© 2015. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd | The Journal of Experimental Biology (2015) 218, 2326-2332 doi:10.1242/jeb.122739 RESEARCH ARTICLE Host manipulation by an ichneumonid spider ectoparasitoid that takes advantage of preprogrammed web-building behaviour for its cocoon protection Keizo Takasuka1,*, Tomoki Yasui2, Toru Ishigami2, Kensuke Nakata3, Rikio Matsumoto4, Kenichi Ikeda5 and Kaoru Maeto1 ABSTRACT 2014). The studies of host manipulation from the point of view of Host manipulation by parasites and parasitoids is a fascinating parasites are also fundamental and invaluable to envisage such phenomenon within evolutionary ecology, representing an example ecological dynamics. Lafferty and Shaw (2013) proposed that a of extended phenotypes. To elucidate the mechanism of host change in host behaviour associated with parasitism, a positive link manipulation, revealing the origin and function of the invoked between altered host behaviour and parasite fitness, and mechanisms actions is essential. Our study focused on the ichneumonid spider by which parasites alter host behaviour, are the three necessary ectoparasitoid Reclinervellus nielseni, which turns its host spider factors in understanding how parasites manipulate their hosts. (Cyclosa argenteoalba) into a drugged navvy, to modify the web Amongst the Polysphincta genus-group (informally, polysphinctines; structure into a more persistent cocoon web so that the wasp can Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae), which are exclusively koinobiont pupate safely on this web after the spider’s death. We focused on spider ectoparasitoids, some members are well known to manipulate whether the cocoon web originated from the resting web that an their host spiders to modify web construction (Eberhard, 2000, unparasitized spider builds before moulting, by comparing web 2001, 2010a,b, 2013; Gonzaga and Sobczak, 2011; Gonzaga et al., structures, building behaviour and silk spectral/tensile properties. We 2010; Korenko et al., 2014; Korenko and Pekár, 2011; Matsumoto, found that both resting and cocoon webs have reduced numbers of 2009; Matsumoto and Konishi, 2007; Sobczak et al., 2009). Prior to radii decorated by numerous fibrous threads and specific decorating killing the host spider, the parasitoid larva (penultimate instar) ‘ ’ behaviour was identical, suggesting that the cocoon web in this manipulates the host to build a specific and durable cocoon web system has roots in the innate resting web and ecdysteroid-related (sensu Eberhard, 2000), seemingly enhancing survival of parasitoid ’ components may be responsible for the manipulation. We also show pupae, which depends on the host web s persistence against the that these decorations reflect UV light, possibly to prevent damage by elements or enemies. flying web-destroyers such as birds or large insects. Furthermore, the This interaction between the polysphinctine and its host spider ’ tensile test revealed that the spider is induced to repeat certain provides us with an opportunity to meet Lafferty and Shaw s (2013) behavioural steps in addition to resting web construction so that many demands: (1) behavioural change in the host spider is clearly more threads are laid down for web reinforcement. exhibited in web-building steps and its product (i.e. cocoon web); (2) this system is ideal for comparing the functions between the KEY WORDS: Cocoon web, Cyclosa argenteoalba, Fibrous thread unmanipulated (normal) web and the manipulated end product decoration (FTD), Reclinervellus nielseni, Resting web, Tensile test (cocoon web), thereby enabling us to quantitatively evaluate the fitness of the extended phenotype; (3) if the origin and resulting INTRODUCTION advantage of manipulated behaviour is quantitatively revealed, host Host manipulation, in which a parasitic agent chemically induces manipulation mechanisms will come closer to being understood. In its host organism to express alternative behaviour (extended fact, the polysphinctine Zatypota percontatoria (Müller), which phenotype), occurs across a wide range of taxa and affects an array parasitizes several theridiid spider species, evokes the seemingly of ecological phenomena, such as population dynamics of both protective silk structure originally expressed only when the spider is host and parasite, food chains and energy/material flow in overwintering (Korenko and Pekár, 2011), giving a clue as to host ecosystems (Lefevrè et al., 2009). For instance, horsehair worms web-manipulation mechanisms within the wider polysphinctines (Nematomorpha) manipulate their orthopteran intermediate hosts’ but lacking their mechanical property analysis. behaviour, making them more accessible as food for trout (Sato et al., Reclinervellus nielseni (Roman 1923) is a polysphinctine that 2011) and Nematoda manipulate bumblebee queens, causing a parasitizes orb-weaving spiders (Fig. 1A): Cyclosa argenteoalba reduction in nectar yield for non-host workers (Kadoya and Ishii, Bösenberg & Strand 1906 (Araneae, Araneidae; Fig. 1D inset) in Japan (Matsumoto and Konishi, 2007) and Cyclosa conica (Pallas 1Laboratory of Insect Biodiversity and Ecosystem Science, Graduate School of 1772) in Europe (Fritzén, 2005; Nielsen, 1923). Reclinervellus Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Hyogo 657-8501, Japan. 2Department of nielseni larvae seem to induce the host spider to modify its web form Chemical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kobe (Fig. 1C) into a simpler and seemingly more effective design University, Hyogo 657-8501, Japan. 3Faculty for the Study of Contemporary 4 ’ Society, Kyoto Women’s University, Kyoto 605-8501, Japan. Osaka Museum of (Fig. 1D) than the normal orb web to sustain the wasp s cocoon, Natural History, Osaka 546-0034, Japan. 5Laboratory of Stress Cytology, Graduate both in C. conica (figs 9,10 in Nielsen, 1923) and C. argenteoalba School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Hyogo 657-8501, Japan. (fig. 19 in Matsumoto and Konishi, 2007). Unparasitized healthy *Author for correspondence ([email protected]) C. argenteoalba sometimes construct simple webs without the sticky spiral that we call a resting web (Fig. 1B), as also described Received 31 March 2015; Accepted 18 May 2015 for other orb-weaving spiders (Blackledge et al., 2011; Eberhard, The Journal of Experimental Biology 2326 RESEARCH ARTICLE The Journal of Experimental Biology (2015) 218, 2326-2332 doi:10.1242/jeb.122739 Fig. 1. Types of web constructed by the orb- 5 cm 5 cm weaving spider Cyclosa argenteoalba. (A) Normal orb web. (B) Resting web with a moulting spider (inset) somewhat away from the hub. (C) Normal orb web constructed by a spider parasitized by the ectoparasitoid Reclinervellus nielseni on the eve of being manipulated by the wasp larva. (D) Cocoon web constructed by the same spider as in C. Inset shows close-up of the parasitized spider. AB 5 cm 5 cm C D 2013; Zschokke and Bolzern, 2007); however, resting webs of 10.95±0.70, N=20) and cocoon webs (9.13±0.69, N=8). All 20 C. argenteoalba have conspicuous fibrous thread decorations resting webs and eight complete and three incomplete (see next (FTDs) on the radii. The cocoon web built by a parasitized section) cocoon webs had FTDs on radii. Only one complete C. argenteoalba (Fig. 1D) is apparently similar in form to this cocoon web did not have FTDs. Meanwhile, neither resting nor resting web and bears FTD-like structures on the radii. cocoon webs had stabilimenta. Although superficially FTDs and Specialized resting or ‘moulting’ webs that do not contain sticky silk stabilimenta appear similar, the fluffy structure of FTDs can be and do not act as prey-capture devices are built for protection during the discriminated with the naked eye from the stabilimentum, which is spiders’ vulnerable moulting stages (Blackledge et al., 2011). If a close characterized by a mass of tangled silk (supplementary material relationship exists between a resting web and cocoon web, manipulated Fig. S1D) that does not wave in the wind. One of the spiders on a host behavioural processes will offer a clue to the web manipulation resting web in the field moulted, shedding its skin on a radius mechanism. Although there are several examples suggesting that somewhat away from the hub (Fig. 1B inset). SEM images show parasitoid larvae trigger resting web construction (Eberhard, 2010b, that FTDs on radii of resting (Fig. 2A) and cocoon (Fig. 2B) webs 2013; Gonzaga et al., 2010), it is unclear whether the parasitoid larvae are very similar in structure, but radii as a central axis of FTDs are actually utilize the resting web-building behaviour, or if its laid down in greater numbers in the cocoon web than in the resting resemblance is just a false impression from a shared simplicity of web. web structure. Solid evidence remains to be discovered. In this study, we hypothesized that R. nielseni evokes resting web Web-building behaviour of unparasitized and manipulated construction behaviour intrinsic to C. argenteoalba and that resting spiders and cocoon webs are more stable than normal orb webs because both Although the whole sequence of web-building behaviour of a the moulting spider and wasp pupa require web durability. To test complete resting web as in Fig. 1B was not recorded, several these hypotheses, we observed spider web-building behaviour and specific examples of radii-decorating behaviour were seen in three both resting and cocoon web structure in order to clarify the origin of individuals of unparasitized C. argenteoalba. All three spiders cocoon webs. We also