have been adjudged as ‘high impact interventions’ in the document.
Of these various interventions, ‘Teach for India’ is an interesting recent entrant within the realm of teacher training reforms. An off- shoot of the ‘Teach for America’ (TFA) programme discussed earlier, the intervention began in 2009 under the aegis of ShaheenMistri who is the founder of Akanksha Foundation. Like its American predecessor, the programme is embedded within powerful corporate capital networks linking it to organisations such as Central Square Foundation, Centre for Civil Society, 3.2.1 schools and the Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP) network (Vellanki 2014: 142-143).
‘Teach for India’ and discourses of reform
This programme as Vellanki (2014) observes has been identified as one of the nine models of the PPP framework working within municipal schools. Like the TFA programme, its Indian counterpart also draws its cadre from a highly qualified bracket of college graduates and young professionals and places them on a two-year fellowship in municipal schools in Mumbai, Pune, Delhi, Chennai and Hyderabad. Apart from municipal schools, the intervention is also active in low cost (budget) schools and select private aided schools in these five cities (Ibid). Currently TFI has 730 Fellows teaching approximately 23,000 children across five cities and 437 Alumni (Teach for India website: www.teachforindia.org).
Fellows of this programme, once selected, are trained for five weeks before being placed in 2nd to 8th standard classrooms where they teach English, Mathematics, History and Science with the exception of regional languages (Ibid). The model of pedagogy that the programme follows is based on ‘Teaching as Leadership’. The website of the programme notes:
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Teach For India’s “Teaching As Leadership” (TAL) model is based on the belief that excellent teachers employ the same skills as excellent leaders in any field. The TAL model requires teachers to plan purposefully, execute effectively, work relentlessly and reflect continuously in order to push students to significant academic gains. Through the TAL model, Fellows become extraordinary leaders who can help their students make significant academic gains in the short run and advocate for systemic educational reform in the long run.
The language hints towards a discourse of management that seeks to break down the complex pedagogical work of the school teacher into simple, routine and standardised tasks. Menon (2013: 19) in her study on municipal schools in Delhi and the increasing influence of NGO interventions observes that “the TFI training focuses on skilling the volunteer to manage the classrooms rather than engage with educational issues and its context”. TFI Fellows often experience a strong disconnect from the schools, the student population and the environment.
Programmes such as the TFI, like other compensatory programmes in education, employ the lexicon of ‘cultural deficit’ that believes that a disadvantaged minority are distinct from the majority only in terms of culture or attitudes and that correcting this disadvantage in education is a technical problem (Connell 1994: 4). They remain ignorant of the structural and institutional constraints within which teaching takes place in these poorly resourced schools.
Teacher education in the country is a diverse, fragmented and complex terrain which has largely remained neglected by policymakers historically and reforms in this area have been piecemeal and slow. Moves to strengthen teacher education as a profession have met divided opinions and the Indian State through the 1990s has moved towards
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deprofessionalising the vocation through para teacher schemes and encouraging the entry of private providers in elementary education (Batra 2012).
Avalos (1992: 424) observes that for many children in poor urban settings schooling represents an experience of self-debasement, of frustration, of learning to be losers.
Children who are losers, rejects from the system, who have not learned to read with understanding the events of their time, of their country, of their home village, eventually will have to learn in some other location and in other ways the survival strategies needed for adult life, and this learning may not be socially appropriate. The value of much education for the poor in the third world, therefore, is a questionable issue.
Children from poor families, as Connell (1994: 1) states, are “the least successful by conventional measures and the hardest to teach by traditional methods”. Changing “industrial conditions of teachers’ work are central to addressing issues of poverty and education because teachers are the most strategically placed workers to affect the relationship between poor children and schools, and because teachers of the poor have a capacity for strategic thinking and reform strategies that have largely been overlooked” (Ibid).
The modes through which these powerful discourses of educational reform emerging in the West are entering and seeking to reform public school settings in complex socio-cultural environments in India needs to be addressed.
References
Avalos, Beatrice. (1992). ‘Education for the Poor: Quality or Relevance?’,British Journal of Sociology of Education, 13 (4): 419-436.
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Batra, Poonam. (2012). ‘Positioning Teachers in the Emerging Education Landscape of Contemporary India’, India Infrastructure Report 2012: Private Sector in Education. New Delhi: Routledge. pp. 219-231.
Batra, Poonam. (2006). ‘Building on the National Curriculum Framework to Enable the Agency of Teachers’, Contemporary Education Dialogue, Monsoon, 4 (1): 88-118.
Connell, R. W. (1994). ‘Poverty and Education’, Harvard Educational Review, Summer, 64 (2): 1-21.
Dasra Report, ‘Making the Grade: Improving Mumbai’s Public Schools’: http://www.dasra.org, accessed on April 26, 2014.
Draft Framework for Public Private Partnership for SDMC Schools, published on August 2013.
Government of India (GoI). (2009). ‘The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009’. Gazette of India, 27 August.
Government of India (GoI). (2011). ‘Report of the Working Group on Private Sector participation including PPP in School Education for the 12th Five Year Plan’, October. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development.
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Govinda, R. and Y. Josephine. (2005). ‘Para-teachers in India: A Review’, Contemporary Education Dialogue, Spring, 2 (2): 193-224.
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iGovernment aided institutions have been present on the scene of public education in India for a long time. One needs to make a distinction between these older forms of private management and the more recent corporate driven phenomenon of Public Private Partnerships that have been discussed in this proposal.
iiSchool teaching according to the taxonomic approach is considered a weak vocation. Compared to other professions such as law, medicine or engineering it has a weaker body of systemized knowledge, lower occupational standing, authority and autonomy. The trajectory of institutionalizing school teaching as a profession has differed across countries in the world. Countries such as US and UK have a longer history of developing teacher education and locating it within the ambit of the University. These efforts have brought a stronger frame of professionalization to school teaching in these countries. The context of school teaching in postcolonial countries such as India offers a much
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more complex picture. School teaching as a vocation changed considerably once it got intermeshed with the larger colonial organizational structure of education. Before the coming of the British, the school teacher was embedded within differing social and religious contexts across the country. There were vast differences with regard to the forms of schooling, the codes and mediums of instruction, curriculum and the purposes of education. These variations were further complicated by issues of caste, social class and gender. These diverse indigenous systems of teaching and learning underwent much change once schools came under colonial control and the school teacher became a State functionary earning a meagre salary. Modes of teacher education and related ideas of professionalization in the US and the UK often act as frames of reference towards deconstructing and comparing the shifts in teacher education and training in postcolonial countries. As a former colony of the UK, there was much intermingling and transmutation of ideas regarding teacher education and training in India. There were significant differences with regard to the ideational understanding of practitioner autonomy in school teaching and its consequent practice and location within a bureaucratic school structure. Strong ideas of practitioner autonomy were consciously not transmitted by the British to the native population emphasizing a stronger subservient role for school teachers (see Lortie 1969, Lortie 2002, Ginsburg et al. 1988, Kumar 1991, Labaree 1992, Ingersoll and Merrill 2011, Khora 2011, Rao 2014).
iiiBatra (2012; 2006) notes that despite the setting up of DIETs across the country, most programmes of reforming teacher education curriculum were initiated outside the state-system within NGOs such as Eklavya. The curriculum in most state-led institutes of teacher training continues to remain dated, emphasising behavioural pedagogies drawing from psychology.
iv The global economic crisis of the 1980s perpetuated by the 1970s oil crisis saw large scale falling household income, contraction of the formal economy in Latin America and Africa which meant that the per capita expenditure on primary formal education fell drastically (Kumar et al. 2001).
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vThere was thus a two-tier structure with regard to teacher education. The national government formulated broad policy frameworks and quality norms but it was largely up to the state governments to decide on conditions of recruitment and service for both regular and para- teachers creating wide variations in teaching standards across the country (Govinda and Josephine 2005). At the national level, the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), which was an advisory body to the government, was conferred statutory status to regulate the professional qualification requirements for school teachers in 1995. A small but significant attempt to professionalise school teaching and locate it within the ambit of the University system was also made in 1994 in Delhi with the four-year integrated interdisciplinary Bachelors in Elementary Education programme (B El Ed) (Batra 2012; 2006). vi Some para-teacher schemes include Andariki Vidya Volunteer Scheme (Andhra Pradesh), Vidya SahayakYojana (Gujarat), Vidya SahayakYojana (Himachal Pradesh), ShikshaKarmi Programme (Madhya Pradesh), ShikshenSevak (Maharashtra), ShikshaKarmi Programme (Rajasthan) and ShikshaMitraYojana (Uttar Pradesh). Except for the ShikshaKarmi Programme in Rajasthan, all these programmes were launched during the implementation of the DPEP (Govinda and Josephine 2005).
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DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF GADABAS OF ANDHRA PRADESH
V.Jayasri Department of Anthropology Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Abstract Gadaba is a primitive tribal population inhabiting Vizianagaram district of Andhra Pradesh and practicing a high degree of consanguinity. In the present paper, an attempt has been made to understand the impact of inbreeding on fertility and mortality, 301 ever married women were interviewed for the study and have been computed to examine the differences between consanguineous and non- consanguineous marriages in fertility and mortality. The inbreeding co- efficient for autosomal gene is found to be 0.0405 ± 0.0023 and sex linked gene is 0.0432 ± 0.0025.
Keywords Gadaba, Primitive Tribe, Menarche, Marriage, Consanguinity, Reproductive performance.
INTRODUCTION
Demographic parameters have been studied in several populations through out the world. India is a country with a large number of endogamous tribal communities, some of whom practice consanguineous marriages leading to a high degree of inbreeding, a parallel of which is not found any where in the world. (Mitchell, 1865; Sutter and Tabah, 1952; Slatish et al., 1958; Dhronam Raju and Meerakhan, 1961; Schull and Neel, 1965; Sanghavi, 1966; Kumar, 1967; Basu, 1971; Murthy Jamil, 1972; Veerraju, 1973, Roy Choudhary, 1976; Haq, 1976; Jaikishan, 1982; Narahari, 1982; V.L.N. Rao, 1985; Badaruddoza and Afzal, 1992).
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In Andhra Pradesh increased fertility in consanguineous couples has been observed in some populations. (Mukerjee and Bhaskar, 1974; Reddy and Rao, 1977; Reddy, 1978). On the contrary some authors observed lower fertility in consanguineous couples (Reddy and Naidu, 1978). Regarding mortality, pre-reproductive mortality was observed to increase with consanguinity in hospital data from Hyderabad and some certain populations no perceptible effect of consanguinity on mortality was observed (Jacob and Jayabal, 1971; Gosh and Majumdar, 1979). Gadaba, the subject of present study were previously studied by Saraswathi in 1976, reveal an incidence of 60.20%. Consanguinity, which is more than the present study. An attempt has been made to understand whether there is any variation in the influence of consanguinity on fertility and mortality.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The study was conducted in 16 villages of 2 Mandals, Saluru and Pachipenta of Viziaagaram District, Andhra Pradesh during December 2004. Information pertaining to the demographic parameters was collected from the total of 301 Gadaba women. Out of this 150 women belonged to consanguineous marriages and 151 belonged to non- consanguineous marriages. Most of the women are illiterate. Gadabas are one of the 12 prmitive tribes of Andhra Pradesh who are devided into endogamous sub divisions, namely bodo, kthari, kollari and all these subdivisions were covered in the present study. The population of Gadaba in Andhra Pradesh was 27.068 individuals according to 2001 census.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The mean age at menarche among Gadaba women was found to be 13.2 years, which is well within the range of age at menarche in most of the tribal populations of India. (Gupta & Jaiswal, 1992). In India, especially in south, there are many populations in which women
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get married before the onset of menarche. In the present study women got married after the onset of menarche with average age at marriage is 16.0 years. But, slightly deviate another Gadaba sample reported by Saraswathi (1976). The age at first conception among the Gadabas reveal that women conceive at an earlier stage as evident from the mean value 18.7 years. There fore after marriage the Gadaba women enter into reproductive life immediately as they don’t practice birth control method due to staunch believes and custmous. Mukerjee (1971- 72) suggested considering the reproductive performance of the women aged 40+ years, because an average Indian woman menopausal age is above 40 years. The age at last conception is found to be 23.7 years, which is very much earlier because of family welfare measures undertaken by State Government.
Pattern and prevalence of consanguinity among the Gadabas (Table 2) is observed half of the sample (49.8%) of the present study. The first cousin that to M.B.D pre-dominates distribution. This is followed by an equal frequency of F.S.D and Uncle-niece (15.2% and15.0%) respectively. The over all inbreeding coefficient in Gadaba is found to be autosomal 0.0405±0.0023 and sex linked gene is 0.0432±0.0025. Thus the population is found to show a successive decrease in the incidence of inbreeding during the last three decades. This has its own effects on the genetic composition of the Gadaba. The inbreeding coefficient ranges other tribes of Andhra Pradesh i.e. 0.05 in Mathura (Pingle, 1975) to 0.058 in Konda Kammara (G. Jaikishan, 1991). Significantly high number of conceptions and live births and reproductive wastages are found among the consanguineous marriages (Table 3&4) as compared to those of non-consanguineous marriages, where postnatal mortality is observed to be slightly higher.
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CONCLUSIONS
Thus it is found that Gadabas show moderate fertility and mortality. However, an elevated fertility and reproductive wastage are observed in consanguineous marriages than non-consanguineous. Though at different stages of life, mortality was somewhat higher in non-consanguineous marriages. Since Gadaba is highly endogamous primitive tribe practicing consanguinity from ages it is expected to have the deleterious genes eliminated from the population.
TABLE1: Distribution of age at menarche, marriage, first conception,
last conception among the Gadaba women
No of Stages of life Mean S.D S.E of X women Age at menarche 301 13.2 1.0 0.06 Age at marriage 301 16.0 1.8 0.1 Age at first conception 282 18.70 2.6 0.15 Age at last conception 278 23.7 4.0 0.241 TABLE2: Pattern and prevalence of consanguinity among the Gadabas
Marriage type Number Percentage Consanguineous 150 49.8 Non- consanguineous 151 50.2 UN 45 30.0 MBD 59 39.3 FSD 46 30.7 Autosomal FA = 0.0405±0.0023 Sex linked FS = 0.0432±0.0025.
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TABLE 3: Pregnancy out come by birth order
Pregnancy out come Birth Live Current Total Surviving Still Neonatal Infant order births Abortions pregnancies children births deaths deaths 1 282 266 198 5 7 18 50 0 2 238 227 180 2 4 7 40 0 3 185 182 163 0 3 3 15 1 4 119 118 103 0 2 3 11 1 5 53 52 47 0 2 0 5 0 6 18 18 15 0 1 1 2 0 7 6 6 5 0 1 0 1 0 8 3 3 3 0 1 0 0 0 9 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 10 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 Total 906 874 716 7 23 32 124 2
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TABLE 4: Distribution of pregnancy out come by consanguinity
Pregnancy out Consanguinity Non-consanguinity come
Total Number Percentage Number Percentage pregnancy 463 443 Live births 445 96.1 429 96.8 Surviving 380 82.1 336 75.8 Children Still births 15 3.2 8 1.8 Abortions 3 0.6 4 0.9 Infant deaths 56 12.1 68 15.3 Neo-natal deaths 9 1.9 23 5.2 Current 0 0 2 0.5 pregnancy
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Prof. S.Narahari, Department of Anthropology, Andhra University, for this valuable suggestions in preparing this paper.
REFERENCES
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3. Dronamraju, K.R & P. Meerahan 1961. The frequency and effects of consanguineous marriages in Andhra Pradesh. J. Genet., 13:387- 401.
4. Ghosh, A and P.P.Majumdar 1979. Genetic load in isolated population of South India. Hum. Gent, 51: 203-208.
5. Gupta, N. and I.J.S. Jaiswal, 1992. Age at menarche among three caste groups of Jammu city. Man in India, 72 (4): 463-467.
6. Jaikishan. G. 1982. Physical Anthropology of Konda Kammaras, Ph.D. thesis; A.U., Waltair, India (Unpublished).
7. Jaikishan. G. 1991. Population structures among tribes. Tamil University press, Tanjavur, India, pp.137.
8. Haq. F. 1976. Consanguinity and inbreeding among the Muslims of Mushirabad and Birbhum districts of West Bengal. J. Ind. Anthrop. Soc., 11:21-25. 9. Jacob, J.T and P. Jayabal 1971. Foetal and child loss in relation to consanguinity in Southern India. Ind. J. Med. Res, 59:150-153. 10 Mitchell, A.1865. On the influence which consanguinity in the parentage exercises upon the off-spring. Edinburgh Med. J., 10:781-794, 1074-1085. 11. Mukerjee, D.P. and S. Bhasker 1974. Studies on inbreeding and its effects on some endogamous population of Chitoor district, Andhra Pradesh, Abstract I.Ann.Conf.of Ind.Soc.of Hum. Genet, Bombay. 12. Murthy, J.S. and T. Jamil 1972. Inbreeding load in the newborn of Hyderbad. Ata Genet. Med. Gemellol, 21:327-331. 13. Narahari. S. 1982. Genetic study of Yerukulas of A.P. Ph.D .thesis submitted to S.V. University, Tirupati. (Unpublished). 14. Pingle, U. 1975. A comparative analysis of mating systems and marriage distance pattern between five tribal groups of Utnur Taluq, Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. Proc. 2nd Conf. Indian Soc. Hum.Genet.Calcutta. 15. Rao P.A. and V.R. Reddy, 1977. Consanguineous marriages and their effects on fertility and off-spring mortality in a rural Yadava population of South Eastern Andhra Pradesh. 4th AM. of Ind. Soc.of Hum. Genet, Madras.
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16. Rao, P.P.S.S. 1978. Inbreeding in Tamil Nadu and its effects on Human reproduction. In: I.C. Verma (Ed) Medical Genetics in India, Aroma Enterprises, Publication Division, Pondicherry. 17. Reddy, V.R. and J.M. Naidu, 1978. Effects of consanguinity on fertility, mortality in Gampasatti Kammas of Andhra Pradesh. In IC Verma (Ed) Medial Genetics in India, Auroma Enterprises, Publication Division. 18. Reddy V.R. and P.A. Rao, 1978. Effects of parental consanguinity on fertility, mortality and morbidity among the Pattusalis of Tirupati, South India. Hum. Hered. 28:226-234. 19. Roy Choudhary, A.K., 1976. Incidence of inbreeding in different states of India. Demography India,: 108-119. 20. Rao.V.L.N, 1985 Savara-Jatapu: A Demo Genetic study, Ph.D.thesis: A.U. Waltair, India (Unpublished). 21. Sanghvi, L.D. 1966. Inbreeding in India. Eug. Quarterly, 13: 291- 301. 22. Schull W.J. and J.V. Neel. 1965. The effects of inbreeding on Japanese Children. New York, Harper and Row. 23. Slatish, H.M., Reis, R. H. Hoene. 1958. Consanguineous marriages in the Chicago region. Am. J. Hum.Genet., 10: 446-464. 24. Sutter, J.and J.Tabah. 1952. Effects de la consanguinity et de l’ebdigamic une quete morbihan et loir-et-cher. Population, 7:249- 266. 25. Sarswathi, 1976. A study of Genetic Demography of Gadaba Tribe at Gajapathinagaram blocks in Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh. 26. Veerraju. P., 1973 A Genetic study of Konda Reddies Ph.D. thesis; A.U. Waltair, India (Unpublished).
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PROSPECTS OF URBAN INFORMAL SECTOR
Dr. R. Ramakrishna Department of Economics Maharajah’s College (Aided & Autonomous) Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh,India Abstract
This paper studies the urban informal sector and its prospects. One of the most striking features of development in the third world countries is the unprecedented growth of urban population and labour force. It is argued that a major part of the labour force in India and in other developing countries work in informal sector. The informal sector concept has started gaining considerable importance in the literature on development policy in general and employment policy in particular with its adoption by ILO’S Employment Report on Kenya. Recognizing the limited scope for employment growth in the formal sector, the ILO has launched a series of research studies on the employment potential of the informal sector in select developing countries. A number of country and city studies were also conducted under the aegis of ILO’s World Employment Programme. This study not only focuses on the size and nature of the informal sector in the urban areas but also identifies several problem areas and provides estimates of the potential for employment promotion and income generation.
Key words: Employment promotions; Income generations; Labor force; Striking features; Third World Countries; Urban population;.
Introduction:
The International Labor Organization observed that “Contrary to what has long been presumed, the informal sector is not a passing phenomenon, nor it is marginal and destined to disappear in the medium term. Its size and growing complexity within the economic,
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social and political landscape of developing countries in general, and Africa in particular, are an unchallenged and increasingly acknowledged reality”. It is observed that not only does the informal sector account for a significant proportion of African, South American and Asian economies, but it also plays an increasingly predominant role in job creation and in the production of national wealth (ILO, 2004). However, inspite of its importance, there is no consensus regarding the definition of informal sector. Keith Hart was the first person to introduce the term ‘informal sector’. In his study of Informal Income Opportunities and Urban Employment in Ghana he came across several income earning activities that are not covered by the organized sector. Hart distinguished formal and informal income opportunities on the basis of whether the activity entailed wage or self employment. Thus the concept of informal sector as used by Hart was limited to self employed individual workers. Though it is has certain limitations, the introduction of this concept enabled the subsequent studies on urban labour to incorporate the activities that were previously ignored in theoretical models of development and in national economic accounts (Swaminathan, 1991).
Definitions of Informal Sector:
According to SNA (1993), the informal sector consists of units engaged in the production of goods or services with the primary objective of generating employment and income to the persons concerned. These units typically operate at a low level of organization, with little or no division between labour and capital as factors of production and as a small scale. Labour relations – where they exist – are based mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal and social relations rather than contractual arrangements with formal guarantees. The informal sector forms part of the household sector as household enterprises or, equivalently, unincorporated enterprises owned by households.
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In the Indian context, the First Indian National Commission on Labour(1966-69) defined ‘unorganized sector workforce’ as “ those workers who have not been able to organize themselves in pursuit of their common interest due to certain constraints like casual nature of employment, ignorance and illiteracy, small and scattered size of establishments”.
The National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector (NCEUS) of Government of India observed that persons, who do not find employment in the formal sector, are forced to participate in the informal sector for their survival as they cannot afford to be unemployed. This is the most acceptable way of defining the informal sector in low-income economies. Thus to be precise “ The informal sector consists of all unincorporated private enterprises owned by individuals or households engaged in the sale and production of goods and services operated on a proprietary or partnership basis and with less than ten total workers”.
Based on the findings of the empirical and field surveys conducted in India and abroad, the main features of informal economic units are; easy of entry; small scale of the activity; self-employment, with a high proportion of family workers and apprentices; little capital and equipment; labour intensive technologies; low skills; low level of organization with no access to organized markets, to formal credit, to education and training or services and amenities; cheap provision of goods and services or provision of goods and services otherwise unavailable; low productivity and low incomes.
Importance of informal sector:
A substantial part of employment in the developing countries is informal as it is created outside the recognized institutional framework.
It is estimated that the urban labour force engaged in the informal sector ranges between 30 to 90 percent in many of the developing
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countries. The magnitude of informal work force was estimated as about 93 percent in India, 64 percent in Mexico, and 34 percent in South Africa. According to Jacques Charmes the employment rate in the informal sector has increased over years. For example, the employment rates in the informal sector increased from 38.8 percent in 1980 to 43.4 percent in1990 in North Africa, from 68.1 percent to 74.8 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa, from 52.3 percent to 56.9 percent in Latin American and from 53.0 percent to 63.0 percent in Asia. In the Indian context, according to a recent study the informal sector workers are estimated as 394.90 million i.e 86 percent of the total workers. The study also observed that the growth rate of urban informal sector is higher than the urban formal sector. Even within the formal sector workers, an increased casualisation of labour is found to be taking place in India. It is observed that there is a positive and significant correlation between informal sector employment and the incident of poverty. ILOs Global Employment trends (2010), indirectly estimated that there are about 744 million workers who are $1.25 a day poor and 506 million of them live in Asia. As a result of the recent global economic crisis it is estimated that there are 1.3 billion workers, who now live below the $2 per day threshold. Out of these, 915 million workers are found in Asia. The report also indicated that 5 out of 10 people in the world are in vulnerable employment either as contributing family workers or own-account workers with a higher risk of being unprotected. In South Asia, this ratio is even higher at 8 out of 10 people in vulnerable employment (ILO 2010). Thus most of the working poor are found in the informal sector of the developing countries.
Informal sector in India:
Informal sector in India accounts for a sizable number of workforce. Over the years, organized sector employment has grown slowly than the total employment, reflecting faster growth of
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employment in the unorganized sector. As a result there has been increasing informalisation of employment over the years. According to the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) estimate the size of the workforce in India has increased from 396.76 million in 1999-2000 to 457.46 million by 2004-05. The corresponding informal sector employment increased from 342.64 million to 394.90 million indicating the significant presence of informal sector in the economy. It is estimated that informal sector in India is contributing to 86 percent of total workers. It is observed that the impact of economic growth in the post-liberalization period has not reduced the size of the informal sector. The Task Force on Employment Opportunities set up by the Planning Commission of Government of India in 2001 pointed out the even a continuation of the GDP growth at this rate is not likely to bring about significant improvement in the employment situation. This is because much of the growth has been capital and information-intensive rather than labour-intensive. Also, some of the growth has been associated with informal, rather than formal, wage jobs.
Conclusion:
Besides providing employment opportunities to a large chunk of labour force in the country, informal sector also contributes to the National Product significantly. Further it is estimated that around 60 percent of the Net Domestic Product (NDP) is accounted by the informal /unorganized sector. Further, with regard to savings the share of household sector in the total gross domestic savings mainly of unorganized sector is about three-fourth. Thus Informal sector has a crucial role in our economy in terms of employment and its contribution to the National Domestic Product, savings and capital formation. It is observed experienced that formal sector could not provide adequate opportunities to accommodate the growing workforce in the country. As such the informal sector has been providing employment for their subsistence and survival. Keeping in view of the
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existing economic scenario it is argued that the informal sector will expand further in the years to come.
References:
1. Ajaya Kumar Naik (2009): Informal Sector and Informal Workers in
India" Paper proponed for the special IARIW-SAIM conference on Measuring the Informal Economy in Developing
Countries", Kathmandu, Nepal, September 23-26.
2.Richard Walther and Ewa Filipiak (2007): Vocational Training in the InformalSector,httpiiwww.eib.oreattachments/general/events/Luxe mbourg_ 18112008_formation professionnelle_en.pdf.
3. Swaminathan, M (1991): "Understanding the Informal Sector" A Survey "WIDER WP95.Finland. `
4. ILO (1972): "Employment. Income and Equality: A Strategy for Increasing Productive Employment in Kenya, Geneva.
5. Lewis, W.A (1954): "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour "Manchester School of Economics and Social Studies, Vol.22.May.PP 139-191.
6. Fie and Ranis.G (1964): Development of the labour Surplus Economy: Theory and Policy. Richard D Irwin. Inc. Harewood. '
7. Breman, J (1976): "A Dualistic Labour System: A Critique of the Informal Sector Concept" Economic and Political Weekly, No.27 Nov- Dcc.P1871.
8. ECAFE (1972): Interrelation Between Population and Manpower problems, Asian population Studies Servies, No.7, United nations, Bangkok.
9. Hirschman, Charles (1970): "Unemployment among Urban Youth in
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Peuinsulau Malaysia: A Multivariate Analyses of Individuals and Structural Effects" Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol.30 No.2.Jan.PP.393.
10. Mehta, M (1985) : “Urban Informal Sector: Concepts, Indian Evidence and Policy Implications” Vol.22, No .8 Feb , P .326
11. Seghuraman. S.V (1975) : “Urbaniziation and Employment; A Case Study of Djakarta” International Labour Review, Vol.122 No 2-3 Aug, Sep PP.191-205
12. Lubell, H(1980) Op.cit., P.356
13. Sethuraman, S.V (1975) “Urbanization and Employment; A Case Study of Djakarta” International Labor Review, Vol. 114, No.3 Nov – Dec P.356
14. Ajayakumr Naik (2009) : OP cit.
15. Richard Walther and Ewa Filipiak (2007) Op.cit.
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A STUDY OF HEROISM AND TRAGEDY IN THOMAS HARDY’S NOVELS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ‘THE WOODLANDERS’
Dr. S.J.Earnest S.G Lecturer in English and Head Noble College (A) Machilipatnam ABSTRACT:
The Woodlanders is one of the finest novels written by Thomas Hardy. The article entitled, “A Study of Heroism and Tragedy in Thomas Hardy’s novels with special reference to ‘The Woodlanders’” is a systematic investigation of the novel named, ‘The Woodlanders’ – it is the story of miserable and gloomy marriage upheld by arrogance and perpetuated by convention. The heroic characters of Marty South and Giles Winterborne and their embittered torment from bitter aggravation of personal need have been thoroughly studied. It is also scrutinized that the novel put across a sense of perplexity and sorrow and above all the most of all grief of the lives of to a large extent good people defeated by self-centeredness and ego. It is also observed that the erroneous selection and temperamental differentiations headed to disastrous obscurity in love and nuptials. The catastrophic circumstances instigated either by fate, chance or coincidence in the novel is also analyzed. The novel chases on the awe-inspiring figure of the peasant girl, Marty South, lamenting by the tomb of Giles Winterborne whom she has ardently and altruistically loved. In the novel, Thomas Hardy intensifies Nature and man, and advocates that whatever the creation of Heaven, it is magnificent. Further the characters of Fitzpiers, Marty, Melbury and Mrs. Charmond are attentively studied.
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KEY WORDS: Heroism and tragedy, arrogance, aggravation, self- centeredness, temperamental differentiation, erroneous selection, disastrous obscurity.
The Woodlanders is acclaimed as a work of genius and has fascinated the mind of researchers and critics over a century. In his later years, Hardy frequently said that it was ‘in some respects … his best novel’. In fact, The Woodlanders has attracted more undisputed chorus of critical appreciation when it first came out in 1886 than any of Hardy’s previous novels. Trevor Johnson appropriately comments, ‘unquestionably it contains much of Hardy’s first writing, the many descriptions of the woods at different seasons and at all hours of the day and night … are among his finest’. In its thematic subject matter it is much closer to Far From the Madding Crowd, The Return of the Native, The Mayor of Casterbridge and Tess of the D’urbervilles. It is a predecessor societal novel, the ‘purposeful’ prototype of Tess and Jude. In The Woodlanders, the interconnected series of love relationships, develops the backbone of the plot. It is the story of a miserable marriage promoted by arrogance and perpetuated by convention. Marty South never expresses her love for Giles until he is dead. Giles loves Grace, but she marries Fitzpiers, and does not realize her fault until it is too late. And Fitzpiers abandons Grace for Mrs. Charmond. The central contradiction is hardly dramatized. Giles and Marty South suffer. There is no dominant character as in The Mayor of Casterbridge and Tess, and the differences is more noticeable in Grace and her father when both indulge in worthless expectations that the new divorce law will facilitate the latter to make amends for his disappointed intentions. As the title itself suggests, The Woodlanders is a novel specially illustrated by ‘Unity of place’. From the very first paragraph, Hardy keeps busy the reader with the idea of the woods, the abundance and variety of their shrubbery. E. M. Forster, whose comprehension of the novel was developed by reading it against the
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background exclaimed, ‘Trees, trees, undergrowth, English trees! How that book rustles with them’. Like all Hardy’s backgrounds and scenery, this woodland is a quite powerfully, vividly there any other real wood could probably be. Little Hintock is portrayed in the opening chapter as, ‘one of those sequestered spots outside the gates of the world’. But the impression of the novel is significantly to build the world as further than the thriving, deep-rooted opening of the woodland. The readers of the novel are placed in the semi-wild heart of the woods, where human life keep up a correspondence closely to the primitive, in the anthropological sense of the world, than anything else in Hardy. Early from the absence of protagonist or central and dominating character, an insensitive account of the novel would go on to argue that Hardy barely defend such a risky dispersion of his interest. Grace and Melbury come through as inactive and idealized creations; Grace as frolicsome and petty in her interests; Melbury as a well- meaning and naively pompous father; Mrs. Charmond and Fitzpiers as the stereotypes of rakish and self-absorbed outsiders who firstly ruin others and ruin themselves. Fitzpiers, In The Woodlanders appeals and is appealed by three powerful distinguished women, Felice Charmond, Suke Damson and Grace Melbury. Three of them symbolize three distinctive characteristics of love. Trevor Johnson says, ‘Felice exists for the rowdy, absurd, neck-or-nothing kind, Suke stands for natural bodily desire, and Grace for a combination of deviousness, charm and idealization’. Hardy’s technique is to roll these four around in a confused emotional round about. The Woodlanders is characterized by interrogative wakefulness of the literary modes within which it is working. That interrogation is crystallized in the form of Grace Melbury, who is at the midpoint of its shifts and point of view. Penny Boumelha states, ‘she migrates unsettingly between pastoral survival, tragic predicament, realist centre of consciousness, and melodramatic heroine’. Indeed, the fluidity of her narrative role makes her almost
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vague figure in the novel. It is well said that the importance of Grace supplies Hardy with an opportunity to sketch for Sue Bridehead. Her quandary, caught between Giles Winterborne and Fitzpiers, her character and ultimate reacceptance of the first marital partner, the ‘Daphnean instinct’ (P.310) that implies her to flee the returning Fitzpiers and the superficial piousness of her readings in the Bible and the prayer book, foretell Sue Bridehead’s tormented confrontation between Jude and Phillotson. Grace is like Elizabeth-Jane in her ordinariness, like Thomasin in her authentic simplicity. Writing about Grace, John Butler says, ‘Grace is almost Hardy’s perfect woman: she has pride enough and modesty enough, she is passionate enough and reserved enough, she is beautiful’. Mrs. Charmond in many ways is like Fitzpiers. She also have an aversion to woods, finding them gloomy disheartening and, when she is gone astray in them, petrifying. David Lodge remarks, ‘As a lady of the manor she controls the economic lives of the woodlanders, and oppresses them by pursuing a policy of enclosure’. She is cut off from contact with them by her rank, her carriage and her fine house, its curtains drawn in day time and candles lit within. When Melbury breaks through these defenses and tries an honest personal encounter, she writes with great discomfiture. Mrs. Charmond fit in to the group of neurotic older women. Her name implies charisma and worldliness. Her condition in the big house correlates her to all the ladies that Hardy created out of the impulse that produced his first novel, The Poor Man and the Lady. Mrs. Charmond, as a lady put forth an automatic attraction over Fitzpiers. Like Daisy and Tom in The Great Gatsby, Felice and Fitzpiers are insensitive and self-seeking. In the words of Richard Carpenter, ‘Their pursuit of their own desires, with little regard for the well being of others, is the source of much grief for others, and eventually for themselves as well’. Admiring their egotism is the naïve approach of the woodlanders that cultivation is more desirable than native simplicity.
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At the end pastoral life succeeds. Felice kicks the bucket at the hands of a disgruntled lover, and Fitzpiers come together with Grace. The vehicle of the disastrous component in The Woodlanders is a realistic analysis of sexual and marital themes. In his preface to the novel in 1895 Hardy himself states, ‘... it is tacitly assumed for the purposes of the story that no doubt of the depravity of the erratic heart who feels some second person to be better suited to his or her tastes than the one with whom he has contracted to live enters the head of reader or writer for a moment’ (P.35). Grace’s ultimate reunion with Fitzpiers is not so much enabled as enforced by the death of Giles, which puts an immediate and decisive end to her emotional vacillations between the two men. Grace is not alone in such rise and fall; almost every character in the novel has more than one companion either actually (as Felice Charmond has a dead husband, a discarded lover and a current one), or potentially (as Giles has both Grace and Marty South). The common multiplicity of attachments, disappointments and retractions undermines the notion of the exclusivity and irrevocability of marriage contract. Both Grace and Felice feel desire as if it were an external compulsion to which they must submit, locating in Fitzpiers the source of an emanation of ‘compelling power’ which calls forth the Felice a depressed fatalism and in Grace a somnambulistic passivity. The elements of pastoral elegy play a role considerably to both the structure and the tone of The Woodlanders. The melancholic tone is in excess of its ostensible focus in the plot, the death of Giles Winterborne, and the erotic counter-pointing of the changing seasons evokes the implied regeneration which comprises the pastoral elegy. The society depicted in The Woodlanders is not only depleted by the loss of Giles, but also thoroughly devitalized. This is a use of pastoral that pushes beyond the simply ironic; in the elegiac excess, there dwells more or less a sense of bereavement for its own loss, the mark of the text’s identification of the ultimate insufficiency of the pastoral mode. The spiritual and tradition
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undertones of the classical pastoral elegy are also evidently discernible in the very last part of The Woodlanders. Grace informs to Fitzpiers, ‘I go with Marty to Giles grave, I am almost worship him. We swore we would show him that devotion’ (P.354). It is also said that, ‘weeks and months of mourning for Winterborne had been passed by Grace in the soothing monotony of the memorial act to which she and Marty had devoted themselves. Two times a week the couple went in the early evening to Hintock churchyard, and, similar to the two lamenters in Cymbeline, sweetened his heartrending tomb with their flowers and their tears’ (P.344). Cymbeline, like all of Shakespeare’s late plays, is to a large extent involved with the ideas of death and resurrection and the literary convention of the pastoral. In The Woodlanders, Grace’s periodical visit to Winterborne’s tomb with Marty, which was kept up with pious strictness for the reason of putting snowdrops, prim roses, and other verbal flowers thereon as they came’(P.353). The most noteworthy objection is to read The Woodlanders basically as pastoral, whether ‘classical’ ‘traditional’ or ‘grotesque’ is to make an ideological solution of the contending beliefs of nature which dwell in the text and are played out upon the figure of Grace. Together with the pastoral nature, there runs a rather irreconcilable vein of the Spencerian – Darwinian interpretation of nature as the sight of a struggle for endurance in which insufficient physical propinquity is guaranteed to create disagreement and spontaneous violence. The Spencerian element of such view exists in, in the sanctification of the developmental struggle as an appropriate, and yet inevitable, metaphor for human society. In The Return of the Native, the misfortunes of Clym and Eustacia settle themselves into a sexuality – founded divergence of customs and nature. The Woodlanders generates that dualism, but within the compass of a particular individual, Grace Mulbury. ‘Her modern nerves with primitive feelings’ (P.309) expose her to be the first of Hardy’s female characters to hold within her no less than the
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prospective for a catastrophic difference between sexuality and the intelligence. In this she foreshadows Sue Bridehead; however while Sue’s contradiction is between ‘flesh’ and ‘spirit’, the contradiction within Grace represents itself as a minimal conflict of ‘mind’ and ‘body’, in the pretext of education superimposed upon instinct. Her destruction, consequently, encompasses in a lapse into a matter with propriety and modesty which falls short of a sad intensity. As in The Mayor of Casterbridge, Hardy has to communicate on the subject of the prior relationship between Melbury and Winterbornes; by making Marty an instinctive eavesdropper as he remind her agony at the identification of the bleakness of her own status and the consequent mood of abnegation which bring about her to cut off her hair – an act thoroughly figurative in itself and rich in significance for the ultimate conclusion of the novel. In the same way as Elizabeth-Jane in The Mayor of Casterbridge, Marty is the spectator of further scenes in which she is herself sensitively but not really engaged. Similar to Elizabeth-Jane, she too turns into a kind of ethical touchstone of her cosmos. From her very first introduction, toiling late into the night just to finish her unwell father’s work, Marty is the epitome of self- sacrificing, unostentatious heroism; at the same time as Giles, unstinting, chivalrous and conscientiously sincere, wholly earns Marty’s epitaph, ‘you was a good man and did good things' (P’375). This principled supremacy of Marty and Giles is connected with their compassionate attachment with the woods themselves. The last word, and the ultimate faithfulness to Gile’s memory, lingers with Marty South, who, with Giles and Grace, develops a third triangle of forces. Self-esteem and honesty belongs to Giles and Marty. One of the most excellent moments in the novel is the scene in which they together place young trees, Giles engrossed in a task he is carrying out with a specialist’s skill. Marty finding a silent despite the fact that imperfect satisfaction is being with him, even though he is practically unaware of
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her sex, which is in reality played down by the narrator in harmony with a widespread Victorian principle of idealized femininity. In The Woodlanders Hardy’s dealing of the issue of marriage becomes more unambiguous and his negative response of the blissful end is asserted. Afterwards Hardy was to condemn the ethical timidity of the novel, but it is just to take into account it as representing an advance in bravery and integrity for there is no way to a happy ending. The prefiguring of associations and relationships in The Woodlanders bear a resemblance to three triangles coming into contact with at particular points. The bond of Grace and Giles, which in the beginning possessed a particular natural appropriateness, is not permitted by her father’s uneasy aspirations and by the education she has received. The appearance of Fitzpiers offers a successful rival to Giles; but Fitzpiers in turn dawdled with two other women, Sue Damson and Felice Charmond. Norman Page very appositely comments, ‘Fitzpiers’ infidelity, and Grace’s belated recognition of Gile’s true worth, raise the question of divorce’. Akin to the majority of Hardy’s novels, the opening pages of The Woodlanders starts with the setting up of a limited context for the action, specified with the kind of accuracy that evokes the biography or the guide-book as much as a work of fiction. The scene is at first blank and then a isolated and lonely figure emerges. In the expressions of Norman Page, ‘The careful composition of the picture, the effect, as in a silent film, of image without speech, the thoughtful scrutiny of an unseen observer – these are familiar ingredients in Hardy’s presentation of human behaviour’. The Woodlanders portrays a cosmos in which ethical and bodily rot is out of control. Hardy hypothesizes the likelihood, that the world will slowly and steadily wear and tear itself out. Nature is preoccupied in a depressed tussle for life within the woodlands. Hardy himself affirms, ‘The trees dripped on the garden plots, where no vegetables would grow for the dripping, though they were planted year after year with that curious mechanical regularity of
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country people in the face of hopelessness’ (P.144). The battle for existence stresses on opportunity to a horrid procedure in which one species look as if to devour another: ‘owls that had been catching mice in the out-houses, rabbits that had been eating the winter-greens in the gardens, …. Were seen and heard no more till night fall’(P.24). Giles Winterborne is the character of the wood, in all its innocence and organic life. He has not only responsiveness of the likely unfortunate figure of his life, but also enduring tolerance of it. There is firm tolerance in his character, but no incentive to struggle. His might sustains his misery and his autonomy. Dale Kramer rightly says, Giles is a ‘nature god rather than a conflict between the courses of natural love and the restraints that an elaborate social code places on the expression and fulfillment of love’. His death is piteous and wretched because he is a physically powerful man made physically powerless; but because he never confronts – in fact never realizes – the forces that ruin him. He accepts death fearlessly. Giles death is the high point of the novel. Richard Carpenter remarks, ‘Giles is a masculine patient Griselda, who financially sacrifices himself in order to protect Grace’s reputation. Propriety in The Woodlanders is as potent a force for disaster as chance in other novels’. Grace Melbury is the prey of situations and circumstances, of her father’s determination predominantly, and her own innate fault of will. Grace hold responsible her father for having withdrew her of the contented life she might have enjoyed with Giles: ‘I wish you had never, never thought of educating me. I wish I worked in the woods like Marty South! I hate genteel life, and I want to be no better than she ….cultivation has only brought me inconveniences and troubles…’ (P.240). She is harassed by her husband’s betrayal and the undefined position in which she is put by his disappearance. Her little superciliousness, her docile obedience to her father, her school – girl crush on Fitzpiers, her comparative unresponsiveness to his desertion of her, her timid and reserved
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continuation of a association with Giles, her primly strong devotion to ethical properties when he is kicking the bucket, her indulgent anguish over his demise and the arch and timid resumption of her relationship with Fitzpiers – it is a life story which can with some impartiality be wind up in the hollow-turner’s words. There is a close by similarity of the two sets of characters Mrs. Charmond and Fitzpiers, Marty and Giles. In both cases the characters share a mutual sense of loneliness. Ian Gregor pertinently declares, ‘The isolation which is present to Marty and Giles finds expression in their absorption in their work; the isolation of Mrs. Charmond and Fitzpiers is in their enclosure within their own fantasies’. Fitzpiers and Mrs. Charmond are perceptibly kindred characters, but there are significant differences between them. Idiom, tone, movement, all tallies up to a category of Mrs. Charmond as ‘theatrical’ in a way in which Fitzpiers is obviously not. All four relationships, so thoroughly diverse in nature, have in general an acute impression of self-estrangement. Ian Gregor justifiably says, ‘The sterile obligation of Marty and Giles, the sterile fulfillment of Fitzpiers and Mrs. Charmond – all four characters have complementary roles to play in the novel,…’ They are detached characters rather than varieties of awareness taking their essence from a total design. In Far From the Madding Crowd Hardy showed signs of the satisfied purpose in the death of Troy and in the marriage of Bathsheba and Gabriel Oak. In The Woodlanders he exhibits the discontented purpose of the actual world. There is, consequently, a little of Gabriel Oak in Giles Winterborne; but not enough to round off his life with familial pleasure. There is a little of Bathsheba Everdene in Grace Melbury – enough to get married the man of her fantasy and not of her heart. As for Fitzpiers, he is but rationally super fair Sergeant Troy who robs the gun of captain Boldwood. In The Woodlanders Hardy supplies, a solid plot, expands rather than marred by capriciousness of incident. Melbury, the timber-merchant, and the centre of the group of
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woodlanders, is in his way the imitation of the disgruntled aim. The concluding chapter in The Woodlanders is affected not with the thought of Giles’ death but with the assumption about the future matrimonial life of Grace and Fitzpiers. Fitzpiers is the actual interloper in terms of the novel’s setting: the big abodes of the countryside must have their inhabitants and Mrs. Charmond is moderately believable in such a role. Michael Millgate pertinently scrutinizes, ‘the convenience of Fitzpiers is that, once his presence is accepted, he becomes a ready instrument for bringing into juxtaposition and interaction the two elements of rural simplicity and urban sophistication’ precisely because Fitzpiers is the odd man out, it is he who precipitates the more violent and striking actions, and it is worth noting that Hardy once suggested ‘Fitzpiers at Hintock’ as an alternative title for the novel.’ The last part of The Woodlanders distresses many contemporaneous readers, and still able of astonishing and disturbing ones. Numerous reviewers have assumed that Hardy scathingly set up a blissful end for his heroine in harmony with the expectations of his reading community. But the modern critics were stunned that a cad like Fitzpiers, was rewarded rather than punished for his wrong doing. Hardy’s own recorded explanation on the subject matter advises that both criticisms are to some extent, even if not completely, beside the statement: ‘the ending of the story-hinted rather than stated – is that the heroine is doomed to an unhappy life with an inconstant husband. I could not accentuate this strongly in the book, by reason of the conventions of the libraries etc’. The woods in The Woodlanders play an equal role to that of the heath in The Return of the Native or Casterbridge in The Mayor of Casterbridge. It is right that Hardy is utilizing them as he does the heath and the town, to provide essence and logic to his theme; they have a relatively unique significance. There is single modification which the woods highlight in a quite distinctive way, and that is a feel of inert fatigue and dejection. Tess and Jude are terrible and unfortunate on scale much larger than
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anything in The Woodlanders. The woods create an impression, persistent and constant of profoundly gloomy; they are competent of providing meaning and definition to the plot, they crystallize the suspicions of the characters – they do not in the very last analysis cast a shadow on the entire impressions of the novel. The Woodlanders supplies natural surroundings in which the season’s cycle is witnessed. It is an evidence of a cycle of distinctive individual replies to survival. Richard Beckman comments, ‘Since it is the special accomplishment of The Woodlanders to portray human life in the context of a natural setting, the division of the characters of the novel into types corresponding to the seasons becomes possible, …’. Marty South, the portrayal of whose hair-trimming begins the act of the novel, and Giles Winterborne, whose demise of cold indicates its ending, both advocates the winter season representatively. Marty’s expression of grief for Giles Winterborne in the concluding paragraph of the novel signifies the encounter of the two points of the cycle and coalesces the theme of death of the year with that of the stoical patience of winter destruction. The determined Grace Melbury is a optimistic, confident and fresh. Fitzpiers is summery in the imaginative warmth and intensity of his temperament. The novel consequently portrays characters evocative of Winter, Spring, Summer and Fall chasing each another in that series. It is said that The Woodlanders requires the situation where disagreement or discord ultimately gives rise to better ideas or outcomes and vigor of the other novels of Hardy and it relies to a great extent on interconnected characters considerably than on an strongly concerning protagonist. As Dale Kramer says, ‘Each character of The Woodlanders represents an aspect of the totality of lives affected by social forces’. The novel expresses to its reader a sense of bewilderment and sadness, and greater than all the grief of the lives of essentially kind people damaged by self-centeredness. Considering a analytical study of Hardy’s extraordinary novels, one can suSm up that
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incorrect selection and innate differentiations headed to an awful pessimism in love and marriage. The characters are just tools and means and mere puppets in the hands of destiny and circumstances. They enjoy performing on their own. Hardy creates use of chance and coincidences frequently to form heart wrenching troubles. In The Woodlanders the dreadful circumstances are set off either by chance or coincidence. In The Woodlanders, the most important devastation (the death of Giles) produces tragedy rather than sympathy and worry. Nature, as apparent in The Woodlands, is revealed to be a sphere of interminable evolutionary tussle, but on the outside, it is quiet, peaceful, moderate and nearly relaxing. The Woodlanders is a novel of silence, pensive and harmonized setting and surroundings in which the characters are not imposing to symbolize supplementary than they justifiably and sensibly can.
Bibliography:
Dale Kramer, Thomas Hardy: The Forms of Tragedy,(Wayne state University Press, Michigan, 1975).
David Lodge, ‘Instruction to The Woodlanders,(The Mac. Co.Ltd, London, 1975).
Ian Gregor, The Great Web: The Form of Hardy’s Major Fiction, (Fber & Faber, London, 1974)
John Butler, Thomas Hardy, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980).
Norman Page, Thomas Hardy, ( Routlege & Kegan Paul, London, 1979)
Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His career as a Novelist,(The Bodley Head Ltd, 1971).
Penny Boumelha, Thomas Hardy And Women, (The Harvester Press, Sussex, 1982).
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Richard Beckman, ‘A character Typology For Hardy’s Novels’, ELH.(Vol.30, No.1, March 1963).
Richard Carpenter, Thomas Hardy, (The Mac. Co. Ltd, London, 1976).
Trevor Johnson, Literature in Perspective: Thomas Hardy, (Evans brothers Ltd, London, 1968).
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SOCIAL GRACES
Induri Parvathi (Bindhu) Assistant Professor of English GIITS College, Visakhapatnam
Social Graces are skills used to interact politely in social situations. They include manners, etiquette the specified accepted rules within a culture for the application of universal manners deportment and fashion.
A person will get strong social skills and understands how to treat others respectfully and politely through ethics. Ethics is a set of principles or standards of human conduct that govern the behavior of individuals or organizations it concerned with truth and Justice, concerning a variety of aspects like the expectations of society, fair computation, public relations, social responsibilities and corporates behavior. By using ethical standards a person or a group of an organization regulates their behavior to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong as perceived by others.
Fleddermann distinguishes - Personal ethics deals with how we treat others in our day- to -day life. Many of these principles are applicable to ethical situations. Professional ethics however often involves choices at an organizational level, rather than at a personal level. Means they involve relations between two organizations, between corporation and the government, or with the society or between groups of individuals.
Charles Harries distinguishes Professional and Personal ethics, and compares the two with common morality as; Professional ethics is a set of standards adapted by professionals in so far they see themselves acting as Professionals ‘Personal ethics is a set of standards adapted by professionals in so far they see standards of one’s own commitment and interpretation of moral and immoral act, usually based on the early training received at home.
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Common morality is the set of standards shown by a certain community of society. For example if an engineer refuses to design a military hard ware because he is against war , this is personal ethics rather than professional ethics or common morality. But if he feels that certain design factors of a component are against the interest of the customer and if he insists on giving the needed technical information to his client, he is acting with personal, common morality though not with professional morality.
Why Ethics important for us? It is important to approach a problem to analyze it critically for the best solution in several issues such as public safety, bribery, fraud, environmental protection, fairness, honesty in research and testing and conflicts of interest etc. Personal ethics: Good relationship always gives to you shine with diligent. For maintaining good relationship we have to be emotional honest, emotional intelligenceand talking politely with adaptable nature. Nothing is permanent in this world, so if we want to live happily we have to follow some soundings like If you don't mind, Excuse me, Please, Thank you, pleasure is mine, and Sorry, if not life will get miserable.
Ethics as a Higher Education
Understanding the concepts of ethics and having an awareness of the professional codes or ethics and their role in nation building could largely help in developing a mindset tuned to percepts of ethics among students.
A person will get strong social skills and understands how to treat others respectfully and politely through Ethics. The tips are, don't say ‘I’ better to use always ' we’. Try to 'Understand' the people of different attitudeswith 'Smile face'. Do not give chance to 'Ego &Jealousy’. Adapt the nature of 'Forgiveness'.
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Social Responsibility
With globalization and economic development during past two decades India has opened up very promising opening and opportunities. India is entering as leaders and considered to be potential major economic player of the world in the decades the economic system should be amicable. People have to change the system. Social Responsibility of emerging technologies are the wonderful tool for the economic development. For social responsibility. There are so many obstacles i.e. source of youngsters, shortage of skills, social problems.
Young India
According to China slogan One or none the effect came as older population. Added to this around 50% of the Indian population ranges between the age group of 18-35.. This means that India is Young and will be major human resource. Thus we have two challenges ahead namely producing sufficient skilled manpower by establishing good institutions and providing opportunities to them by the light kind of infrastructure. If the potential of youth is not tapped in a proper direction, it may lead to unhealthy activities like terrorism, naxalism etc...
Shortage of skills
As per the report of the National Knowledge Commission headed by Sri SyamPitroda, there are about 350 universities and 18,000 colleges offering higher education in the country to about 10% of the relevant age group This is extremely inadequate for country where the demographic dividend by way of a population is about 550 million youth . If we are to achieve a Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) , We need to substantially increase the number of higher education institutions in the country. Here the challenge is not just the quantity but the quality as well. Every industry facing a shortage of highly skilled and technical power. Presently 1500 colleges offering Engineer education producing 6
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lakh Engineers every year. Unfortunately only 15% of them are employable according to a report. This means that we are concerned about the quality of the engineers and thus creating a gap between the academic and industry needs.
Social Problems
Social values like customer care, empowerment of the weak and sharing benefits are created in modern days. In countries like India, the public is not always supporting social Responsibility. They feel that business firms are playing some tricks to capture public attention. In many countries the Board of directors is not supporting social responsibility activities. For example many recessionshis companies feel that it is not time for any social responsibility.
The solutions of these social problems are the well -utilized of resource. The business firms are given the opportunities to who are innovative and encourages by showing well-fare with employees through supporting consumers, supplies with business firms will get develop and society also get benefit. Many companies are saying that there are people and there are jobs, but the candidates do not have the requisite skills. The objective of my article is to provide some tips to Young India which improving soft and hard skills think logically and creatively. Command on language with good academic knowledge, good communication skills, good fundamentals,and ability to work in a team with disciplined, aptitude to learn new concepts, adaptability to the changing technology, logical and creative innovations are very important to Young India. Media and Public attempts to give the awareness that every individual is obligate towards the society for the ultimate sense of peace and happiness. When we realize this we have been feeling of help to someone. So let's do our bit to make this society peace and happier place to live, as serving Humanity is the essence of life.
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According to Gandhi _"when the situation needs improvement you must be the change you wish to see in the world". In conclusion to get social Graces by maintain good relationship between Employee- Employer, Employee-Employee, Company- Customer and Company- Community/Public. Application of Information Technology and Innovative Entrepreneurship which gives "new to the world" knowledge creation and commercialization as well as "new to the market knowledge diffusion and absorption. So I can conclude social craves will lead the way towards a brighter future for both business and society.
Reference:
1. RamachandraAryasri, D DHarikotaSsuyodhan, Professional Ethics and Morals, Maruthi Publications, Printed and Bond at Repro India Limited, 2013.
2. Dr.Kiran, Professional Ethics and Human Values, Mc Grade Hill Education (India) Private Limited, 2013.
3. S. Prabakaran, Business Ethics and Corporate Governance, Published by Anurag Jain for Excel Books, A-45, Naraina, Phase-1,New Delhi,2010.
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RIGHT TO LIFE AND LIBERTY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CUSTODIAL DEATHS
Kadari Swamy University College of Law Osmania University Hyderabad, Telangana I. INTRODUCTION Article 21 of the Indian Constitution deals with the part of the right to life and personal liberty highlights the ideological treatment. As a part of the basic structure of the respective rights, directive principles, rights enforcement, suspension of enforcement of rights, including the right to amend and other provisions of the Constitution, it is necessary to find and interrelate. Legislatures in India right to life and personal liberty is an important contribution to the field, but many times they have constricted their development Group. Dynamics in judicial approach, as well as activism more on some occasions, were there.
The increase in custodial crimes including torture in police custody has highlighted significance of human right research in countries like India. Despite India is a party of various International human rights including UN Convention against Torture and Cruel Inhuman Degrading Treatment or Punishment, torture continue to be serious problem. The present study has revealed a solid body of evidence of torture caused custodial crimes in police custody. Torture in police custody has been perceived a serious problem for individuals, next of kin or victim’s families and communities at large. Human rights are the basic rights of every individual against the state or any other public authority as a member of the human family irrespective of any other consideration. These rights are also recognized by various international documents like Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Convention
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against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment. In spite of these international and national legal standards for the protection of rights of persons in police custody, human rights violations in police custody are endemic in India and are tarnishing the image of India abroad. Since the police play a vital role in a democracy not only with respect to maintenance of law and order but also in dealing with the rapid increase of crime rates in the criminal justice system, policy of police must strive to attain objectives like fairness, consistency, tolerance of minority views and other values which are inherent in a society. Being the visible symbol of state authority, police should see that their actions are not affecting the liberty and freedom of individuals and not infringing the basic human rights values of the suspects in custody, while fulfilling the avowed objectives of prevention and investigation of crimes. The Supreme Court has asserted that in order to treat as a Fundamental Right it is not necessary that it should be expressly stated in the Constitution as a Fundamental Right. Political, social and economic changes in the country entail the recognition of new rights. The law in its eternal youth grows to meet the demands of the society.1
This aspect of Article 21 is brought out by the following judicial pronouncements. This extension in the dimensions of Article 21 has been made possible by giving an extended meaning to word 'life' and ‘liberty‘ in Article 21. These two words in Article 21 are not to be read narrowly. These are organic terms which are to be construed meaningfully. Until Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India2 fundamental rights were viewed merely as imposing negative obligation on the State that if it takes certain action in violation of a fundamental rights such action be struck down by Court. But in Maneka Gandhi‘s case the Supreme Court for the first time interpreted the right guaranteed by
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Article 21 as a positive right and after that in various decisions human rights jurisprudence flowed from the Supreme Court.3
II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF RIGHT TO LIFE AND PERSONAL LIBERTY
The inclusion of a set of Fundamental Rights in India's Constitution had its genesis in the forces that operated in the national struggle during British rule. It was implicit in the formation of Indian National Congress in 1885. Indians wanted the same rights and privileges that their British masters enjoyed in India and that Britishers had among themselves in England. By the mid-twenties Congress leaders generally had achieved a new impetus and consciousness of their Indianness and needs of the people. This was brought about mainly by a number of factors like, the experience of World War-I, the disappointment of Montagu Chemsford Reforms, Woodrow Wilson's support for self determination and Gandhi's arrival on the scene. These influences were reflected in the tone and form of demands for civil rights; the purpose was now to assure civil liberty among Indians.4 The demand for a declaration of Fundamental Rights in a constitutional document was again emphasized by several Indian leaders at the "Round Table Conference."
The next major document on Fundamental Rights of the pre- Assembly era was the "Sapru Committee Report" published at the end of 1945. The Committee was appointed by an "All Parties Conference 1944-55" The Fundamental Rights of the new Constitution", said the Sapru Report, "will be a standing warning to all; what the Constitution demands and expects is perfect equality between one section of the community and another in matter of political and civil rights, equality and security in enjoyment of freedom of religion, worship and pursuits of the ordinary application of life."5
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The first meeting of India's Constituent Assembly in New Delhi, on 9th December 1946, was for many of its 296 members the fulfilment of a long-cherished hope. The business before the meeting was purely formal. But the meeting symbolized an event of unique significance, namely the commencement of great task of framing free India's Constitution without outside interference or pressure.
As a first step towards the framing of the Constitution of India, on a motion by Govind Ballabh Pant, the Constituent Assembly adopted a resolution on January 24, 1947, setting up of the Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minorities. The Advisory Committee in its first meeting held on February 27, 1947 constituted five Sub-Committees, one of them being the Sub-Committee on Fundamental Rights with 10 members. On August 29, 1947 the Constituent Assembly appointed a Drafting Committee" to scrutinize the draft of the Constitution which Mr. B.N. Rau, the Constitutional Advisor, was expected to prepare.
The Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee completed the preparation of its report on Fundamental Rights and submitted the same on April 16, 1947 to the Advisory Committee. The Advisory Committee considered the report of the Sub-Committee on Fundamental Rights and with certain changes presented it as the Interim Report of the Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights to the Constituent Assembly on April 29, 1947. The Constituent Assembly debated upon the Report thoroughly before the rights were finally adopted in the Constituent Assembly by December, 1948.
III. CONCEPT OF RIGHT TO LIFE AND LIBERTY Fundamental right under Article 21 of the object personal liberty except according to procedure established by law is to prevent encroachment on and loss of life. Deprivation of personal liberty or to intrude on another person's life is an act of private individual amounts.
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Such violations would not fall under Article 21 for the set parameters. Measures for victim in such a case under article 226 of the Constitution or the common law will either. Article 21 of the Constitution, individual liberty or deprivation of a person's life is on the prevention of encroachment. In Unni Krishnan v. State of AP scope of Article 21, the Supreme Court has explained.
Right to go abroad Right to privacy Against hand cuffing Against delayed execution is correct. Right to Shelter. Against the death in custody Right against public hanging In Chameli Singh v State of U.P6 the Supreme Court, while dealing with Article 21, has held that the need for a decent and civilized life includes the right to food, water and decent environmental. In Ashray Adhikar Abhiyan v. Union of India,7 the Supreme Court impliedly recognized the right of homeless deceased and unclaimed dead bodies to a decent burial or cremation. In Budhadev Karmaskar (I) v. State of West Bengal8 the Supreme Court was observed that sex workers are also human beings and no one has a right to assault or murder them. A person becomes a prostitute not because she enjoys it but because of poverty. Society must have sympathy towards the sex workers and must not look down upon them. They are also entitled to a life of dignity in view of Article 21 of the Constitution.
Right to livelihood is higher than a mere legal right. It is an integral part of right to life under Article 21 although it has not been
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incorporated by specific language in Part III by the framers of the Constitution.9 The legislative scheme of the 2005 Act clearly places the 'right to livelihood' at a higher pedestal than a mere legal right. It was reiterated by the Supreme Court in Centre for Environment & Food Security v. Union of India.10
Right against Police atrocities
Against Torture
Against Hand Cuffing
Against Custodial Death
Freedom from Domiciliary Visits Right against Police atrocities is protected under Article 21 as expounded by the Supreme Court. In Kharak Singh’s case,11 Suba Rao J. has held that by the life as used in the Article 21 is something more than animal existence. The inhibition against its deprivation extends to all those limbs and faculties by which life is enjoyed. The provision equally prohibits, mutilation of the body or amputation of an arm or leg or putting out of an eye or the destruction of any other organ of the body through which man communicates with outer world.
The Supreme Court has in several cases condemned police brutality and torture on prisoners, accused persons and under trials. In this connection, the Supreme Court has observed in Raghubir Singh v. State of Haryana12 that we are deeply disturbed by the diabolical recurrence of police torture resulting in a terrible scare in the minds of common citizens that their lives and liberty are under a new peril when the guardians of the law violate their human rights.
Right to Bail
In Babu Singh v. State U.P.,13 the Apex Court speaking through Krishna Iyer, J. observed that personal liberty deprived when bail is
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refused, is too precious a value of our Constitutional system recognized under Article 21 because of which the power to negotiate it must be exercised not casually, but judicially with lively concern for the cost of the individual and the community. It was observed that to glamorize impressionistic orders as discretionary may on occasions, make a litigative gamble decisive of a fundamental right. After all personal liberty of an accused or convict is fundamental, suffering lawful eclipse only in them of procedure established by law. The last four words of Article 21 are the life of that right; refusal to grant bail amounted to deprivation of personal liberty of accused persons.
In Ranjit Singh Brahmajeetsing Sharma v. State of Maharashtra and Another,14 the Supreme Court has held that the restrictions on the power of Court to grant bail should not be pushed too far. If the Court, having regard to the material brought on record, is satisfied that in all probability the applicant for bail may not be ultimately convicted, an order granting bail may be passed. The satisfaction of the Court as regard his likelihood of not committing an offence while on bail must be constructed to mean an offence under the Act and not any offence whatsoever be it a minor or major offence. If such expansive meaning is given even likelihood of commission of an offence under Section 279 of Indian Penal Code. may debar the COURT from releasing the accused on bail. A statute, should not be interpreted in such a manner as would lead to absurdity.15
Fair Trial
Right to fair trial is an integral part of the right to life and personal liberty guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution of India and that the fundamental right under Article 21 was inalienable and there can be no question of any waiver of the right by any person.
IV. CUSTODIAL DEATHS
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Torture or violence in simple words or in a layman’s language means ‘cruelty’, ‘atrocity’, and ‘hurt’ deliberately causing great pain- physical and mental in order to punish or to get information or to forcibly make one to confess to something. According to the dictionary meaning violence means behavior which harms or damages physically and where a great force or energy is used. Courts have extended the meaning of the term 'custody' in its strict sense to include a situation where the detune may have been called to the police station for the purpose of interrogation and from the time that a person is placed under arrest. In other words, custody commences from the moment the person affecting the custody exercises some legally physical control over another.16 Torture is anguish squeezing in your chest, cold as ice and heavy as a stone paralyzing as sleep and dark as the abyss. Torture is despair and fear and rage and hate. It is a desire to kill and destroy including you.17
Present Scenario in India
The National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India has added a new chapter on ‘custodial crimes’ in its annual publication ‘Crime in India’. The National Human Rights Commission also compiles the data relating to human rights violations in police custody. But the sad part is that the data of different agencies does not match with each other. The information on deaths in custody is recorded under the following categories:
(i) Deaths in police custody / lock up (of persons remanded to police custody by court).
(ii) Deaths in police custody/lock up (of persons not remanded to police custody by court) Deaths/Disappearance in/from Police Custody
Remanded to Police Custody by Court There were 30 deaths or disappearance of persons from police custody who were remanded to
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such custody by the Court during the year 2015. Maximum number of such deaths or disappearances of persons have been reported in Assam (6 deaths). 18 autopsies were conducted in such deaths during the year. 12 Judicial enquiries were ordered and enquiries were conducted in such deaths of which maximum such enquiries were conducted in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat & Rajasthan (2 each). A total of 9 cases were registered against police personnel in connection with custodial deaths, highest such cases were registered in Assam (4 cases) followed by West Bengal (3 cases). Charge-sheets were submitted against 4 policemen during the year, 2 each from Assam and Uttar Pradesh. However, no policeman was convicted for such offences during the year 2015.
Reason of Deaths in Police Custody
A total of 34 out of 97 deaths in police custody were due to suicides committed by detained persons followed by 12 deaths during hospitalization, 11 deaths due to illness, 9 natural deaths, 6 deaths each due to injuries sustained during the police custody in allied assault by police & injuries sustained prior to police custody, 5 deaths while escaping from police custody, 3 deaths due to assault by other criminals and 1 death each due to mob attacks & road accidents/journey connected to investigation.
Escapees from Police Custody
A total of 1,087 cases were registered under section 224 & 225B of IPC during the year 2015 wherein 1,338 persons escaped from police custody. Out of 1,338 persons who escaped from police custody, 184 persons escaped from lockup whereas 1,154 persons escaped from outside lockup. 870 escapees were rearrested during the year 2015, however, only 143 persons who escaped from lockup were rearrested during 2015. Charge- sheets were submitted against 859 persons in connection the offence of escape from police custody. 914 persons were tried during the year, of
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which 153 persons were convicted. Trials of 10,066 persons were pending at the end of the year 2015. Maximum persons convicted for the offences of escapees were reported in Jharkhand (81 persons) followed by Goa (13 persons).18
Prisoners have human rights and custodial violence is the confession of the failure to do justice to a living man. For a prisoner, all fundamental rights are an enforceable reality, though restricted by the fact of imprisonment. Death of a person in custody whether of police or judicial or any other institution amounts to custodial death. Police officials are also beneath the rule of law and not above it and can be held responsible for the violation of human rights of a person.
V. JUDICIARY ON RIGHT TO LIFE AND CUSTODIAL DEATHS
The judicially enforceable fundamental rights which encompass all seminal civil and political rights and some of the rights of minorities are enshrined in part III of the Constitution (Articles 12 to 35). These include the right to equality, the right to freedom, the right against exploitation, the right to freedom of religion, cultural educational rights and the right to Constitutional remedies.
The Supreme Court of lndia recognizes these fundamental rights as ’Natural Rights’ or ’Human Rights’. While referring to the fundamental rights contained in Part III of the Constitution, Sikri the then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, in Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, observed, “I am unable to hold these provisions to show that rights are not natural or inalienable rights. As a matter of fact India was a party to the Universal Declaration of Rights . . . and that Declaration describes some fundamental rights as inalienable.” The role of the judiciary system, Judicial activism in the realm of fundamental rights, the right of privacy. "The law declared by the Supreme Court shall be binding on all courts within the territory of
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India." It is very necessary to note that in a democracy no right is absolute. All rights are subject to reasonable restrictions of: morality, health, public order, state security, public safety & public policy.
The rights so mentioned above are regal in sense and spirit. Apart from these, the apex court to nomenclature few other rights by way of judicial interpretation. These are as follows:
Right to food Right, not to be driven out of a stateRight to Right to shelter speedy trial Right to livelihood Right against prison Right to education torture and custodial death Right to clean environment Right to compensation for illegal – unlawful Right to privacy Right against Right to marriage handcuffing Right to travel abroad Right against bar fetters Right to live with human Dignity Right against solitary confinement Right against bondage
Right to emergency medical aid Prisoners have human rights and prison torture is the confession of the failure to do justice to living man. For a prisoner, all fundamental rights are an enforceable reality, though restricted by the fact of imprisonment. The Court adopted an annotation of Article 21, in Kharak Singh Vs. State of u.p19 and expanded the connotation of the term 'life'.
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The wrong doer is accountable and the State is responsible if the person in custody of the police is deprived of his life except according to the procedure established by law. The defence of "sovereign immunity” In such cases is not available to the State. Therefore award of compensation would be a remedy available in a proceeding under Article 32 or Article 226 of the Constitution of India based on a strict liability or violation of fundamental rights. A person in jail does not lose his fundamental rights under Article 21 of the Constitution which requires a person to be treated with dignity. It seems that most of the jails in our country are jungles where the security people often behave like animals in mal-treating the prisoners. It is the prime' duty of the Jail authority being custodian to provide security and safety to the life of prisoners while in jail custody, even though he is a criminal or an accused in a criminal case.
VI. CONCLUSION No legal provision has ever more controversial than Article 21 of the constitution, which provides for ‘right to life and personal liberty’ with so many colours hidden in it and it interpreted widely as so many facets and new colour of life and personal liberty comes in. As provided in constitution, ‘No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.’ New judicial interpretation that has given enormous dimensions to this article and give new meaning to each word and increased it beyond its limited sense. The constitutional level, and thus the right to life and personal liberty to be filed initially in a limited access. It is interesting to note that the life and freedom is the right of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court has enlarged the scope and protection of the fundamental human rights guaranteed under the Constitution. Fundamental rights enshrined in part III of the Constitution form the
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spirit of the Supreme Law, protection to the same is offered by article 32 and 226, the writ jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and the High Court respectively. Here so far as article 21 is concerned by way of judicial interpretation and activism a new branch of rights have aroused over the decade reason for this is that so far as the scheme of Indian Constitution is concerned judicial decisions so rendered by the Supreme Court have the force of being the ‘law of the land’.
Right to life and personal liberty is the most exquisite and essential fundamental human rights around which other rights of the individual swivel and, therefore, the study assume great significance. The study of Right to Life is in fact a study of the Supreme Court role guardian of fundamental rights. Article 21 is the idol provision of the Indian Constitution and occupies a distinctive place as a fundamental right. It guarantees right to life and personal liberty to citizens and as well as aliens and is enforceable against the State. The new interpretation of Article 21 in Maneka Gandhi’s case has leaded a new era where right to life and personal liberty horizons expand.
1 M.P.Jain, Constitutional Law of India, (2003),p 1309 2 AIR 1978 SC 597 3 Hoskot v. State of Maharastra, AIR 1978 SC 1548; Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration, AIR 1980 SC 1979; Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar, AIR 1979 SC 1360; Jolly Verghese v. Bank of eochin, AIR 1980 SC 470; Khatri v. State of Bihar (1981) 1 SCC 635; Upendera Baxi v. Union of India (1984) 3 SCC 161; Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985) 3 SCC 545; PUDR v. Union of India, AIR 1982 SC 1473; M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1987) I SCC 395; 4 G. Austin, The Indian Constitution : Cornerstone of a Nation, 1966, p 53.
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5 Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and Others, the Sapru Report, p. 260. See G. Austin, p. 57. 6 AIR 1996 SC 1051. 7 (2002) 2 SCC 27 8 2011 Criminal Law Journal 1684 9 National Rural Employment Guarantee Act,2005, Preamble, Ss 3 to 12, 17,19,20 and 25 to 28. 10 (2011) 5 SCC 676. 11 Kharak Singh v. State of U.P. AIR 1963 SC 1295 12 AIR 1980 SC 1087 at 1088. 13 AIR 1978 SC 527. 14 2005 (5) SCC 294 15 Ibid (Para 38). 16 The word 'custody' referred to in Sec. 344 (Sec. 309, new) of the Code of Criminal Procedure is always jail or judicial custody and can never be police custody. M.C.Desai (Ed.), Venkata Ramaiya's Law Lexicon with Legal Maxims, Vol. I (1996), p. 573. 17 D.K.Basu v. State of West Bengal, AIR 1997 SC 610. 18 ibid 19 AIR 1963 SC 83
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CHALLENGES OF SCHOOL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF ILUABABOR ADMINISTRATIVE ZONE IN ETHIOPIA Tekalign Minalu Tirfe Mettu University, Ethiopia Institute of Education and Professional Development Studies Department of Adult Education and Community Development
Abstract
The study on which this paper reports was sought to identify challenges that were encountered in the School Learning Environment in Public Secondary Schools of Iluababor Administrative zone in Ethiopia. A mixed-methods approach with high priority on quantitative data and less priority on qualitative data was used. Data were collected from 12 secondary schools in the Illubabor administrative zone through questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis. In total, 363 participants were selected for the study through the use of random and purposeful sampling. Participants comprised of school principals, education experts, school supervisors, members from the Parent–Teacher Association and members of the learner council. The findings indicated that with regards to the quantitative data analysis, the performances of the school improvement programme aggregate of the four domains summary of the mean values and standard deviations 287 (mean = 2.7697; SD = 0.70219) showed that the indicators of practices among the school learning environment indicators were low in performance. The qualitative results as well confirmed the quantitative results. In this case, the mean value was above average and the standard deviation value was more tightly clustered around the mean. This means that the results were concurrent of each other and thus reliable. The findings revealed that, even though secondary schools put a lot of effort towards averting the challenges in school to improve learning environment in the schools, it
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could hardly bear fruit due to insufficient supplies of inputs and processes. This resulted in the learning environment indicators performances lagging behind the set goals and targets. Thus, in the study it was noted that the school learning environment is labelled unsuccessful due to the absence of well-built strategy directions, absences of well equipped libraries and science laboratories that benefits both teachers and students, students’ disciplinary problem, the school compounds were not attractive, lack of contented classroom which support active learning rules and regulations in secondary schools to make schools attractive for learning. In addition, there are no clear procedures to address safety issues in the schools and the absence of essential facilities lead to poor performance. This study can make a considerable contribution to leadership and management and teaching and learning processes with regard to school learning environments in Ethiopia, and in particular the Illubabor administrative zone. Moreover, the study makes a significant contribution to building a relevant body of knowledge on the existing practices of the school learning environment with regard to the learning environment in secondary schools.
Key words: school learning environment; implementation; School Improvement Programme
1 Introduction
School improvement is a concept that focuses on bringing positive change to the school learning environment by providing learners with an environment that is characterized by good teaching and learning techniques, well-trained teachers, good leadership and parental involvement, among other factors, so as to produce well-disciplined and academically excellent learners. In other words, school improvement is about bettering schools so that they offer better services to learners, leading to learner success. Cornell and Mayer (2010:1) explain that the
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characteristics of a nurturing, healthy learning environment for learners include psychological safety, a positive self-image, and feelings of belonging, purposeful behaviour and a sense of personal competence. Therefore, in order for learners to succeed in their studies, they have to be supported not only academically, but also psychologically and emotionally.
Commenting on the academic development of learners, Cornell and Mayer (2010:2) state that the academic success of learners begins with a trusting and mutually respectful relationship between learner and teacher, extends to classroom order, and culminates in a safe and supportive school climate. This means that the rapport in the classroom and discipline techniques that are used at school have an influence on whether learners pass or fail. This means that teachers have to consider not only how they teach learners, but also how they treat them. In addition, the general outlook or appearance of the school, in terms of cleanliness and upkeep, has the capacity to affect the morale of the learners, making it necessary for school managers to maintain clean grounds and classrooms. Clarke (2012: 6) captures this concept succinctly: learners need a clean, bright and organised space to strengthen learning experiences.
From the above, it is apparent that there is a strong relationship between what occurs on the school grounds and in the classroom and learner success. The same conclusions were reached by UNESCO (2013:12–14) that the interrelationships between different areas of school improvement, such as teaching and learning, the school learning environment, leadership and management, play a critical role in enhancing or constraining learners’ learning and outcomes. With regard to the classroom environment, where learners learn, how they learn, why they learn and from whom they learn are integral to their success. Michael (2004:17) states that in the classroom, preparing and organising the materials and framing lessons in a logical and coherent
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manner are vital to create an attractive learning environment for the learners, in other words, preparedness and delivery of content contribute to the comprehension and success of learners. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2010:14–17) furthers this argument by stating as follows:
The learning environment should be acutely sensitive to the individual differences among the learners in it, including their prior knowledge; demand hard work and challenge from all without excessive workload; operate with clarity of expectations and deploy assessment strategies consistent with these expectations, where there is strong emphasis on formative feedback to support learning; and strongly promote horizontal connectedness across areas of knowledge subjects as well as to the community and the wider world.
Teachers are leaders and therefore have the mandate to create an attractive environment for learning where learner diversity, principles of fairness, learner responsibility and subject knowledge are promoted. More to the point, as stated by Cornell and Mayer (2010:1) and Clarke (2012:7), an effective school leader and teacher should provide a well- managed, safe and orderly environment that is conducive to learning and encourages respect for all learners, which consists of a classroom management structure and climate that support academic achievement. This involves creating an atmosphere of respect for learners and sharing responsibilities with them, such as the responsibility for maintaining a high-quality learning environment. The above principles identified by OECD and other education scholars substantiate that for a learning environment to be judged as truly effective, all the principles should be present in the school improvement context, as they are interdependent.
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2. Statement of the problem
Derbessa (2009) and Clarke (2012:6–7) explain that creating a positive learning environment in the school allows learners to feel restful, safe and engaged. This means that learners are able to focus more on learning than on external factors. John (2010:2), Cornell and Mayer (2010:1) and Clarke (2012:8) also elucidate that in a school where values and roles remain constant and focus is placed on the positive aspects of learning, learners will be more open to actively participating in the school. When learners are given an opportunity to become responsible for their own learning, they benefit from the school (Clarke, 2012:7; Cornell and Mayer, 2010:1) and are more likely self-motivated. The Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MoE) (2010:12) also affirms that improved and effective schools are known for quality teaching, and teaching is executed in a positive, learning environment, with well- planned learning and instructional programmes.
In light of all these positive attributes, it is apparent that school improvement is a necessity. Stoll and Fink (1996:2, cited in MoE, 2010:13) state that school improvement should be the activity of each school. However, it has to be noted that school improvement is not a one-off event, but an ongoing process that requires the commitment of all stakeholders such as teachers, principals, district officers, the MoE and parents, among other parties, for it to be a success. Firdissa (2008:108) and the MoE (2010:15) explain that district and state policies must help school leaders to create a safe, orderly learning environment that allows teachers and learners to focus on teaching and learning, meaning teachers and principals are not solely responsible for the success of learners.
Although school improvement is a necessity and contributes positively to the academic excellence of learners, as shown above, the practice or implementation of school improvement programmes (SIPs) is fraught
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with many challenges, which vary from region to region, district to district and from school to school. These challenges make it necessary to investigate how SIPs are implemented in different districts, so that tailor-made solutions are identified in relation to these challenges. Research by the OECD (2009:7), Clarke (2012:9) and other scholars proves that there are many challenges associated with improving schools, including lack of adequate equipment and instructional support, negative aspects of teacher behaviour such as absenteeism and lack of pedagogical preparation and lack of professional development, which contribute negatively to the functioning of schools. They also cite lack of suitable development opportunities, loss of learning time due to disruptive learner behaviour and administrative tasks as other variables affecting the school environment negatively. The presence of these challenges prompted the researchers to investigate the challenges that are encountered by educators in implementing the SIP in secondary schools in the Illubabor administrative zone, so that tailor- made solutions may be identified. The study also explored how successful the SIP was in improving the learning environment of secondary schools. The following variables were investigated: relationships among school staff, learners and families; learner support; learners’ behaviour; learner facilities; and sanitation and hygiene in secondary schools. The following section presents a brief background on the Illubabor administrative zone in order to give a picture of the area under investigation.
The Illubabor administrative zone is located 600 km from the capital city Addis Ababa in Ethiopia. The zone generally lacks basic education facilities and a well-trained workforce in secondary schools. According to the national standard, secondary school teachers should be university graduates in their respective fields of specialisation and should possess adequate pedagogical knowledge and skills (MoE, 2010:23); however, this is not always the case in the Illubabor zone.
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There are 24 secondary schools in the administrative zone with a total of 917 (male teachers = 886; female teachers = 131 (Illubabor Zone Education Office, 2016:21). The learner–teacher ratio of 40: 1 is frequently used as a quality signal in the country; however, in the public secondary schools of the Illubabor zone, the learner–teacher ratio is 1: 57.
The number of learners in the secondary schools (grades 9–10) in the Illubabor administrative zone was 4 080 (male = 2 351; female = 1 729) at the time of research (2016). Pertaining to efficiency, in grades 9–10 the dropout rate was 15.02% for male learners and 10.39% for female learners. The repeating rate was 15.6% for male learners and 15.6% for female learners in public secondary schools of the Illubabor administrative zone (Illubabor Zone Education Office, 2015:13). In addition, the Regional Education Bureau and National Education Assessment results showed that learner achievement remains very low due to poor learning environments in secondary schools (MoE, 2010:9– 10). These statistics point to a need to investigate why learners are failing; hence this study explored the challenges that are encountered in the learning environment in secondary schools in the Illubabor administrative zone. Besides, the strategic plan emphasises the need to create attractive learning environment that can bring committed leadership and a systematic management system to each school (zone Education Office, 2015:2-3). The implementation activities related to school learning environment points to a need to examine the challenges in the learning environment that arise in secondary schools, focusing on its ability to address the ills that was identified by the zone Education Office hindrances to learning environment. Thus, the question that the researcher seeks to answer is as follows:
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Basic Research Question
What are the major challenges of school learning environment in the secondary schools of the Iluababor administrative zone?
The sub-research questions are as follows:
How successful is the school improvement programme in improving the learning environment of secondary schools?
Specific Objectives
To assess the success rate of the school improvement programme in improving the learning environment of the selected secondary schools.
Significance of the Study
This study aimed to identify challenges in the areas the school learning environment so as to recommend possible solutions to the challenges facing the school learning environment in secondary schools grades (9-10) that hopefully contribute to better implementation and management of school improvement programmes with regards to the school learning environment. The study will also help to explore challenges and pave ways for improving secondary school reform to influence school principals, school governing bodies, teachers, students, parents and other partners to take on their roles in an effective and efficient way that will inevitably improve the secondary school quality of education. Finally, it will also serve as a springboard for other researchers to carry out in-depth studies in the field.
Limitations and Delimitation of the Study
The study has the following limitations first the study considered only grades 9-10 secondary school learning practices like learner empowerment, learner support, the relationship between school staff, learners and families, learner behaviour in schools, learner facilities in
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schools, and sanitation and hygiene. The study was also delimited to assess the challenges of the school learning environment in secondary schools in terms of inputs, processes and outcomes. In the study, the data collected was limited to 12 secondary schools (grades 9-10) only out of 24 secondary schools in the Iluababor administrative zone.
Operational Definition of Key Terms
A. Learning environment: The term refers to the physical environment of the school and has an important influence on the behaviour of both teachers and learners. The environment of the school can help to establish and maintain a sound culture of learning and teaching (UNICEF, 2010:13).
B. Parents and community involvement – is a partnership where the parents, community and the school work together towards the success of their children and sharing the responsibility for school improvement (UNICEF, 2010:23).
C. School governing bodies: refers to those responsible for working with schools to ensure the schools deliver good quality education. Together with the school principals, the school governing bodies are responsible for the day-to-day management of the schools, that is, they participate in setting the aims, policies and strategies of the schools (MOE, 2009:34).
D. Challenges: The term is used in the study to indicate problems encountered in the process of planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the school improvement programme in secondary schools.
3. Methodology and design
This study relied on quantitative and qualitative methods and procedures to collect and analyse data. Priority was given to quantitative data with qualitative data used to elucidate the
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quantitative findings. Data were collected from 12 secondary schools through the use of questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis. From these schools, 12 principals, 12 vice- principals, 12 supervisors, 4 zone education officers and 251 teachers were selected to participate in the study, giving a total of 287 (53%). In addition, 21 members from the Parent–Teacher Association (PTA) and 21 learner council members were selected through purposeful sampling techniques from three clusters of geographical locations of the secondary schools for focus group discussions. Finally, document analysis was used to analyse SIP documents that were obtained from the Zone Education Office. The study adopted the checklists and questionnaire developed by the Ethiopian MoE at national level for similar purposes to assess learning environments in secondary schools of the Illubabor administrative zone. The data collected through the questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussions were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The data collected through questionnaires were analysed using statistical software package SPSS version 21 in terms of descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentiles, mean values and standard deviations. The data are presented in tables and qualitative data from the interviews and focus group discussions are used to elaborate on the issues under discussion.
4. Data analysis and interpretation
Challenges of School Learning Environment in Secondary Schools of Iluababor Administrative zone
This section investigates the problems associated with learning environment in secondary schools in the Illubabor administrative zone. In other words, this section answers the question: How successful is the School improvement programme in improving the learning environment of secondary schools? The following section discusses learner empowerment as a variable in the learning environment.
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Learner empowerment
Learner empowerment is the process where learners have to develop the habit of taking responsibility and leading a disciplined life (MoE, 2010:20). Empowerment can be achieved through giving learners a voice through forums for learners’ feedback, giving learners’ decision making power in curriculum development, encouraging meaningful technology to use in the classroom and involving learners in real issues (MoE, 2010:21). In the study, the questionnaire sought to determine whether learners have developed the habit of taking responsibility and leading a disciplined life. The results are presented in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Learner empowerment
Table 1: The system of school student empowerment
The system of school student empowerment N Mea Std.Deviat n ion Students have developed the habit of taking 28 2.61 1.135 responsibilities and leading a disciplined life. 7 Students provide teachers with constructive 28 2.76 1.192 feedback about the teaching and learning. 7 Student teamwork, responsibility and self- 28 2.82 1.089 discipline are fostered. 7 Students are able to express the purpose of their 28 2.65 1.105 learning, are motivated to learn and actively 7 participate in lessons. The results (mean = 2.61; SD = 1.135) indicate that insignificant effort is made to empower learners in secondary schools. The results of the mean and standard deviation regarding learners’ provision to teachers of constructive feedback about the teaching and learning revealed a mean of 2.76 and a standard deviation of 1.192, which proves that even though the result was above the average cut-off point, the practice of
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providing constructive feedback by learners in the teaching and learning process is insignificant.
With regard to whether learner teamwork, responsibility and self- discipline are fostered, the results (mean = 2.82; SD = 1.089) show that the practice is minimal in secondary schools. On whether learners are able to express the purpose of their learning, are motivated to learn and actively participate in lessons, the results (mean = 2.65; SD = 1.105) disclosed that even though the result was above average, the learners are not fully expressing the purpose of their learning, and are not motivated to learn and actively participate in their learning. These results show that Learners are not yet fully empowered, which is a major challenge that needs to be addressed in the administrative zone. Data collected through the qualitative open-ended questionnaires support the above results. Of the study participants, 54 (18.81%) revealed that there are problems in the schools and that learners are frustrated or in despair regarding future job opportunities. Reference was made to the poor background in mathematics and English language of learners and the absence of learner council participation in decision making in the school management system. The challenges that learners face in the learning environment need to be addressed if learners are to succeed in their studies. The next section discusses learner support in secondary schools.
Learner support
Learner support is a process of creating chances for learners to develop into self-regulated learners. In addition, it refers to teaching methods that teachers use to meet learners’ needs, providing sufficient learning materials, making assistive devices available and building collaborative support for children with special needs (MoE, 2010:32). Table 2 below presents the results with regard to schools’ learner support,
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particularly regarding the schools creating chances for learners to develop into self-regulating learners within and beyond the classroom.
Table 2: Student support Student support N Mea Std. n Deviation
Schools create opportunities for students to develop 28 2.83 1.113 into self-regulating learners within and beyond the 7 classroom. Teachers use various teaching methods in order to 28 3.10 1.063 meet the diverse student needs in the classroom. 7 Sufficient learning and teaching materials are 28 2.28 1.099 available. 7 28 2.23 1.032 Assistive devices are available and in use. 7 There is collaborative work at the school and 28 2.22 1.144 community level to support learners with special 7 needs. The results (mean = 2.83; SD = 1.113) in Table 2 indicate that the practice concerning this outcome is not promising even though the result was above average. In connection with the teachers’ use of various teaching methods in order to meet the diverse learner needs in the classroom in secondary schools, the mean value was 3.10 and the standard deviation 1.063. The results show a good performance, and the effort made in schools is encouraging. Regarding the existence or availability of sufficient learning and teaching materials, the results (mean = 2.28; SD = 1.1) substantiate that the outcome is less than average, meaning additional effort is needed to change the current situation in the schools. On whether there is collaborative work at school and community level to support learners with special needs, the results (mean = 2.22; SD = 1.144) indicate that there is not sufficient collaborative work at the selected schools and at community level to encourage and support learners with special needs in secondary
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schools. The results point to a need to develop services that are supportive of learners with special needs as they continue to face challenges in their educational journey that may hamper their success.
Data collected from the qualitative open-ended questionnaire concur with the above results, as 39 participants (13.59%) disclosed that the community does not provide appropriate educational services for secondary learners with disabilities/special needs and that there is also a lack of well-established, on-the-spot tutorial sessions for learners who are low achievers. In addition, it came to light that parents and the community do not participate actively in transforming the learning environment in the schools, pointing to a need for more community and parental involvement in the school, as the two variables are central in school improvement. The next section discusses the relationship between school staff, learners and families.
The relationship between school staff, learners and families
According to the documents GQEIP (2008:6) and ESDP IV (2010:19), school polices, regulations and procedures have to be effectively communicated and followed, the schools’ decision-making and administrative processes (including data collection and analysis, and communicating with parents) have to be carried out effectively and teachers have to meet with parents when necessary – and at a minimum twice per semester – to provide quality reports and to discuss their children’s learning achievements This means that parents, learners and the community have to work together to better schools so that a conducive environment is created for learners’ learning. The results in Table 3 show how teaching staff, learners and parents relate in Illubabor secondary schools:
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Table 3: Relationship between school staff, learners and families Relationships among school staff, students and families N Me Std. an Dev
iati on School policy and guidelines focusing on the creation of a 28 2.7 1.10 learning-friendly environment are developed, implemented 7 8 3 and promoted throughout the school community.
Positive and trusting relationships exist among staff, 28 2.9 1.11 students and families. 7 0 5
Interactions among all members of the school community 28 2.9 1.13 reflect a sense of justice, dignity and respect. 7 1 7
Academic success, attendance, and other aspects of positive 28 2.9 1.09 behaviour are recognized and celebrated school-wide to 7 6 4 promote positive relationship building. Concerning secondary school policy and guidelines focusing on a learning-friendly environment being created, developed, implemented and promoted throughout the school community, the results (mean = 2.78; SD = 1.103) show that the result was above the middling point, but still there is no concerted effort to transform this practice in the selected schools. With regard to the existence of positive and trusting relationships among staff, learners and families, the results (mean = 2.90; SD = 1.12) indicate low performance, and a concerted effort is required to transform the current situation.
Regarding whether there are interactions among all members of the school community to reflect a sense of justice, dignity and respect, the results (mean = 2.91; SD = 1.137) indicate that interactions between members of the school community and schools are strong, which is commendable. In relation to whether academic success, attendance and other aspects of positive behaviour are recognised and celebrated
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school-wide to promote positive relationship building, the results (mean = 2.96; SD = 1.01) show that considerable work is necessary to transform the current situations in the schools. In support of the above results, 45 (15.68%) participants who filled in the qualitative open- ended questionnaire disclosed that there is weak collaboration between teachers and parents. If nearly half the participants are of the view that the relations between the schools and communities are weak, then this is a challenge that must be tackled so that community and parental involvement is improved. The next section explores learner behaviour in schools.
Learner behaviour in schools
Every teacher has to deal with learners who display undesirable behaviour in the classroom and beyond school. These behaviours can range from learners who engage in behaviours such as talking with their friends during class, chewing gum and being rowdy to truly negative behaviour such as harassment of other learners (MoE, 2010:29). How teachers discipline learners influences their success at school. The table below presents the results on learner behaviour in the selected secondary schools.
Table 4: Learner behaviour in schools
Student behaviour in school N Mean Std. Dev
iati on There is a behaviour code for students that emphasises 287 3.66 1.24 respect, self-discipline, positive relationships, and the 2 prevention of inappropriate behaviour. Students’ behaviour rules, regulations and expectations are 287 2.86 1.09 understood and communicated to parents, students, 3 teachers and all staff.
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The school’s policies and practices are followed to ensure 287 2.84 1.03 that coordinated and consistent practices exist within 4 classrooms and across the school. Teachers establish clear expectations of students and deal 287 3.10 1.26 promptly, fairly and respectfully with behaviour issues. 4 Students demonstrate an understanding of the school’s 287 2.76 1.13 behaviour policy and act accordingly. 0 The school is free from external threats and has an orderly, 287 3.52 1.29 purposeful atmosphere, free from the threat of physical 2 harm. Teachers have a common understanding of learning 287 3.45 1.14 strategies that develop positive behaviours. 8 Teachers establish and maintain orderly and workable 287 3.13 1.12 routines to create a learning environment where student 9 time is spent on learning tasks. Students are affirmed and rewarded for positive 287 2.71 1.19 behaviours. 1 The table above shows a mean value of 3.66 and a standard deviation of 1.242 for positive relationships and the prevention of inappropriate behaviour in secondary schools. This is very good and shows there are behaviour codes for learners in secondary schools in the Illubabor zone. On whether learner behaviour rules, regulations and expectations are understood and communicated to parents, learners, teachers and all staff, the results (mean = 2.86; SD = 1.1 ) indicate that the result is above average, which means effort is required to improve the outcomes. With regard to whether the school’s policies and practices are followed to ensure that coordinated and consistent practices exist within classrooms and across the schools, the results (mean = 2.84; SD = 1.034) reveal that strong effort is still required in implementing policies and practices to ensure coordination in the SIP. Concerning whether teachers establish clear expectations of learners and deal promptly, fairly and respectfully with behaviour issues, the results (mean = 3.10;
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SD = 1.264) confirm that the performance of teachers is promising in the establishment of clear expectations of learners with behavioural issues. With regard to whether the school was free from external threat and has an orderly, purposeful atmosphere, free from the threat of physical harm, the results (mean = 3.52; SD = 1.3) show that there are no external and internal threats hindering learners in the secondary schools from learning.
Pertaining to whether teachers have a common understanding of learning strategies that develop positive behaviours, the results (mean = 3.45; SD = 1.148) show that there is a relative common understanding of learning strategies that develop positive behaviour among teachers in the secondary schools. In connection with whether teachers establish and maintain orderly and workable routines to create a learning environment where learners’ time is spent on learning tasks, the results (mean = 3.13; and SD = 1.13) show that teachers make an effort to establish and maintain orderly learning in secondary schools. Lastly, regarding whether learners are affirmed and rewarded for positive behaviours, the results (mean = 2.71; SD = 1.1) indicate that considerable effort is needed from the school leadership to upgrade the existing performance in the schools.
The results from the questionnaires expand on the findings by revealing that 34 (11.85%) participants were of the view that there were problems in the schools such as learners being irresponsible and careless in their learning, learner discipline problems and lack of practicing learner disciplinary guidelines to maximise learners’ learning in the schools. The next section discusses the learner facilities in the schools.
Learner facilities in schools
Secondary schools have to provide quality school facilities that enable all staff to work well and all learners to learn, as well as structures and
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processes to support shared leadership in which everyone has collective responsibility for learners’ learning (GQEIP, 2008:6). The results below indicate whether this mandate is fulfilled in secondary schools in the Illubabor zone.
Table 5: Learner facilities in schools
Student facilities in schools N Me Std. an Deviat ion Schools provide quality school facilities that 2 2.5 1.187 enable all staff to work well and all children to 8 9 learn. 7 Rules concerning cleanliness are consistently 2 2.7 1.144 applied in the school to provide an atmosphere 8 6 conducive to learning. 7 In response to the question whether schools provide quality school facilities that enable all staff to work well and all learners to learn, the results of the mean value and standard deviation were 2.59 and 1.19 respectively, showing an above average cut-off point. This illustrates that the condition of school facilities is below the expected standard, pointing to a need to work harder in providing adequate and up-to- standard facilities. In connection with rules concerning cleanliness in the school so as to provide an atmosphere that is conducive to learning, the results (mean = 2.76; SD = 1.144) demonstrate that strong effort is required from the school leadership and school governing bodies to create an attractive learning environment in the schools.
A Summary of the Results of the Elements of the Domain of the Learning Environment in Descriptive Statistics
There are 5 major elements reviewed under learning environment. Then, the next Table 6 shows the summary results of the elements in the school improvement programme implementation.
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Table 6: Summary of the results of the elements of the domain of the learning environment in descriptive statistics
Summary results of the elements of the domain of N Mea Std. learning environment in descriptive statistics n Devia tion
Learning environment mean value and standard 28 2.76 0.702 deviation summary results 7 97 19 In Table 6 above, the summary results of which each and every one of the indicator practices in the school learning environment, the mean value and standard deviation 287 (Mean = 2.7697; SD = 0.70219) confirmed that the results were above the middling point, and that there was no significant progress to secure and build attractive learning environments in the schools. The standard deviation value (SD = 0.70) with no wider distribution of spread among the school respondents revealed that standard deviation was a good measure of reliability of the mean value. Thus, the summary result from the respondents confirmed that the school learning environment did not improve during the implementation of the school improvement programme in the administrative zone as planned and implemented in the last five years.
Accordingly, to minimize the current challenges with regard to the learning environment, the researcher suggests that the school principal and school governing bodies need to work harder in order to create a safe and orderly learning environment. Again, student council members should be involved in decision-making in the schools’ management structure to give them an opportunity to influence decisions made for them. The next section presents the sub-basic research question: to what extent does community participation improve as result of implementing the school improvement programme.
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The data collected from the questionnaires show that 62 (21.6 %) participants were of the view that absence of learners from school is a result of poor sanitation and hygiene, as school latrines are not convenient for use because they are full of flies and smelly (not appropriately ventilated). Most schools also lacked facilities attached to the latrine floor for washing hands and appropriate school waste- collection and disposal systems. Learners also have poor personal needs and there is a lack of adequate infrastructure such as water, electricity, internet, information and communication technologies centers secondary school who was interviewed said the following with regard to the resources facilities:
The schools do not have sufficient budgets even to provide basic materials and facilities sometimes the school says there [is] not enough [in the] budgets for school improvement activities.
This means there is consensus in the results regarding the state of facilities at Illubabor secondary schools, as the results from the questionnaires and interviews concur. In fact, two school principals, two supervisors and two vice-principals confirmed that the state of the school’s physical facilities does not invite learners or provide a safe place for existing staff and learners. With regard to office space, some of the interviewed teachers stated that they do not have sufficient space to perform their administrative duties in schools, while two vice-principals said there are insufficient classrooms, leading to overcrowding and over-utilisation of facilities such as school furniture in their respective schools. In addition, two supervisors also verified that there are no sufficient and well-maintained school grounds for all learners or sporting and recreational activities for providing vital interaction with fellow learners. The same views that schools are not properly maintained were presented by PTA members who partook in the group discussions. Fourteen learner council members also concurred that not
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much effort is made to keep schools clean, neat and well maintained to make them pleasant for everyone in the school.
The document analysis supported the above views on the state of school facilities by proving that the physical facilities of some secondary schools, for example buildings, fences around the school grounds, playing areas for learners and a teacher’s room including desks and storage, were poorly managed. In addition, in some schools there were untidy buildings and other school facilities that negatively affect the teaching and learning activities (Illubabor Zone Education Office, 2014:10–14). The document analysis of annual reports also confirmed that due to a lack of water facilities in all secondary schools, sanitation and hygiene facilities are still at a low stage. Also, clean and safe water for drinking and washing is also not sufficient for teachers and learners. In addition, the documents in the Zone Education Office also disclosed that secondary schools have no appropriate waste-collection and disposal systems (Illubabor Zone Education Office, 2014:4). These results point to an urgent to need clean and maintain the grounds, ablution facilities and classrooms in the secondary schools.
With regards to fun events being organised for each grade and/or the whole school to build a sense of belonging through shared experience, seven PTA members confirmed that there are no rewards for positive behaviour for learners and there is poor organisation of fun events for Grade 9 and 10 learners to build a sense of belonging in the schools. This proves that there are many challenges that hinder positive learning in Illubabor secondary schools and action is required to solve these.
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Conclusion
The study on which this paper reports, sought to identify challenges in implementing the SIP in selected secondary schools in the Illubabor administrative zone. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect and analyse data, which involved the use of questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis. Data were collected from education officers, school leadership, teachers, learner leaders and parents through random and purposeful sampling. The results (mean = 2.7697; SD = 0.70219) confirmed that there is no significant progress in building a secure and attractive learning environment in the selected schools. This applies to the investigated variables, namely learner empowerment; learner support; relationships among school staff, learners and families; learner behaviour in school; and learner facilities.
The results from the questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis concur that they are many challengers hindering learning in the secondary schools, which include teachers working with no rewards or recognition for their efforts; school principals in secondary schools lacking innovative instructional leadership styles; absence of collaboration between school communities, teachers, learners and parents; lack of safe study sites/places, separate restrooms for boys and girls, clean drinking water, reading rooms and teachers’ offices and lounges; broken fences; lack of recreational places for learners; poorly stocked libraries; and unhygienic toilets. The schools are affected in varying degrees, but the general is true of many. These challenges negatively affect the performance of the schools and it can be concluded that the learning environment did not improve to the expected standard during the implementation of the SIP in the administrative zone as planned and implemented in the last five years.
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Recommendations
In the light of the above-stated challenges, this paper recommends that the school principals of secondary schools should adopt a stronger instructional leadership role, promote more collaboration between school communities, build systems of providing recognition for teachers for innovative teaching practices and place more emphasis on creating conducive learning environments for Grade 9 and 10 learners in secondary schools. In addition, school principals and school governing bodies should work harder in creating a safe and orderly learning environment. With regard to sanitation and hygiene, learner-led school sanitation and hygiene have to be practised, whereby learners are actively involved in implementing sanitation strategies. In order to create a positive environment with positive morale, incentives have to be given to teachers and learners who excel at their work. While in strengtheining the existing student behaviour policy guidelines the study confirmed that secondary schools did not make sure that all students should know what the school expects of them and spells out what will happen if students do not meet the expectations. Thus, it is recommended that schools should constantly practice student disciplinary governed by guidelines to maximise student learning and to enhance the best learners’ achievements in line with government stipulations and guidelines. The paper also recommends that learner council members should be involved in decision making in the schools’ management structure to give them an opportunity to influence decisions made for them. Lastly, parents should be actively involved in the education of their children by participating in improving school learning environment.
In this article the objectives and basic research question of the study have addressed in the sections above that help to improve the practices of the school learning environment of Iluababor administrative zone in Ethiopia (grades 9-10) secondary schools. Finally, further in-depth
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research has to be conducted to manage the challenges of school learning environment of secondary schools systematically by other researchers.
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THE THEORY OF KARMA: AS A VIEWPOINT ETHICS IN CONSCIOUSNESS OF BUDDHISTS
Phan Ngoc Day (Ven. Thich Giac Nhan) Research Scholar Gautam Buddha University, Noida Introduction
Kamma or Karma is the universal law of continuity of human beings as well as inanimate beings and their surrounding phenomena. The ethical law of kamma is forcefully active in every department of the universe. This is the first and last substitution, which cannot be broken. Nothing is exempt from influence of Kamma. No one is free from operation of this justiceful principle. In Buddhism, the teaching on kamma/karma is vital the understanding of the Buddha. He is teaching on knowledge (paññā) and morality (sīla), life and life beyond, and bondage and freedom. Being one of the central doctrines of Buddhism the theory of kamma explains how the entire world is operated, and how human beings are directed by it.1
Kamma is above all things. Human is human due to the force of Kamma. The Gods are Gods due to the force of their kamma. 2 It ethically puts this whole world into the triple dimension of time, namely, the present existence, the past existence and the future existence, accordingly no single activity or motion is possible and significant without its links, to some extent, with the past as well as its influence on the future. According to Misra:
1 Sn, 654. Literally, it means ‘the world is directed by kamma; human beings are directed by their own kamma’. 2 Shanti Bhikshu Shastri, The Law of Karma in Buddhism in Mahesh Tiwary (ed) (Delhi: India Council of Philosophical Research, 1984), p. 72.
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The principle aspects of the law of kamma are of threefold, namely causal, moral and spiritual. The first two belong to samvṛtti or the realm of phenomenality whereas the last becomes the psycho-ethical aspect of the universe. On the other hand, kamma is at once a causal and moral factor. On the other, its transcendence is the gateway to spiritual freedom.3
As a law of ethical causality, Buddhist theory of Kamma concerns with the cause behind the inequality amongst human beings as well other animals. as a corollary of the main theory Dependent Origination (paṭicca samuppāda), it deals with the tendencies of actions, nature of actions, conditions and environment (paccaya) and the fruits of action (kamma-vipāka) in this regard. Kamma is an ethical law, which operates in accordance to its own factors without the intervention of any external, independent ruling agency, according to this, no rewards and punishment, happiness and misery can be assigned by supernatural power, namely, God. They are merely the effects of causes done by the individual, either in the past or in the present. Actions having filled with intention will (cetayitvā) bring their own rewards and punishments to the kammic agent, whether human justice finds him or not. Kamma is neither a fate nor predestination imposed upon us by mighty god, to which we have to helplessly submit ourselves. It is the consequence (vipāka) of one’s own intentional actions (cetanā-kamma) reacting on oneself, and therefore one has the possibility to divert or transform it to the better consequences (vipāka) according one’s ethical efforts.
Origination in Term of Kamma
Kamma is a term derived from the root kṛ, which means ‘to do, perform, make prepare, undertake, accomplish or cause’ meant ‘act,
3 G. S.P. Misra, Development of Buddhist Ethics (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1995), p. 52-53.
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action’, deed, performance, or behavior. In the Vedic literature especially the Upanisad, karma is understood as any religious act or rite or sacrificial works as sacrifice (yajña) to God with the hope of future recompense. Also in Jainism, Karma is of the nature of fine
4 particles of matter, which infiltrate and bind the soul (jīva). Being the creation of matter, karman operates through body, speech and mind. The function of matter, according to the Jaina is to form the basis of bodies, speech, mind and breath.5
Like Rhyds Davids, Stede and Childers, McDermott appears, in his book Development in the Early Buddhist Concept of Kamma, to lay stress on the importance of mutual causality of Kamma rather than on its motive force, ‘cetanā’, “the term ‘kamma’ is sometimes used to refer to both the act and the fruit which develops from it.”6 He has, however, analyzed this aspect of kamma more clearly in earlier page of the same book:
The term ‘kamma not only the principle by which deeds come to bear fruit in accord with their ethical character, but also to the very deeds themselves… on the other hand, the term ‘kamma” is used to refer to individual acts, especially those of a good or bad ethical nature; and on the other hand, the term refers to the effects which such deeds have.7
In word Kamma, Rahula also agrees for that; The Pāli word Kamma or the Sanskrit word karma (from the root ‘kṛ’ to do) literally means ‘action’, ‘doing’. But in the Buddhist theory of karma it has a specific meaning: it means only ‘volitional action’, not all action. Nor does it mean the result of karma as many people wrongly and loosely use it. In Buddhist, terminology karma never means its effect; its effect
4 Yuvraj Krishan, The Doctrine of Karma (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1997), p. 209. 5 Tattvārtha Sūtra 5.19 (version pdf). 6 Lames Paul McDermott, Development in the Early Buddhist Concept of Kamma Karma (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1984), p. 78-79. 7 Ibid., p. 70-71.
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is known as the ‘fruit’ or the ‘result’ of karma (kamma-phala or
8 kamma vipāka). Karma can be thought of as our core personality, the profound tendencies that have been impressed into the deepest levels of our lives. The deepest cycles of cause and effect extend beyond the present existence; they shape the manner in which we start this life-our particular circumstances from the moment of birth—and will continue beyond our deaths. The purpose of Buddhist practice is to transform our basic life tendency in order to realize our total human potential in this lifetime and beyond.
Importance of Kamma factors in the Life
From what mean of ‘kamma’, as mainly individual action. It refers not only to precept by which cause come to fruit in accord with their ethical character. With what see in front of face or on other hand at present is from cause past (acts done in latest) and what we are doing at here and now is fruit for future. As Childers suggests that kamma has at least three shades of meaning. First, it is an action, whether good or bad. Second, it is the effect of that action, the merit or demerit which lives on after the action have been performed. Lastly, it becomes a potent cause or energy, whereby the multitudinous beings that people the universe are brought into existence.9
When talk about ‘kamma’ it is no denying fact that the Buddha for the first time in history of thought has laid stress on the importance of intention or volition (cetanā) in performing an act ethically. Cetanā is “refers only to the self-centred, goal-directed and result-oriented volitional disposition which impels the worldly individual
8 Walpola Sri Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (London: Oneworld Publications, 2016), p. 32. 9 DPL. S.v. kamma: 178.
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(puthujjana).”10 Ethical good (kusala) or bad (akusala), merit (puñña) or demerit (pāpa) leading to their perspective ethical consequences will be depended on the level and quality of intention (cetanā) of the agent. If the intention of performing an act is present in high level, the result (vipaka) definitely bears the corresponding high level. If it is absent, the result is lessened in quality of bearing fruit or sometime does not bear any fruit. Similarly, if the quality of intention is ethically good, the acts having good intended will bear wholesome consequence; while the acts having evil intended, will bear unwholesome consequence. This interpretation, however, should not be confused with the statement that the Buddha’s theory of kamma is of utilitarian type in the sense that it lays stress on the consequence. As I have noted elsewhere that Buddhist ethics can be considered as cetanā-utilitarianism, which emphasizes the agent’s intention (cetanā) over the consequence of actions performed by him.
The famous definition of kamma attributed to the Buddha is read as: literally meaning “Monks, intention or determinate thought, I say, is kamma. When intention is manifested, one acts by physical deed, speech or thought.”11 This definition is reflected in the first twin-verse of the Dhammapada, where it runs: “Mind is the fore-runner of all mental states (dhamma). All mental states have mind as the command chief as well as their maker. If one acts or speaks with an evil mind, dukkha follows him just as the wheel follows the hoof-print of the ox that draws the cart., similarly, if one acts or speaks with a good mind, happiness follows him like a shadow that never leaves him.12 These two statements are of the same emphasis that the taming and understanding the mind or intentional motive is necessary to the
10 EB. IV, cetanā, 86. (Encyclopedia of Buddhism, (ed). by G. P. Malalasekera, Jotiya Dhirasekera, and W. G. Weeraratne (Ceylon: Government of Sri Lanka, 1979-1989). 11 A. III, 415. 12 Dhp. 1. (Dhammapada)
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ethical agent if moral practice and mental training are to be cultivated in order to attain higher spirituality or perfect enlightenment. It is, however, of great controversy in giving interpretation to the above- mentioned definition.
In interpretation about Kamma, Narada has already stated in his well-know book, The Buddha and His Teachings as;
(1) The Pāli term ‘Kamma’ literally means action or doing. Any kind of intentional action whether mental, verbal or physical is regarded as kamma. It covers all that is included in the phrase, though, word and deed.’ All good and bad actions constitute kamma.
(2) In its ultimate sense, kamma means all moral and immoral volition, involuntary, unintentional or unconscious action, though technically deed, and do not constitute kamma, because volition, the most important factor in determining kamma, is absent.13
In Buddhism the Kamma as law of ethical responsibility is expressed in the form of good producing good, bad producing bad and the very doer is subject to experience that fruit. Ethical good or bad results, which one has to bear, are one’s own kamma, both the past and the present. The evil done by oneself, caused by oneself, arising in oneself, ethically destroys the foolish one. The same must be said true of the good.14 There is no deed, which performed by man to be blotted out; each deed comes home.15 The evil doer definitely finds unhappiness waiting for him, in this world and the worlds to come. The Dhammapada driving home the same point states, “It is the agent who
13 Mahathera Narada, The Buddha and His Teachings (Singapore: Singapore Buddhist Meditation Center, 1973), p. 195. 14 Dhp. 161. 15 Sn. 666.
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performs evil to bear the suffering. It is the agent who cultivates good to enjoy the purification.”16
From this ethical base, ‘each individual is heir to his own kamma, whether ethically good or bad,’ it is logically entailed that in order to destroy the evil to attain moral perfection (sīla paramita), one has to perform efforts and practice morally leading to the same, if you are afraid of dukkha, do not conduct evil, secretly or openly. Because if you are planning to perform evil deed or are performing it fights now, even if you could ascend in flight, you would not be able to avoid the unpleasant consequences.
The Buddha repeatedly proclaims that leading to the way to liberation is one’s own business by removal of the thorns of moral defilement practicing the noble eight-fold path: “Walking this way you should make an end to suffering. This is the way made know by me when I have learnt to remove all darts. You yourselves should make an
17 effort; the Awakened ones are only teachers.” In the Pārāyana vagga of the Suttanipata, the Buddha precisely says: “I shall not be able to liberate anyone in this world who is doubtful. Realizing the supreme dhamma, you yourselves shall across this stream.”18 On the other hand, “You should have yourself as a refuge. Do not hold anything else as a refuge. Having dhamma as a refuge, do not hold to anything else.”19
As above, we see that Kamma, it is for out an effect which itself has influence directly in the life present of all peoples. At that time of present life, every happiness or suffering also cause due to the Kamma. Because of, according to Buddhist ethical theory of Kamma, each individual is responsible of whatever performed by him. He is subject to bear consequences of his own. It is in this sense that kamma is both
16 Dhp. 165. 17 Dhp. 275-276. 18 Sn. 100, translation by Abeynayake (1984); 188. 19 S. III. 42; D. II. 101; D. III. 77.
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ethical agent’s heir and creator. In the Majjhimanikāya, the Buddha declares that he knows those being are inferior, exalted, beautiful, ugly, well faring and ill faring according to their kamma preformed.20 With the divine, purified, superhuman eyes, the Buddha sees clearly that human being and other beings are heir to what they have done and doing:
Possessed of my own deeds, I am the inheritor of deeds, kin to deeds; one has deeds as a refuge. Whatever deed I shall do. Whether good or evil, I shall become the heir of it. This is to be repeatedly contemplated by woman and by man; by householder, and by him who has been taken into order.21
It is stated clearly in the Aṅguttaranikāya that “kamma is of one’s own performance, not performed by one’s father, mother, brother, sister, friends and comrades; not by kinsmen, deva, recluses and Brāhmaṇa. it is the ethical agent who performs it. It is, therefore, the agent that who experiences the fruit thereof.”22 The same idea is echoed lucidly in the Jataka, where it reads ‘the fortune and misfortune of human being are in fact his own kamma, not another’s.’23
Becoming of a being in terms of morality and amorality, development and degeneration is originated from his ethical performance. If ethical performance (kamma) is of one’s own, becoming (kamma-bhava) of one’s own: “Whatever it does determines what it becomes, and the impressions which gathers. I therefore declare that creatures are the heirs of their own actions and behaviors.”24
20 M. I. 183; A. III. 99. 21 A. III. 72. 22 A. I. 139. 23 Yuvraj Krishan, The Doctrine of Karma (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 1997), p. 68. 24 M. I. 390.
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Understanding whatever we are now is consequence of both past and present kamma, one should be aware of his ethical performance for himself and others:
Kamma bodily, verbal or mental, performed by the agent is that agent’s possession, goes with him, and follows him like a shadow. Humankind therefore should act out of goodness and should accumulate things that will be of benefit in the present and future. Goodness and benefit are your refuge in the future world.25
Knowing happiness and suffering, well-being and ill welfare, profitableness and profitableness, harmony and disharmony,26 etc., are the result of the ethical autonomous law of kamma, one should diligently perform good discarding evil: “An evil deed left undone is better, for it cause suffering later. A good deed performed is better for doing it produces happiness.”
Thus, we see that, kamma as shadow always attach follow themselves, therefore, it decides a part happiness or suffering us in the present, with essence as that towards the life which kamma factor become important in value of the life because of; One, it affects direct to fruit of present to bring about living quality of themselves. Two, it effects to consciousness about value ethics in the life everyday of them, when we know clearly about essence of kamma, also consequence of kamma in both present and future. From faith in theory of kamma, that all people will live with body, verbal and mental in goodness and benefit to all living beings.
Value Ethics of the Buddhist Theory of Kamma
From consciousness about importance of Kamma factors in the life, we just see its value truth. To attain to liberation, people must
25 S. I. 93. 26 Dhp. 314.
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abandon actions evil, bad and attain act moral perfection. According to the Buddha, the course of the agent’s existence or becoming is essentially affected by his own kamma. Kamma is functioning effectively not only in determining certain distinctions between individuals, groups, nationalities and species, but also as a causal factor, in determining into which of the six gaits (world) he will be reborn.
Like in the interaction amongst kammas and conditions (paccaya-hetu) have great influence or modification on the fruition of kamma done in the past. Before turning in consideration of its kinds as well as its functioning in modification of the results of kamma. It is worthy to note here a conceptual distinction between vipāka, vipāka- hetu and hetuphalam. The process of fruition (vipāka) is of two stages It is say that, kamma as social career or profession, which in turn makes the differences in social status amongst humankind, is of the Buddhist distinctive contribution to the ethical theory of kamma in Indian history of thought as well as to moral education and development of humankind. In anywhere society, we see that theory kamma also have value certain, when peoples sense about the action good or bad themselves will bring consequence for own.
Therefore, the Buddhist theory kamma have a value ethical as social status judge, that difference that what is the cause of inequality amongst humankind and between humankind and animals, of social status has kamma as its cause, heir and creator.27 The attribution of inequality to a single cause namely God’s will or to Occidentalism is rationally rejected in Buddhism. The Buddha does not admit the existence of a creator as an almighty being or as uncaused causer, not the difference phenomena of this world happen accidentally.
27 M. III. 202-203.
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According to Buddha, actions indulging in violence, anger, jealousy, arrogance and niggardliness are conductive to short-life, ill health, ugliness poverty and birth in low family, whereas, actions of diverse nature conductive to long-life, good health, good looks, prosperity and birth in high family. 28 The Buddha’s observation on kamma is best exemplified in the following passage: “Owner of their own kamma is living beings, heirs of their kamma, have kamma as the wombs from which they spring, and having kamma as their refuge. Kamma marks of livings being, making them become depraved and excellent.”29
Theory Kamma for people a consciousness in its value ethics, as Christmas Humphreys had said: In the same way, Karma explains the problem of Original Sin. There is no problem, for there is no original sin. First causes are necessarily unknowable, and as the Buddha insisted again and again, discussion of such matters is unprofitable, as leading in no way to the heart’s enlightenment. But the teaching of the Wisdom is clear. Evil is by man made, and is of his choosing, and he who suffers, suffers from his deliberate use of his own free will…on the other hand, are clearly the result of specialization in some particular line, and even special aptitudes and preference are the outcome of the law.30
Also in value ethics of theory kamma, it gives us a consciousness has not distinction caste (vaṛna) in society by which must to follow any law. Based on this theory of Kamma, Buddhism does not approve caste- based society. Buddhism evaluates humankind according to their ethical behaviors instead of their birth or class. The following passages of the suttas illustrate nicely how the Buddha rejects the evaluation of morality based on birth or class:
28 M. III. 135. 29 Cūlakamma-vibhāga-sutta M.V.P. 14/511/176. 30 Christmas Humphreys, Karma and Rebirth (British: Curzon Press, 1994), p. 51-52.
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People are not outcastes or Brahmins by birth. They are outcastes of Brahmins because of their kamma, ethical actions and behavior, whether good bad.31
Brahmin, I do not call a person excellent or lowly just because he is of high birth nor low birth. Similarly, I do not call a person excellent or lowly just because he has great wealth or he is of poverty. Actually, some people, while of high birth, still enjoy killing, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, lying, provoking people, using crude language, speaking non-sense, being covetous and causing conflict,
32 which all constitute improper understanding (micchādiṭṭhi). Thus, our present divergences whether intellectual, epistemological, moral, social or temperamental are due to our ethical actions (kamma), both past and present.
An addition point in value ethical of kamma is motive power for rebirth. So, when maintain to Kamma is relate to reincarnation ‘kamma and rebirth’. This is though important in philosophy of Buddhism, due to believe that there is a life after next when death and condition for circumstance in future life was make by ‘kamma’ in this living now. Mainly idea of the cycle of rebirth also provides a perspective on present life. It is influence to all human beings. Peter Harvey said that;
Belief in rebirth and karma clearly has an impact on the way people view their actions: good and bad actions matter, they are of consequence, not things with no impact on life. Good actions are thus encouraged because, through their goodness, they lead to pleasant, uplifting effects for the doer. Bad actions are discouraged as their badness leads to unpleasant karmic results.
31 Sn. 136. 32 M. III. 179. Trans of Payutto (1995), 157.
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Within the round of rebirth, all beings are part of same cycle of lives.33
Understanding the Buddhist theory of kamma gives rise to positivist approach of life. Every effect must have its cause, whether single, double, multiple, mutual or interactive. On this basis, all failures or succeeds, disappointment or appointment, suffering or happiness, profitableness or non-profitableness etc., in life are dependently co- arisen. The better the cause he know the better performance he prefers. The better performance he does, the better consequence welcomes him as reward for his wise deed. Such a thinking and reacting is proved helpful to prevent man from his nihilistic, materialistic and egoistic approaches of life, which are harmful to ethical progress.
Across the doctrine ethical kamma, people will have perception in moral own. In order to avoid all undesirable and unprofitable consequences, the causes of which performed from the past, the ethical agent tries to supersede the past evil kamma with the present virtues. He overcomes greed by generosity, hatred by compassion and loving- kindness, ignorance by wisdom, falsity by truthfulness and vices by virtues. Apart from this, he finds time, energy and investment in merit accumulation. He happily does charity, rendering social service, observing five ethical precepts, practicing brahmacariya and cultivating mind-development etc.
33 Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 28.
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Conclusion
In ethical teachings of the Buddha, it is stated that the inequality in human society and between human and animal kinds is attributed to the agent’s kamma both in this and the previous lives. It is explained in the Suttanipāta that “the world revolves by kamma. The humankind moves by kamma. As pin holds fast the rolling chariot’s wheel, so beings are in bandage held by kamma.” 34 Furthermore, Buddhism traces all differences, biological, physical, epistemological, intellectual, social, and economic, amongst the species to kamma. According to Buddhism, the inequality amongst humankind and animals is due to only to heredity, environment but also to the operation of the law of kamma or in their world, to the result of our own inherited past actions and our present doings.35
Following are the crucial features of the doctrine of kamma, it is a viewpoint about ethics in the life of Buddhist, with consciousness in the teaching of the lord Buddha that:
(i) Kamma associated with intention or motive (cetanā) is of greatly ethical important in terms of both determining its degree of intensity and bearing its fruition. Kamma without intentional force (cetanā) is ethically minimized and even unimportant. (ii) Kamma is not only a reference to the past deeds working in the present and but also present performance working and bearing fruit both in the here and the hereafter. Comparatively, the present kamma is forceful in determining one’s social status and career.
(iii) Kamma is an ethical law concerning with human actions, tendencies, behaviors, interaction and their consequences, in threefold dimension of time namely the past, the present and future.
34 Sn. 654. 35 Mahathera Narada, op., cit, p. 186-188.
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(iv) Being an ethical law, it explains about good conducts happiness and well-being, and evil kamma and suffering. In its disposition, the doer of good becomes good, the doer of evil, evil. One becomes ethical by merit action, bad by demerit action.
(v) As a law of ethical responsibility, it points out that an ethical agent of an action is responsible for bearing the consequences of that action. In other words, he who does an act reaps its consequences.
(vi) As a law of retributive justice, kamma of ethical agent is explained as the main cause of the comic phenomenon of happiness, suffering and inequality in human society as well as between human and animal worlds.
(vii) Kamma is not a fare or predetermines. It can be changed and transformed according to human will (cetanā) in relation with the agent’s surrounding, material, spiritual, educational, cultural, social etc,.
(viii) Improving our kamma from lower to higher, evil to good, mundane to super-mundane is the motive of Buddhism aiming at establishing a perfectly human world.
With all perception above toward of the ethical doctrine kamma, every person will sense in own intention when they act, was derived from body, verbal and thinking for happiness and abandon suffering.
Reference:
Dictionary of Pāli Language. 1979. by. R. C. Childers .Dehli: Cosmo Publications.
Encyclopedia of Buddhism. 1979-1989. (ed). by G. P. Malalasekera, Jotiya Dhirasekera, and W. G. Weeraratne. Ceylon: Government of Sri Lanka. Reprinted in 2000 by The Department of Buddhist Affairs Ministry of
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Buddhasasana.Harvey, Peter. 2000. An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issue. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Humphreys, Christmas. 1994. Karma and Rebirth. British: Curzon Press.
Karunadasa, Y. 2015. Early Buddhist Teachings. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Narada, Mahathera. 1973. The Buddha and His Teachings. Singapore: Singapore Buddhist Meditation Center.
Misra, G. S.P. 1995. Development of Buddhist Ethics. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,.
McDermott, Lames Paul. 1984. Development in the Early Buddhist Concept of Kamma Karma. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publication.
Paul, Carus. 1917. Karma a Story of Buddhist Ethics. London: Open Court Publishing Chicago.
Rahula, Walpola Sri. 2016. What the Buddha Taught. London: Oneworld Publications.
Shastri, Shanti Bhikshu. 1984. The Law of Karma in Buddhism in Mahesh Tiwary, (ed). Delhi: India Council of Philosophical Research.
Suttanipāta (Sn). 1965. By Dines Andersen and Helmer Smith, (ed). London: Pāli Text Society.
Tattvārtha Sūtra of Umāsvāmi, (trs) by J.L. Jaini (Delhi: 1951).
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CRAZE FOR MIRACLES: STUDY OF R.K.NARAYAN’S THE GUIDE
S.R.B.Chakravarthy Lecturer Noble College Machilipatnam
Religion plays a very important role in India and a person with supposed occult powers is venerated here. Adoration for such saints or sadhus is implanted in the minds of the Indians and they enjoy acceptability and popularity even in this era of technology. It is this phenomenon that R.K.Narayan portrays in his novel The Guide.
Reverence for a saint or sadhu with powers can be traced back to the primitive days. People depend on water and without it crops fail hence they looked towards the miracle-man to bring rains. James Frazer points out that “water is an essential of life, and in most countries the supply of it depends on showers. Without rain vegetation withers, animals and men languish and die . Hence in savage communities the rain maker is a very important personage “(60).This necessity in the ancient man made him dependent on the miracle- man.
The admiration for sadhu or swamiji is felt at the beginning of the novel when Raju is found in the precincts of the temple by Velan”The man stood gazing reverentially on his face. Raju felt amused and embarrassed”(5). The novelist here portrays how an ordinary man, a criminal is made a god-man.After some conversation “the villager resumed the study of his face with intense respect. And Raju stroked his chin thoughtfully to make sure that an apostolic beard had not suddenly grown there”(6). Raju felt a feeling of importance and decided to play the role of a saint. In accordance with his role he started telling Velan the story of a woman who approached Buddha with adead baby in her hands. His intention in narrating this story is to drive the point
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that problems are universal and none can escape them. But the innocent villager, Velan expects a miracle in the story. It is this awe for miracles on the part of Velan that seals the fate of Raju later in the novel.
Raju for his own reasons of survival reluctantly allowed the innocent villagers build an impression of mahatma around him. He acted the role of the saint with his usual deftness. He says,”I have to play the part expected of me, there is no escape”(45).By the time he becomes a full-fledged saint, with a beard down his chest, his popularity has grown beyond his wildest dreams. Everything was quite well until there came a day when there were no rains. The problem that man dreaded from times immemorial has surfaced to the ill luck of Raju.
People were desperate and they looked towards the miracle–man for help. Raju tries to comfort them but it is momentary. All the scenes associated with drought occur. The climax comes with a clash among the villagers. Velan’s brother, a fool, reports the matter to Raju, the saint. Raju picked the wrong person to convey his message that he won’t touch food until they stopped fighting. The fool for fear of his elders, for reporting the matter to the mahatma, declares that the saint would not eat food until it rained. In the ancient days men used to wait curiously for the miracle-man to conjure up a miracle to bring down rains. All the villagers touch the feet of Raju for taking up the penance. Even before Raju could take the matter into his hands, Velan gave a clear account of what the savior is expected to do…”stand in knee deep water, look at the skies, and utter the prayer lines for two weeks, completely fasting during the period-and lo, the rains would come down, provided the man who performed it was a pure soul, was a great soul”(95).As a last resort ,Raju narrates his life story to Velan to escape from this enforced sacrifice.
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Raju expects disgust from Velan for deceiving them all these days. But to his shock Velan still addresses him as swami. The reason for this kind of adoration lies in the primitive instinct of Velan. He is not bothered about the past of Raju. He thinks that Raju is capable of bringing down rains. Further Velan thinks that it is indeed great on the part of Raju to reveal his past to a humble servant like him. There is no escape for Raju. He resigns himself to his fate and says,” this man will finish me before I know where I am”(209).
A newspaper reporter gets this information and it becomes the headlines “Holy man’s penance to end the draught”(209).The news catches fire and people from all parts of the country throng to see the ‘Holy man’. The novelist says,” never had this part of country seen such a crowd”(215).Special buses and trains are arranged. Shops spring up around the temple. It is ascene one usually encounters in rural India at fairs. People touch the water at Raju’s feet and sprinkled it on their heads. Velan stands guard near Raju like a head priest near the altar. He regulates the movement of the public. Narayan humorously presents the blissful ignorance of the masses. For example, when the health department shows a huge close up of a mosquito as the cause of malaria, a peasant innocently comments,”sch huge mosquitoes! No wonder the people get malaria in those countries. Our own mosquitoes are so tiny that they are harmless…”(215). Such are the Indian masses. Science is another miracle for them.
Then comes the ambiguous end of the novel-“Raju opened his eyes, looked about, and said,Velan, it is raining in the hills. I can feel it coming up under my feet, up my legs-and with that he sagged down”(221).We do not know whether Raju’s fasting brought down the rains or not. Whatever be the conclusion of the novel, one can understand that reverence towards sadhus or saints is due o the inner craving for miracles in the minds of the people. It is this craving for miracles that makes Velan adore Raju as Swami in spite of knowing
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Raju’s past. It is also responsible for making Raju a scapegoat willingly or unwillingly. It is apt to conclude with Max Weber’s comment on the practice of religion in India that” religious behavior is not worship of God, but rather coercion of God, and invocation is not prayer but rather the exercise of magical formulae”(2).
Works cited
Frazer, Sir James George, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, London: Macmillan&co.Ltd, 1963, P.60.
Narayan, R.K.: The Guide, Mysore: Indian Thought Publications 1989 (references parenthetically documented).
Max Weber:Cited by Panikkar K.N. “Ungodly men, unholy activities”, The Hindu, 22 Oct. 1995, Weekiy Ed., p2.
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INDIA’S DEMONETIZATION POLICY-PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES
Smt. Sunkara Lalitha Senior Lecturer Department of Mathematics The Hindu College Machilipatnam ABSTRACT
Demonetization is the act of shedding a currency unit of its status as legal tender. Demonetization is necessary whenever there is a change of national currency. The demonetization was done in an effort to stop the counterfeiting of the current banknotes alleged to be used for funding terrorism and for cracking down on black money in the country. The old unit of currency must be removed and substituted with a new currency unit. The currency was demonetized first time in 1946 and second time in 1978. On Nov. 2016 the currency is demonetized third time by the present Modi government. This is the bold step taken by the govt. for the betterment of the economy and country. The argument posited in favour of demonetisation is that the cash that would be extinguished would be “black money” and hence, should be rightfully extinguished to set right the perverse incentive structure in the economy. While the facts are not available to anybody, it would be foolhardy to argue that this is the only possibility. Therefore, it is imperative to evaluate the short run and medium-term impacts that such a shock is expected to have on the economy. Further, the impact of such a move would vary depending on the extent to which the government decides to remonetise.
Keywords: Demonetization, currency notes, RBI, Exchange of Currency.
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INTRODUCTION
The government has implemented a major change in the economic environment by demonetising the high value currency notes – of Rs500 and Rs1000 denomination. These ceased to be legal tender from the midnight of 8th of November 2016. People have been given up to December 30, 2016 to exchange the notes held by them.1 The proposal by the government involves the elimination of these existing notes from circulation and a gradual replacement with a new set of notes. In the short term, it is intended that the cash in circulation would be substantially squeezed since there are limits placed on the amount that individuals can withdraw. In the months to come, this squeeze may be relaxed somewhat. The reasons offered for demonetisation are two-fold: one, to control counterfeit notes that could be contributing to terrorism, in other words a national security concern and second, to undermine or eliminate the “black economy”.
Demonetization of currency means discontinuity of the particular currency from circulation and replacing it with a new currency. In the current context it is the banning of the 500 and 1000 denomination currency notes as a legal tender.
The governments stated objective behind the demonetization policy are as follows; first, it is an attempt to make India corruption free. Second it is done to curb black money, third to control escalating price rise, fourth to stop funds flow to illegal activity, fifth to make people accountable for every rupee they possess and pay income tax return. Finally, it is an attempt to make a cashless society and create a Digital India.
There is a background to the current decision of demonetization of 500 and 1000 rupee notes. The government has taken few steps in this direction much before its November 8, 2016 announcement.
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As a first step the government had urged people to create bank accounts under Jan Dhan Yojana. They were asked to deposit all the money in their Jan Dhan accounts and do their future transaction through banking methods only.
The second step that the government initiated was a tax declaration of the income and had given October 30, 2016 deadline for this purpose. Through this method, the government was able to mop up a huge amount of undeclared income.
Historical Facts about Demonetization in India
Although the history of demonetization in India dates back to the time when various rulers ruled this country, the freshest and most significant instances of demonetization in India are:
1. On 12th January 1946, Rs.500, Rs.1000 and Rs.10,000 notes were declared invalid as legal tender.
2. New notes of Rs.1000, Rs.5000 and Rs.10,000 came into economy in 1954.
3. On 16th January 1978, the Morarji Desai led-Janata Party demonetized banknotes of Rs.1000, 5000 and 10000. Note that, the finance minister at that time was H.M. Patel.
4. RBI introduced a new banknote of Rs.500 into the economy in 1987 to contain inflation.
5. On 8th November 2016, the old banknotes of Rs.500 and Rs.1000 were barred from being legal tender and new notes of Rs.2000 were soon introduced. Also, Denominations of 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20 & 25 paisa were in circulation till June 30, 2011 but were then withdrawn. 50 paisa coins are still in circulation and are called small coins. Other denominations called as rupee coins.
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Impact of Demonetization
A. Agriculture One sector of the economy which has been bearing the brunt of demonetisation is agriculture.
This piece in Mint says cash is the primary mode of transaction in agriculture sector with formal financing in many parts, especially Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Kerala coming significantly from cooperative banks. These have been barred from exchange-deposit of demonetised currency. Agriculture is impacted through the input-output channels as well as price and output feedback effects. Sale, transport, marketing and distribution of ready produce to wholesale centres or mandis, is dominantly cash-dependent. Disruptions, breaks in the supply chains feedback to farmers as sales fall, increased wastage of perishables, lower revenues that show up as trade dues instead of cash in hand and when credited into bank accounts with limited access affect the sector.
B. Black Money and Corruption By demonetization, Black money will be taken out of Indian system. As predicted by ICICI Securities Primary Dealership the government's plan to remove INR 500 and INR 1,000 notes from circulation will disclose up to INR 4.6 lakh crore in black money. Corruption will also be automatically reduced by removing black money from economy.
C. Real estate A Crisil analysis says demonetization is highly negative for this sector Cities/ micro markets such as Delhi-NCR with high investor demand has been severely impacted and residential real estate demand has declined more severely in micro markets with high share of unorganised developers (where practice of cash transactions was prevalent). Developers will face serious fund crunch in the short to
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medium term, which will further delay ongoing projects, it said. Land prices are expected to fall. The combined impact of this announcement, Real Estate Regulatory Bill and continuous monitoring of circle rates/ ready reckoner rates by states will reduce the gap in prices in the primary and secondary market transactions.
D. Gold/Silver and Jewellery After demonetization the demand for gold and other precious metals rise greatly. Because people are trying to invest their black money in gold to make it white in short period. But demand for gems and jewellery to decline in the next two to three quarters.
Merits of Demonetization
The demonetization policy will help India to become corruption- free. Those indulging in taking bribe will refrain from corrupt practices as it will be hard for them to keep their unaccounted cash.
This move will help the government to track the black money. Those individuals who have unaccounted cash are now required to show income and submit PAN for any valid financial transactions. The government can get income tax return for the income on which tax has not been paid.
The move will stop funding to the unlawful activities that are thriving due to unaccounted cash flow. Banning high-value currency will rein in criminal activities like terrorism etc.
The ban on high value currency will also curb the menace of money laundering. Now such activity can easily be tracked and income tax department can catch such people who are in the business of money laundering.
This move will stop the circulation of fake currency. Most of the fake currency put in circulation is of the high value notes and
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the banning of 500 and 1000 notes will eliminate the circulation of fake currency.
Demerits of Demonetization
The announcement of the demonization of the currency has caused huge inconvenience to the people. They are running to the banks to exchange, deposit or withdraw notes. The sudden announcement has made the situation become chaotic. Tempers are running high among the masses as there is a delay in the circulation of new currency.
It has deeply affected business. Due to the cash crunch, the entire economy has been made to come to a standstill.
Many poor daily wage workers are left with no jobs and their daily income has stopped because employers are unable to pay their daily wage.
The government is finding it hard to implement this policy. It has to bear the cost of printing of the new currency notes. It is also finding it difficult to put new currency into circulation. The 2000 rupees note is a burden on the people as no one likes to do transaction with such high value currency. Some critics think it will only help people to use black money more easily in future.
Challenges and Effects of Demonetization
1. Immediate impact is expected to be negative all round
1. In the short term it will be a logistical nightmare to manage the cash replacement in banks and smooth functioning of the banking system
2. Slowdown in consumer spending due to limited cash availability
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3. Severe liquidity issues in cash based sectors like Real Estate and Jewellery
4. GDP will decline in the next 2 quarters due to reduction in overall spending
2. Over the next 4-5 months: Those having legitimate income will deposit it in banks and apart from the initial hassles associated with the banking system, they will have nothing to worry about. However those having unaccounted money will face several problems as follows:
1. Those who choose to do nothing with the money, their notes will expire worthless. Every note is a liability of the Government (RBI), and thus notes becoming worthless will benefit the Government by extinguishing its liability.
2. Those who declare their unaccounted money, approx 60- 70% of the money will go to the Govt in the form of taxes and penalties.
3. There will be a third category who will try to launder their money, but which will entail severe risks including penalties and prosecution. However, the money sought to be laundered will anyway enter into circulation and remain therein. It is expected that even if 50% of the around 14 lakh crores of old notes are legitimate, the remaining 50% or around Rs 7 lakh crores of unaccounted money will see around 60 to 80 % thereof or approx Rs 5 lakh crores coming to the government in the form of extinguished RBI liability (point a above) and taxes and penalties. This Rs 5 lakh crores is enough to take care of India’s entire fiscal deficit for one year or more.
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3. Overall Economic Impact:
1. GDP growth is expected to be negative for around 6 months. However subsequent 2 years will see sharp “hockey stick” revival in growth.
2. Inflation is expected to fall sharply with fall in Real Estate prices and transaction costs thereof.
3. Government Deficit will see a huge windfall in the next 2 years.
4. Currency is expected to strengthen as inflation drops and economy gets a boost.
5. Banking System will get a boost, as around Rs 7-8 lakh crores base money (new legal money) will enter the system, which will further create around 3-4 times more money due to re-circulation.
6. Real Estate and Jewellery sectors, though battered initially will stabilize in the next 6 months.
4. Effect on various Asset classes:
1. Bond prices will rise as interest rates drop.
2. Real Estate is expected to fall by around 20 -25 % and stabilize thereafter.
3. Effect on Gold is a bit uncertain, and may be neutral/ negative. Lower black money will depress demand, but at the same time Gold is a hedge against uncertainty and those still wanting to park black money may prefer to put it into Gold instead of cash.
4. Equity is expected to benefit the most due to three reasons. One, there will be a gradual shift from physical assets (real estate/ Gold) to financial assets. Two, the organised sector (corporates, especially listed ones) will benefit due to less cash transactions. Lastly, lower inflation and interest rates will benefit listed corporates through
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lower borrowing costs, thereby increasing their profitability and valuations.
Effects of Demonetization on Economy
Tax: Having closed the voluntary disclosure window for undisclosed money, it has been reported that government will keep a close watch on deposits over Rs2 lakh in cash. This would mean increased tax net, higher tax collection and a better tax to GDP ratio. Philips Capital in a report says that the extent of parallel economy, which was 23.2% of GDP, is now around 25-30% of GDP. As the money gets accounted and more taxes are collected, government might be tempted to reduce tax rates going forward.
Interest rates: One of the biggest impacts of demonetisation would be high value transactions, especially land and gold. This would result in lower inflation, tempting the central bank to reduce interest rates. But the bigger impact on interest rates will be the liquidity with which banks will be flushed. CLSA’s points out that banks would benefit with higher CASA (current account savings account) growth as a part of the $ 190 billion cash pile gets deposited with them. Higher deposit growth and continuing weak credit growth would create opportunities for lending rate cuts and investment activities to pick-up.
Liquidity: Movement of goods and money will be hit in the short. A Bank of America Merrill Lynch note says that wholesale channel forms over 40% of the sales for the Indian consumer firms. This channel works mainly on cash transactions and will likely witness liquidity constraints in the near term. This could disrupt the supply chain and impact growth in the December quarter. The report further adds that consumer firms typically provide tight credit terms (<7 days) to the distributors, who in turn provide credit to the wholesalers/ outlets on their own accounts. Due to overall tightening of the cash-liquidity in the supply chain, consumer firms may be forced to offer easier credit
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terms to the distributors in the near term. As a result we expect an increase in their receivables in the December quarter.
GST: Demonetisation comes at an important as the country heads to a new tax regime with the implementation of GST. Demonetisation would increase the tax net and along with GST result in reduction of black money generation. Along with GST, demonetisation will lead to a higher tax/GDP ratio, says CLSA.
Financial assets: As money lying idle comes in the main economy it would move to higher yielding and liquid assets. Money is likely to move to financial assets from gold, precious metals, real estate and plain cash. Equities might reflect the panic in the economy in the short term, but the move is will be beneficial in the long run say most of the broker’s report and expert comments.
CONCLUSION
The demonetisation undertaken by the government is a large shock to the economy. The impact of the shock in the medium term is a function of how much of the currency will be replaced at the end of the replacement process and the extent to which currency in circulation is extinguished. While it has been argued that the cash that would be extinguished would be “black money” and hence, should be rightfully extinguished to set right the perverse incentive structure in the economy, this argument is based on impressions rather than on facts. While the facts are not available to anybody, it would be foolhardy to argue that this is the only possibility. Politics and various elections are known to run on cash. Same is the case with sectors such as real estate. The rural areas in particular, which do not have formal sources of banking, also deal largely in cash. Unorganised labour, including in urban households, such as domestic workers and drivers, are paid in cash, and mostly in these denominations. It is too early to even imagine the impact on all sections of society and parts of the economy. The
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advantages of this move, though, will be felt only in the long-term. While formal modes of payments such as debit and credit cards, net- banking and digital wallets should get a boost, this will take a long time to be felt simply because the proliferation of these products is still low among the middle classes and the poor, for whom cash is still the predominant mode of transactions. The government’s move is bold in its intent and massive in its measure. Arguably, this is Modi’s biggest move since he was elected prime minister. While the intent is clear, the implementation and impact is yet to be seen.
REFERENCE
1. "Toll tax suspended on national highways till Nov 11, banks open this weekend". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 10 November 2016
2. "Why Were the Notes Scrapped? RBI Chief, Economic Affairs Secy Explain". News 18. 8 November 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
3. "Withdrawal of Legal Tender Status for ₹ 500 and ₹ 1000 Notes: RBI Notice (Revised)". Reserve Bank of India. 8 November 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
4. Bhatt, Abhinav (8 November 2016). "Watch PM Modi's Entire Speech On Discontinuing 500, 1000 Rupee Notes". NDTV India. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
5. Damodaran, Harish (9 November 2016). "Are banks equipped to replace 2,300 crore pieces of Rs 500 and Rs 1,000 notes?". Indian Express. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
6. Gopika Gopakumar, Vishwanath Nair (8 November 2016). "Rs500, Rs1000 notes may be back, if history is a guide". Live Mint. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
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