Where Does Radiation Come From?

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UUNDERSTANDINGNDERSTANDING RRADIATIONADIATION ININ OOURUR WWORLDORLD COVER 2 UUNDERSTANDINGNDERSTANDING RRADIATIONADIATION ININ OOURUR WWORLDORLD

National Safety Council’s Environmental Health Center 1025 Connecticut Ave., NW Suite 1200 Washington, DC 20036 202/293-2270 http://www.nsc.org/ehc.htm A Publication of the National Safety Council’s Environmental Health Center 1025 Connecticut Ave., NW Suite 1200 Washington, DC 20036

This guidebook was produced with funds from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under cooperative agreement no. 82486201. The contents of this document do not necessarily reflect that agency’s views or policies.

Permission to reproduce portion of this guidebook is granted with use of the accompanying credit line: “Reproduced from Understanding Radiation in Our World, with permission from the Environmental Heath Center of the National Safety Council.”

This guide benefited substantially from prepublication review by a range of experts, but their review does not necessarily connote their or their organizations’ endorsement of or support for all aspects of this guide.

For information on ordering additional copies of this guide or copies of the supplemental materials, please visit the Environmental Health Center website: http://www.nsc.org/ehc/rad.htm or call 202/293-2270.

Printed on recycled paper. UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Table of Contents

Preface ...... 7

Introduction ...... 9 Radiation as Part of Our Everyday Lives ...... 9 Dangers of Radiation ...... 9 About this Guidebook ...... 10

Chapter 1:What is the Nature of Radiation? ...... 11 Energy ...... 11 Types of Radiation ...... 11 Structure of Atoms ...... 12 Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Atoms ...... 13 Forms of Ionizing Radiation ...... 13 Radioactive Decay ...... 13 Half-Life ...... 14 Types and Sources of Ionizing Radiation ...... 14

Chapter 2:Where Does Radiation Come From? ...... 17 Sources of Ionizing Radiation ...... 17 Measuring Radiation Exposure ...... 17 Natural Sources ...... 18 Manmade Sources ...... 19 Sources of Nonionizing Radiation ...... 21

Chapter 3:What are the Benefits and Risks of Ionizing Radiation? ...... 25 Benefits of Ionizing Radiaton ...... 25 Medical Uses ...... 25 Industry ...... 27 Nuclear Power ...... 28 Agriculture ...... 29 Food Irradiation ...... 29 Consumer Products ...... 31 The Space Program ...... 31 Sea Power ...... 31 Research ...... 31 The Risks of Ionizing Radiation ...... 32 Measuring Human Exposure ...... 32

5 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Studying Radiation’s Effects on Humans ...... 33 Human Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation ...... 33 Health Effects of Radon ...... 37 Radiation-Related Health Effects from Living Near Nuclear Power Plants ...... 39 Accidental Releases ...... 39 Determining Your Exposure ...... 40 Determining Levels of Risk ...... 41 Balancing the Benefits and Risks of Radiation ...... 43 Governmental Risk Assessments and Standards ...... 43 Individual Judgments ...... 43 Society’s Judgments, Pro and Con ...... 43 Future Prospects for Nuclear Power ...... 44

Chapter 4: How Are Radioactive Wastes Managed? ...... 45 Radioactive Waste Disposal ...... 45 The Search for Permanent Disposal Solutions ...... 45 Radioactive Waste Cleanup ...... 51 Transporting Radioactive Waste ...... 55

Chapter 5: How Is the Public Protected From Radiation? ...... 57 Government Responsibilities in Protecting the Public ...... 57 How You Can Limit Your Radiation Exposure ...... 58 Government Controls on Exposure to Radiation ...... 59 Controlling Medical Exposures ...... 60 Controlling Exposure to Radon ...... 61 Monitoring Radiation Levels in the Environment ...... 62 Controlling UV Radiation Exposure ...... 62 Controlling Occupational Exposures ...... 62 Responsible Federal Agencies ...... 65 Federal, State and Local Government Functions ...... 67 Other Roles in Managing Radiation ...... 69

Appendices

Appendix A: Glossary of Radiation Terms ...... 73

Appendix B: List of Acronyms ...... 81

Appendix C: Additional Resources and References ...... 83

Appendix D: Brief Chronology of Radioactive Materials and Radioactive Waste in the United States ...... 93

Appendix E: Major Uses of Radioisotopes ...... 97

6 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Preface

“Radiation.” What images come to our minds?

✔ “Duck and cover” drills in schools in the 1950s, and orders to scurry under our desks. ✔ Waste drums and protests over waste disposal sites. ✔ Radon, the naturally-occurring radioactive gas present in many homes across the country. ✔ Medical X-rays or radiation therapy for cancer. ✔ Ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

These are just a few examples of radiation, its sources, and uses.

Radiation is part of our lives. Natural radiation is all around us and manmade radiation benefits our daily lives in many ways.

Yet radiation is complex and often not well understood. Understanding radiation and its risks and benefits can help us—as individuals and as a society—to make informed decisions about the use of radiation and actions to protect ourselves from possible harm.

Understanding Radiation in Our World attempts to explain the basics of radiation and some of its potential complexities and nuances, and to provide some perspective on its potential risks and benefits. The Guide has a companion set of videos: “A Look at Radiation” and “Managing Radiation.”

This guide is one of the continuing series of “plain talk” guides produced by the National Safety Council's Environmental Health Center (EHC). The goal of the series is to help the public better understand, and therefore better manage, some of the leading environmental risks we face day in and day out.

Bud Ward Executive Director, Environmental Health Center National Safety Council

March 2001

7 BLANK UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

IntroductionI

Radiation as a Part of Our • Conduct basic and applied research Everyday Lives Introduction Radiation is all around us, every minute of Dangers of Radiation every day. Some radiation is essential to life, Managing exposure to radiation is a major Dangers of such as heat and light from the sun. We concern to citizens and government offi- could not exist without it. Some radiation cials in the United States and around the Radiation informs and entertains us, through video world. signals and sounds from television sets and • Excessive exposure to high-energy (ion- radios. As used in medicine, radiation helps izing) radiation can trigger changes in us diagnose and treat diseases and save body cells leading to cancer, birth lives. Yet it can also pose serious risks. defects, and—in extreme cases—cata- Radiation is energy that comes from both strophic illness and death. natural sources, and manmade sources that • Too much exposure to the sun’s rays can provide many of the conveniences and damage eyes and burn skin, causing necessities of modern living. cataracts or cancer. Several events and circumstances continue Natural Radiation to influence public perceptions about radi- We are exposed to radiation from numerous ation dangers. natural background sources: the atmosphere, soil and water, food, and even our • Pictures and stories of the terrible effects own bodies. On average, much more of of massive radiation doses to the people our exposure to radiation comes from of Hiroshima and Nagasaki have created these natural sources than from manmade a lasting fear of radiation. sources. • Development and testing of nuclear weapons have left a legacy of pollution Manmade Radiation that in the United States alone will take A smaller but increasing amount of the decades and billions of dollars to clean radiation we are exposed to is manmade. up. Modern technologies, for example, use radi- • Accidents at two nuclear power plants— ation to: Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania and • Diagnose and treat medical problems Chernobyl in the former Soviet • Communicate over long distances Union—introduced the term “meltdown” to popular culture and raised con- • Generate electricity for our domestic and tinuing questions about the safety of industrial needs nuclear power. • Eliminate harmful bacteria from food

9 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

In addition, uncertainties remain about the safe disposal of spent fuel from nuclear power plants and other high-level radioactive waste.

About this Guidebook This guidebook provides information on: • The nature and sources of radiation • Benefits and risks involved in use of radiation 1 • Management of radioactive waste Introduction • Actions by state, federal, and international agencies and by individuals to ensure About this that public health is protected from radia- Guidebook tion hazards The goal of Understanding Radiation in Our World is to help you make informed judgments on important radiation issues that affect your health, your lifestyle, and the well-being of your family and community: • How big a risk does radiation pose to us, our families, children, future generations and the environment? • How much and what kinds of risk should we tolerate? • What should we do, as individuals and as a society, to ensure that the benefits of radiation are not outweighed by the risks?

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What is the Nature of Radiation?1

Energy Radiation travels over distances ranging Radiation is energy—the primal energy of from fractions of a millimeter to billions of What is the the universe, originally created billions of light-years. This energetic quality of radia- Nature of years ago. Ionizing radiation is emitted as tion makes life possible but also presents Radiation? the unstable atoms of radioactive materials threats of danger and destruction. constantly emit alpha, beta, gamma, or To better understand radiation it is impor- Types of other forms of radiation as they “decay” to a tant to remember that: Radiation stable state. This process can take from a fraction of a second to billions of years, • Not all radiation is the same. depending on the material. Radioactive • Different kinds of radiation affect living materials (called radioisotopes or radionu- things in different ways. clides) and the radiation they produce are everywhere—in the soil, in our food and Types of Radiation water, and in our bodies. The most basic distinction scientists make There is an important difference between between types of radiation is the amount of radiation and radioactivity (although the energy involved (Figure 1). Radiation with terms are often mistakenly used inter- lower energy levels is called nonionizing; changeably): radiation with higher energy levels is called ionizing. • Radiation is energy in the form of waves or particles sent out over a distance. (A This guidebook sometimes uses the generic simple example is the ripples of water term “radiation” to refer to ionizing radia- radiating outward in a pond after a pebble tion. Keep the differences between the two is dropped into the water.) There are types in mind as you consider the benefits many different types of radiation. and risks of the various types of radiation. • Radioactivity is a property of a substance, Nonionizing Radiation such as uranium or plutonium, which Nonionizing radiation has lower energy lev- emits high-energy (ionizing) radiation. els and longer wavelengths. Examples

Figure 1. The electromagnetic spectrum

Source: The Ohio State University Extension 11 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Ta b le 1: Basic Types of Radiation

Type Examples

Radio waves, Microwaves, Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Radiation Infra red (heat), Visible Light (color) Ionizing Electromagnetic Radiation X-rays, Gamma rays, Cosmic rays Ionizing Atomic Particle Radiation Beta radiation, Alpha radiation, Neutrons

include radio waves, microwaves, visible Examples include X-rays and cosmic rays. 1 light, and infrared rays from a heat lamp. Ionizing radiation has enough energy to What is Our senses can detect some types of non- directly affect the structure of atoms of the ionizing radiation: we can see visible light, materials, including human tissue, which it the and feel the burning effects of infrared passes through. A description of the struc- Nature of radiation. ture of atoms will help in understanding the Radiation? Nonionizing radiation is strong enough to effects of ionizing radiation. (Table 1) influence the atoms it contacts, but not Structure of strong enough to affect their structure. For Structure of Atoms Atoms example, microwave radiation is used to All substances are composed of atoms that heat the water in food by causing water are made up of three subatomic particles: molecules to vibrate. protons, neutrons, and electrons except hydrogen (which may have no neutrons). The Living tissue can generally be protected protons and neutrons are tightly bound from harmful nonionizing radiation by together in the positively charged nucleus devices such as goggles, protective clothing, at the center of the atom, while a cloud of and shielding around radiation-generating negatively charged electrons orbits the equipment. However, concern has been nucleus. (Figure 2) raised about possible health effects from nonionizing radiation produced by such The number of protons in the nucleus things as cell phones and electric power determines its atomic element. The simplest lines. (See Electric and Magnetic Fields, element, hydrogen, has only one proton in Chapter 2, page 22) its nucleus. Oxygen has eight protons. Heavier elements, such as uranium and plu- Ionizing Radiation tonium, have more than 90 protons. Ionizing radiation has higher energy levels. Elements may have various isotopes. An

Figure 2. Structure of an Atom

nucleus: contains protons(+) and neutrons

electrons (-)

12 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD isotope is one of two or more atoms that Detection of Ionizing Radiation have the same number of protons but dif- Ionizing radiation is generally not ferent numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. detectable by our senses: we cannot see, Most atoms are stable because the nuclear smell, hear, or feel it. This, together with its forces holding the protons and neutrons unpredictable health effects, may explain together are strong enough to overcome the why it causes so much anxiety. electrical energy that tries to push the pro- However, ionizing radiation is relatively tons apart. (The energy pushing protons easy to detect and measure using electronic apart is like two magnets with the same equipment. Instruments such as Geiger charge that push each other apart.) counters can detect radiation and help us When the number of neutrons in the track the amount of radiation exposure. 1 nucleus is above a certain level, however, These instruments can tell us if we are too What is the atom becomes unstable or radioactive, close to a source that can harm us and warn the and some of its excess energy begins to us of a release of radiation. Nature of escape. This energy is ionizing radiation. Radioactive Decay Radiation? Effects of Ionizing Radiation on When the nucleus of a radioactive isotope Atoms decays, emitting ionizing radiation, the Radioactive When ionizing radiation passes through nucleus is transformed into a different iso- Decay material, such as human tissue, it may tope, called a decay product. The new iso- “knock” one or more negatively charged tope may be stable or unstable. If it is unsta- electrons out of orbit around the nuclei of ble, it will continue to decay, changing its atoms of the material. If this happens, this nucleus and emitting more ionizing radia- causes the atoms to become positively tion. Several decays may occur before a sta- charged (ionized). When this occurs in our ble isotope is produced. (Figure 3) bodies, molecules and cells may be damaged. The health effects of this damage may Figure 3. be immediate or appear gradually over Radioactive Decay many years.

Forms of Ionizing Radiation Ionizing radiation can take two different forms: • Electromagnetic waves which spread out in all directions through space at the speed of light. • High-energy particles which travel through space at various rates. Examples of ionizing radiation include: • X-rays (used in medicine and for scientific research) and • Gamma rays (emitted by some materials,

including the sun and stars and soil). Source: The Ohio State University Extension

13 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Figure 4. Types of Proton Ionizing Alpha Particle Radiation (positive charge) Neutron

Electron Beta Particle (negative charge)

1 Energy Gamma Ray What is the Source: The Ohio State University Extension Nature of Radiation? Half-life (Figure 4) X-rays, another important type of Types and The half-life is the time it takes for one-half radiation, arise from processes outside of the nucleus. Sources of of a radioactive isotope’s atoms to decay. Ionizing For example, suppose that several atoms of Alpha Radiation Radiation a radioactive isotope with a half-life of An alpha particle is composed of two neu- three hours were isolated and observed. trons and two protons in a tight positively- After three hours, one-half of those charged bundle that has escaped from the radioactive atoms would remain. The other nucleus of a heavy radioactive element, half would have decayed into different iso- such as uranium or radium, during radioac- topes. After three more hours, only half of tive decay. the remaining radioactive atoms (one- Alpha radiation is relatively slow-moving, fourth of the original number) would has little penetrating power and can be remain unchanged. stopped by a single sheet of notebook The half-life can vary substantially from paper or the dead outer layer of skin tissue. one isotope to another, ranging from a frac- (Figure 5) Therefore, alpha-emitting tion of a second for plutonium-214, to 8 radioisotopes are not usually a hazard days for Iodine-131, to 24 thousand years outside the body. for plutonium-239, to billions of years for However, when alpha-emitting materials uranium-238. are ingested or inhaled, energy from the alpha The half-life of an isotope determines the particles is deposited in internal tissues such longevity of its radioactivity. The longer as the lungs and can be harmful. (See The the half-life, the more atoms it takes to give Health Effects of Radon, Chapter 3, page a certain amount of radioactivity. However, 37.) the half-life of a radioactive material is not a direct measure of the risk associated with Beta Radiation the material. (See Determining Levels of Beta particles are fast-moving free electrons Risk, Chapter 3, page 41.) emitted during radioactive decay. They can be either negatively or positively charged. Types and Sources of A positively charged beta particle is called a Ionizing Radiation positron. The major types of ionizing radiation A beta particle is small—less than 1/7000 emitted as a result of radioactive decay are of the weight of an alpha particle—and it alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. travels farther through solid material than 14 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Figure 5. Penetrating Power of Different Types of Radiation

Glass or Concrete Aluminum or Lead

Paper 1 Alpha What is Beta the Nature of Gamma Radiation?

Types and Sources of Ionizing alpha particles. Beta particles can travel sig- almost all their energy in a few feet of soil, nificant distances in air. However, most three feet of concrete, or six inches of lead. Radiation beta particles can be reduced or stopped by A naturally-occurring source of gamma rays a layer of clothing, eyeglasses, or a few mil- in the environment is potassium-40. limeters of a substance such as aluminum. Manmade sources include iodine-131 (pro- (See Figure 5) duced in nuclear reactors, accelerators, and Although more penetrating than alpha par- nuclear explosions) and cobalt-60 (also cre- ticles, beta particles are less damaging over ated in nuclear reactors) which is used in the same distance. Some beta particles can food irradiation. (See Food Irradiation, penetrate the skin and cause tissue damage Chapter 3, page 29.) especially to the eyes. However, both alpha X-Rays and beta emitters are generally more hazardous when they are inhaled or ingested. X-rays are emitted from processes occurring outside the nucleus. They have essentially Humans can be exposed to beta particles the same properties as gamma rays, but are from both manmade and natural sources. generally lower in energy and therefore less Tritium, carbon-14, and strontium-90 are penetrating than gamma rays. A few mil- examples of radionuclides that emit beta limeters of lead can stop X-rays. particles upon decay. X-ray machines are widely used in medicine Gamma Radiation for diagnosis and treatment, and in industry Like visible light and X-rays, gamma rays for examinations, inspections, and process are photons—weightless packets of energy. controls. Because of this heavy use, X-rays Gamma rays often are emitted from a are the largest source of manmade radiation radioactive nucleus along with alpha or beta exposure. Due to their very short wave- particles. They have neither a charge nor length, X-rays can pass through materials, mass and are very penetrating. such as wood, water, and flesh. They can be Most gamma rays can pass completely most effectively stopped by heavy materials through the human body. This may cause like lead or by substantial thickness of ionization and possible health effects in any concrete. organ of the body. Most gamma rays lose 15 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Neutrons One source of ionizing radiation results from the release of neutrons during nuclear fission. Neutrons are released during nuclear fission, which may occur spontaneously or during a nuclear reaction, when a free neutron collides with a nucleus. Neutrons have a neutral electrical charge, so they may be readily absorbed by the nuclei of other atoms, creating new radioac- 1 tive isotopes. Fission fragments and neu- What is tron-activated material are responsible for the the intense radioactivity on the inside surfaces of nuclear reactors. Nature of Radiation? (Material for this chapter is adapted from What Is Radioactive Material and How Does It Decay? (RER-20) and What Is Ionizing Types and Radiation? (RER-21), Ohio State University Sources of Extension.) Ionizing Radiation

16 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Where Does Radiation Come From?2

Sources of Ionizing Radiation • Internal radiation from natural elements Where When energy particles and rays are expelled in our bodies (such as radioactive potassi- Does from the forces that bind them together in um) and some foods that contain small Radiation atoms, ionizing radiation is emitted (see quantities of radioactive elements (such Come Ionizing Radiation, Chapter 1, page 12). as radium -226 in eggs, and potassium-40 From? This process has been going on since the in bananas and some vegetables) birth of the universe. Radiation has always Measuring been commonplace in our world. Measuring Radiation Exposure In the United States, we commonly meas- Radiation Natural radioactive materials were discov- Exposure ered in the 1890s. It was not until 1942 ure human exposure to potentially harmful that physicist Enrico Fermi and his team radiation in units called millirem (one one- created the first manmade radioactive mate- thousandth of a rem). (See Measuring rials in the world’s first nuclear reactor at Human Exposure, Chapter 3, page 32.) the University of Chicago. On average, each of us receives about 360 Manmade Radiation millirem of radiation each year. About 300 millirem, or 82 percent of the total, is natu- In the years since these discoveries, the ral background radiation (from radon and manmade sources and uses of radiation have other natural sources). multiplied so that manmade radiation is now commonplace. We use radiation to: The remaining 18 percent of our radiation exposure is from manmade sources (Figure • Generate electricity, 6): • Diagnose and treat medical problems, • X-rays and other medical and dental pro- • Create and improve consumer products, cedures • Breed more productive and disease resist- • Consumer products (such as cigarettes, ant crops, and smoke detectors, color televisions) • Conduct a wide range of scientific • Operation of nuclear power plants research. • Manufacture of nuclear weapons Natural Radiation • Fallout from past atmospheric nuclear However, most of the ionizing radiation we weapons testing are exposed to consists of natural, or background, radiation: • Radon gas • Other terrestrial sources (radioactive elements in rocks, soil, water, and plants) • Cosmic radiation 17 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Figure 6. Sources of radiation exposure enters the air, while some remains below

Other the surface and dissolves in ground water Consumer <1% Nuclear Products (water that collects and flows under the Medicine 3% ground's surface). Radon has been found in 4% Terrestrial drinking water from public ground water 8% Cosmic supplies in many states across the country. 8% In the outside open air, most radon dilutes

Terrestrial into relatively low concentrations (about 8% Radon 0.4 picocuries per liter of air, abbreviated Internal 55% pCi/L). 11% Radon becomes a serious public health 2 Medical problem when high levels are found in X-rays Where 11% indoor air where people can breathe it – in Does homes, schools, and other buildings. Radon Radiation in the soil can seep through the basement Source: National Council on Radiation Come Protection and Measurements or ground floor through cracks in a founda- From? tion or construction joints and build up indoors to levels substantially higher than Natural Sources outdoor air levels. (Figure 7) Indoor radon Natural Everything on Earth is exposed to a con- Sources has become more of a problem in recent stant barrage of naturally occurring ionizing years because new homes are built more air- radiation from the sun, cosmic rays, and tight and Americans now spend an average radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust. of about 90 percent of their time indoors. The primary radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust are uranium, thorium, potassi- Similar homes in the same neighborhood um, radium, and their radioactive decay may have very different radon readings products or derivatives. because they are not all built on exactly the same piece of ground and construction is Radon not identical. High levels of indoor radon Radon is a naturally occurring gas formed (above EPA action level of 4 pCi/L for from the radioactive decay of uranium-238 radon in indoor air) have been found in all in rock and soil. Radon is colorless, odor- kinds of homes throughout the U.S. In less, tasteless, chemically inert, and radioac- some parts of the country, indoor radon lev- tive. Radon also decays, emitting ionizing els have been measured at hundreds of pic- radiation in the form of alpha particles, and ocuries per liter and higher. transforms into decay products, or “proge- EPA and the Office of the U.S. Surgeon ny” radioisotopes. The half-life of radon is General recommend that citizens take steps about four days. Unlike radon, the progeny to reduce indoor radon levels to below 4 are not gases, and can easily attach to and pCi/L. EPA’s National Residential Radon be transported by dust and other particles in Survey completed in 1991 indicates that air. The decay of progeny continues until more than six percent of all homes nation- stable, non-radioactive progeny are formed. wide have elevated radon levels, approxi- At each step in the decay process, radiation mately one in every 15 homes (or six mil- is released. Radon accounts for more than lion homes) nationwide. half (an average of 55 percent) of the radiation dose we receive each year and is the Radon can also be a problem in schools and second leading cause of lung cancer, after other buildings. EPA’s National School cigarette smoking, in the U.S. Radon Survey found that 20 percent of the schools nation-wide (about 15,000 institu- Radon moves through air or water-filled tions) have at least one school room with a pores in the soil to the soil surface and radon level greater than 4 pCi/L. 18 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Although most of radon exposure indoors Figure 7. Radon Routes into a Home comes from soil, radon dissolved in tap water can be released into indoor air when it is used for showering, washing or other domestic uses, or when heated before being ingested. This adds to the airborne radon indoors. It is estimated that this source accounts for less than five percent of the total indoor air concentration in houses served by ground water sources. Because it takes about 10,000 pCi/L of radon dissolved in water to produce about one pCi/L of 2 radon in household air, the levels of radon Source: US Environmental Protection Agency Where in drinking water need to be significantly Does elevated to substantially contribute to the They enter our bodies through the food we Radiation level of radon in the indoor air. eat and the air we breathe. Come Other Terrestrial Sources • Potassium, essential to life, is distributed From? Other naturally occurring radioactive mate- throughout our bodies. A small portion rials in the Earth’s crust, such as thorium, (about one one-hundredth of a percent) Manmade potassium, and radium, contribute about of natural potassium consists of a Sources eight percent of our annual exposure to naturally radioactive isotope called radiation. Radiation levels from these potassium-40. This isotope is the chief sources also vary in different parts of the radioactive component in normal food country. and human tissue. Cosmic Radiation • Carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of car- Cosmic radiation from outside the Earth’s bon created by cosmic radiation, makes atmosphere includes high-energy protons, up a small fraction of all carbon in our electrons, gamma rays, and X- rays that hit bodies. the Earth as it moves through space. Fortunately, the Earth’s atmosphere absorbs Manmade Sources much of the energy from cosmic radiation. As our use of radiation increases, so does our exposure to ionizing radiation from About eight percent of our annual exposure manmade sources. Lifestyle choices, includ- comes from cosmic radiation. However, cos- ing house construction, air travel, and mic radiation increases at higher altitudes, smoking, also affect the level of our expo- roughly doubling every 6,000 feet. For sure. Airline crews experience greater expo- example, the exposure to cosmic radiation sures than people who live at sea level is about twice as high in Denver as it is in where they are protected by a thicker blan- Chicago. ket of atmosphere. Internal Radiation Medical and dental X-rays account for most About 11 percent of the average person’s of the exposure from manmade sources, an total annual exposure comes from radioac- average of about 11 percent of our total tivity within our own bodies. Radioactive annual exposure. materials in the air, water, and soil are Consumer products such as color television absorbed in food and then by the body’s sets, video displays, and smoke detectors own tissues. account for another three percent of annual Potassium and carbon are two of the main exposure. sources of internal radiation exposures.

19 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Other potential sources of small amounts of thyroidism or Graves’ disease, as well as radiation are: thyroid cancer. (See Medical Uses, • Mining and agricultural products, and ash Chapter 3, page 25). from burned coal, Average annual doses from medical applica- • Nuclear reactors and their supporting tions are about one-sixth the average annu- facilities (uranium mills and fuel prepara- al dose from background radiation. tion plants), However, patients undergoing radiation therapy, where radiation is narrowly targeted • Federal facilities involved in nuclear to affected tissues, can be exposed to levels weapons production, and many times higher than background radia- • Fallout from past atmospheric weapons tion. While medical uses of radiation offer 2 testing, which peaked in the mid-1960s. important benefits, they can also pose risks. Where Does Medicine Consumer Products Radiation About 15 percent of our total average expo- On average, we receive about three percent Come sure to ionizing radiation is from medical of our total radiation exposure from con- From? X-rays (11 percent) and nuclear medicine sumer products, about 11 millirem per year. (4 percent). These products include: Manmade Americans receive about 200 million • Smoke detectors that use americium-241 Sources medical X-rays every year. (Figure 8) X-rays (Figure 9) are an important tool in medical diagnoses. • Lawn fertilizer containing potassium-40 Figure 8. X-rays Used in Medicine • Cigarettes • Gas lanterns • Exit signs • Natural gas appliances • Brick or stone houses • Color television sets Radiation is also used in the manufacturing process for many consumer products. For example, cosmetics and medical supplies are sterilized by radiation. Radiation is also used Nuclear medicine involves diagnostic proce- to help determine the thickness of materi- dures such as nuclear tracers, small amounts als, how full cans are before they are sealed, of radioactive materials that are injected and the quality of the welds in bridges and into the blood stream to allow monitoring buildings. (See Industry and Consumer of their progress through the body with a Products, Chapter 3, page 31.) radiation detector. Tracers can help locate Nuclear Power blocked or restricted blood vessels and developing tumors. Nuclear power reactors, which use uranium, supply about 20 percent of the electricity Nuclear medicine also uses radiation to used in the United States. (Figure 10) treat diseases. Precisely targeted cobalt radi- Nuclear power plant operations account for ation, for example, can destroy diseased less than one one-hundredth of a percent cells without damaging healthy cells nearby. (less than one millirem per year) of the Injections into the bloodstream of radioac- average American’s total radiation expo- tive iodine, which then concentrates in the sure. However, workers at nuclear power thyroid, is an effective treatment for hyper- plants can receive much higher doses and 20 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD those who live near power plants may weapons reached its peak in the mid-1960s. receive slightly higher doses. While the effect on background radiation in the vicinity of these tests was significant in Figure 9. Smoke detector the days and weeks following an explosion, the effect on world-wide background radiation levels has been minor, although measurable. The longer half-life fission products from these tests, including cesium-137 and strontium-90, caused background levels of radiation around the world to increase slightly. 2 Sources of Nonionizing Where Radiation Does Nonionizing radiation is electromagnetic Radiation radiation that includes: Come Nuclear Weapons • Radio waves From? For most people, nuclear weapons produc- • Microwaves Sources of tion and testing are responsible for only • Infrared light very small amounts of radiation exposure. Nonionizing • Visible light However, past accidental and planned Radiation releases have exposed some employees and neighbors of weapons facilities to higher radiation doses. Fallout from atmospheric testing of nuclear

Figure 10. Map of U.S. Nuclear Power Facilities

Source: U.S. Department of Energy 21 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Hazards of Nonionizing Radiation (NIH), has compiled information on this Unlike ionizing radiation, nonionizing radi- issue. (You can get more information on ation does not have enough photon energy this and other issues from the NIEHS Web to remove an electron from an atom. site http://www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid) However, it can still be hazardous. For High-voltage power transmission and distri- example: bution lines have been a major focus of • Powerful industrial lasers, which emit concern. Alternating-current (AC) electricity, tightly focused or coherent beams of visi- with a frequency of 60 cycles per second, ble light, can burn through human tissue falls into the extremely low frequency range and even metal. on the electromagnetic spectrum • Some nonionizing radiation can interfere (Chapter 1, Figure 1) and thus has far too 2 little energy to cause ionization. Where with the operation of heart pacemakers Does and other medical devices, as well as crit- However, AC electric and magnetic fields ical equipment in aircraft. can induce electric currents in conducting Radiation • High levels of radio frequency and materials, including human and animal tis- Come sue. (Direct-current fields, such as the From? microwave radiation can heat tissue and if the temperature increase is high Earth’s magnetic field, do not have this enough, can adversely affect health. effect). The electric current induced in our Sources of bodies may have potential biological and health effects. Nonionizing Figure 11. Power Lines Radiation Evidence of health effects from EMF is inconclusive, although some studies have indicated a possible link between EMFs and childhood leukemia and other forms of cancer. The information available however, is not sufficient to establish a cause-effect relationship. Some studies have reported the possibility of increased cancer risks, especially leukemia and brain cancer, for electrical workers and others whose jobs require them to be around electrical equipment. Additional risk factors, however, such as exposure to cancer-initiating agents, may Electric and Magnetic Fields also be involved. Extremely low-frequency electric and magnet- Some researchers have looked at possible ic fields (EMFs) surround electrical machin- associations between EMF exposure and ery, home appliances, electric wiring, and breast cancer, miscarriages, depression, sui- high-voltage electrical transmission lines cides, Alzheimer’s disease, and and transformers. (Figure 11) Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS, or A good deal of public and government Lou Gehrig’s Disease), but the general sci- attention has been focused in recent years entific consensus is that the evidence is not on the possible health effects of EMFs. The yet conclusive. public is exposed to these fields through the In June of 1998, a special review panel con- generation, transmission, and use of electric vened by the NIEHS reviewed EMF health power. The National Institute of studies. A majority of the panel found “lim- Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), a ited evidence that residential exposure to branch of the National Institutes of Health

22 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD extremely low frequency magnetic fields There are no federal health standards may increase the risk of childhood governing public exposure to EMFs. A few leukemia.” A majority also found limited states however, have set standards for trans- evidence that workplace exposure to EMFs mission line electric and magnetic fields. may cause chronic lymphocytic leukemia in adults. Radio-Frequency (RF) and Cellular Phones According to NIEHS, “the probability that As hand-held cellular telephones become EMF exposure is truly a health hazard is increasingly popular, people are understand- currently small. The weak epidemiological ably concerned about potential health associations and lack of any laboratory sup- effects from exposure to high-frequency port for these associations provide only mar- radio waves. (Figure 12) 2 ginal scientific support that exposure to this agent is causing any degree of harm.” The The radio waves used by analog and digital Where NIEHS did conclude, however, in its 1999 cellular phones are much higher frequency Does Report to Congress, that extremely-low-fre- than the electric and magnetic fields pro- Radiation quency EMF exposure cannot be recognized duced by power lines, so their biological Come as entirely safe because of weak scientific effects are different from the possible effects From? evidence that exposure may pose a leukemia of EMFs. hazard; the associations reported for child- Studies have shown that intense exposure Sources of hood leukemia and adult chronic lympho- to this type of nonionizing radiation can Nonionizing cytic leukemia cannot be dismissed easily as cause heat-related effects such as cataracts, Radiation random or negative findings. skin burns, deep burns, heat exhaustion, On the positive side, the NIEHS panel and heat stroke, as well as electrical shock. found “strong evidence” that exposure to As a result of the studies, the United States electric and magnetic fields can speed the and other countries have established stan- healing of broken bones. dards to protect workers and the public How can individuals reduce exposure? from the known effects of excess exposure People concerned about their own exposure to the radio waves used in telecommunica- can take several steps to reduce it. Except in tions. The antennas of cell-phone base sta- certain cases, most people's greatest expo- tions and personal cell phones must comply sure to EMFs may come from sources inside with these standards. the home, rather than from power lines outside it. The NIEHS suggests avoiding stand- Figure 12. ing too close to computers, microwave Use of Cellular Phones Has Become Part of Many People’s Daily Lives ovens, televisions, or other devices that may emit EMFs. People can reduce exposure to EMFs by turning off devices such as electric blankets when they are not in use and by not keeping devices such as electric alarm clocks too close to the bed. Adults can dis- courage children from playing near high power lines or electrical transformers. The distance from a source of EMFs is important because the intensity of EMFs decreases proportionally to the square of the distance to their source. So doubling your distance from a source will reduce exposure to one-quarter of its previous level.

23 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Most epidemiological studies have found no significant correlation between exposure to radio frequency (RF) radiation and an increased risk of cancer. One animal study at the University of Adelaide in Australia, showed that mice genetically predisposed to a type of cancer developed twice as many cancers when exposed to cell phone radiation. This study is being repeated at the University of Adelaid and other research laboratories to verify the finding. 2 The Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Where responsible for protecting the public from Does radiation exposure from consumer products, Radiation said that “the available science does not Come allow us to conclude that mobile phones are From? absolutely safe, or that they are unsafe. However, the available evidence does not Sources of demonstrate any adverse health effects asso- Nonionizing ciated with the use of mobile phones.” Radiation

24 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

What Are the Benefits and Risks of Ionizing Radiation?3

Since German physicist Wilhelm Konrad Benefits of Ionizing Radiation What Are Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895, people Ionizing radiation lets us do many things the have invented thousands of new practical that are impossible without it, such as iden- Benefits and beneficial uses for ionizing radiation. tifying broken bones and healing tumors in and Risks These uses have improved our quality of life the human body, checking for flaws in jet of Ionizing and increased our life span. engines, and testing the thickness of Radiation? Ionizing radiation is widely used in: eggshells. Life for many of us would be more difficult if we were suddenly to stop creating • Medicine and research and using radiation. Medical Uses • Industry and manufacturing consumer products Medical Uses • Nuclear power The most common, and one of the earliest uses of radiation, is to diagnose injury and • Agriculture and food processing disease. Roentgen’s discovery of the X-ray • Development and testing a wide variety allowed physicians to look inside the of materials human body without operating. (Figure 13) • National defense (nuclear weapons) Figure 13. However, our use of radioactive materials Use of X-ray machine in medicine and creation of new sources of ionizing radiation add to our total annual exposure and increase the risks to our health and environment. Weighing the benefits of ionizing radiation against its risks, and deciding what level of risk is acceptable, is a constant challenge for scientists, government regulators, and each of us as individuals. This chapter includes the following topics: • The Benefits of Ionizing Radiation • The Risks of Ionizing Radiation • Determining Your Exposure • Determining Levels of Risk • Balancing the Benefits and Risks of Radiation

25 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Today, doctors also use radiation in many • Mammography to detect breast cancer at ways to treat disease. One of every three an early stage when it may be curable Americans hospitalized each year is diag- • X-rays or other imaging techniques that nosed or treated using nuclear medicine, make needle biopsies safer and more totaling more than 11 million procedures a accurate and informative year. Radiation is also used in 100 million laboratory tests each year on body fluids and • Monitoring the response of tumors to tissue specimens to aid in diagnosing treatment, and distinguishing malignant disease. from benign tumors Ionizing radiation is widely used to diagnose • Bone and liver scans to detect the spread and treat cancer, increasing survival rates of cancers 3 and improving patients’ quality of life. • Alleviating or eliminating pain associated What Are Radiotherapy has helped to cure various with prostate or breast cancer that has the types of cancer in tens of thousands of peo- spread to the bones Benefits ple and temporarily to halt the disease in The National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Risks many others. About 500,000 cancer lists more advanced medical uses of radia- of Ionizing patients in the United States—half of all tion: Radiation? people with cancer—are treated with radiation at some point in their therapy. • Newer X-ray technologies such as com- puterized tomography (CT, or CAT) Medical For example, a promising treatment for scans have revolutionized the diagnosis Uses leukemia involves arming monoclonal anti- and treatment of diseases affecting almost bodies with radioisotopes. The antibodies every part of the body. (Figure 14) are produced in the laboratory and engi- neered to bind to a specific protein in • Another scanning technology, positron tumor cells. When injected into a patient, emission tomography (PET) scanning, these armed antibodies bind to the tumor involves injecting a small amount of a cells, which are then killed by the attached radioisotope into a patient to show the radioactivity. Normal cells nearby are not metabolic activity and circulation in the affected. brain. PET studies enable scientists to pinpoint the site of brain tumors or the Other applications of radiation in cancer source of epileptic activity and to better diagnosis and treatment include: understand many neurological diseases.

Figure 14. CAT scan

26 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

• Radioisotopes are used to diagnose and Industry monitor many diseases effectively and Numerous businesses and industries have safely. To show how the disease process found uses for radiation to improve products alters the normal function of an organ, a or services. The Nuclear Regulatory patient swallows, inhales, or receives an Commission (NRC) and the 32 states that injection of a tiny amount of a radioiso- participate in the NRC Agreement States tope. Special cameras reveal where the program issue and administer more than isotope accumulates in the body (for 20,000 licenses for medical, academic, and example, showing an image of the heart industrial uses of nuclear materials. with both normal and malfunctioning Manmade radioisotopes are used by industry tissue). to: 3 • Laboratory tests use radioisotopes to • Explore for oil and natural gas. What Are measure important substances in the Geologists use a technique called nuclear body, such as thyroid hormones. the well logging to determine whether a well Benefits • Radiation treatments for thyroid diseases, drilled deep in the ground has the poten- and Risks including thyroid cancer and Graves dis- tial to produce oil. Radiation from a ease (one of the most common forms of radioisotope inside the well can detect of Ionizing hyperthyroidism), are so effective they the presence of different materials. Radiation? have almost totally replaced thyroid • Test pipes and welds, including structural surgery. cracks and stresses in aircraft (Figure 15) Industry • Radioisotopes are used in animal studies and test for flaws in jet engines. Using a to learn how the body metabolizes a new process called radiography, the object drug before it is approved by the Food tested is exposed to radiation from a and Drug Administration (FDA). sealed radiation source and a piece of • Radioisotopes are used to sterilize hospital photographic or radiographic film on the items to help prevent the spread of dis- opposite side of the object captures an eases. Radiation is especially useful for image which can help to pinpoint flaws sterilizing such items as sutures, syringes, such as cracks or breaks. catheters, and hospital clothing that Figure 15. Airplane would otherwise be destroyed by heat sterilization. Sterilization using radioisotopes is particularly valuable because it can be performed while the items remain in their sealed packages, thus preserving their sterility indefinitely. • Radioisotopes are a technological back- bone of biomedical research. They are used to identify how genes work, and in much of the research on AIDS. Between 70 and 80 percent of all research at NIH is performed using radiation and radioac- • Control the thickness of sheet products, tive materials. such as steel, aluminum foil, paper, pho- (Adapted from: What We Know About tographic film, and plastics, during manu- Radiation, Office of Communications, facture. Detectors measure, highly accu- National Institutes of Health, April 11, rately, the amount of radiation passing 1994.) through the materials and compare it to the amount that should pass through the desired thickness. 27 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

• Cold-sterilize plastics, pharmaceuticals, electricity from nuclear power than from cosmetics, and other heat-sensitive any other source except coal. products. Exposing the materials to radiation, usually gamma radiation from Cobalt-60, kills bacteria and germs and is Figure 16. Nuclear Power Plant particularly effective when other methods such as boiling or chemical treatment are not practical. • Conduct security checks of airline carry- on luggage. 3 • Improve the quality of manufactured What Are goods in thousands of industrial plants by the using radiation in sensitive gauges and imaging devices (for example, ensuring Benefits that beverage cans are correctly filled and Risks using a process similar to that of measur- of Ionizing ing the thickness of sheet products). Radiation? • Pinpoint fluid leaks, monitor engine wear and corrosion, and measure the Nuclear flow of materials through pipes, using Power radioactive tracers similar to those used in medicine. But nuclear power plants also have a num- • Identify trace quantities of materials. ber of drawbacks. U.S. nuclear power plants Criminal investigators use radiation to generate about 2,000 metric tons of high- identify trace amounts of materials like level radioactive waste each year, causing glass, tape, gunpowder, lead, and poisons. significant disposal problems. (See Nuclear Called activation analysis, the procedure Reactor Waste, Chapter 4, page 52). involves placing a sample of materials in Environmental and antinuclear groups a nuclear reactor and bombarding it with oppose nuclear power because of concerns neutrons, which produces a “fingerprint” about safety, the potential for nuclear of the elements in the sample. weapons proliferation and terrorism, and • Prove the authenticity of old paintings. because of the unresolved problem of Museums also use activation analysis to nuclear waste disposal. They argue that detect whether certain modern materials renewable energy sources such as solar and are present and use other techniques with wind power are preferable to nuclear power radioisotopes to spot forgeries. as long-term alternatives to fossil fuel ener- • Detect pollution. Scientists use radioiso- gy. (For more on the pros and cons of topes to trace and identify the sources of nuclear power, see Balancing the Benefits pollution, such as acid rain and green- and Risks, Chapter 3, page 43.) house gases, in air, water, and soil. Some people consider nuclear power plants more environmentally friendly than coal or Nuclear Power oil-burning plants. As a byproduct of com- One-sixth of the world’s electricity, and bustion, fossil-fuel plants emit air pollutants nearly one-fifth of the electricity in the such as nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and United States, comes from nuclear power carbon dioxide, a principal “greenhouse gas” plants. (Figure 16) These plants use nuclear believed to contribute to global warming. fission (neutrons splitting uranium atoms) Because nuclear plants use fission instead of to produce tremendous heat that generates combustion, they produce no combustion electricity. Americans get more of their byproducts. Without nuclear power, U.S. 28 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD carbon emissions from electric generation and has helped control the would be about 30 percent higher. Mediterranean fruit fly in California. Also, because they are so closely regulated With fewer pests, food crop productivity and monitored, nuclear power plants release increases. less ionizing radioactivity (an average dose • Moisture monitoring with nuclear density of 0.009 mrem per year) into the environ- gauges can measure the moisture content ment than comparable coal-fired plants (an of soil, helping make the most efficient average dose of 0.03 mrem per year). New use of limited water sources for successful limits on fly-ash emissions from fossil-fuel crop production. plants, however, are helping to reduce Food Irradiation radioactive emissions from these sources 3 as well. Irradiation Process What Are One of the more controversial uses of radia- According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, the tion today is food irradiation. High doses of the industry’s trade association, the annual Benefits economic impact of the nuclear power radiation do not make food radioactive. industry is $90 billion in total sales of goods Irradiation kills bacteria, insects, and para- and Risks and services; 442,000 jobs; and $17.8 billion sites, and retards spoilage in some foods. of Ionizing in federal, state, and local government tax Irradiated foods are regularly eaten by astro- Radiation? revenues. The Institute estimates that nauts on space missions, as well as by hospi- nuclear power reduces U.S. reliance on for- talized patients with weak immune systems Food eign sources of oil by nearly 100 million who need extra protection from microor- Irradiation barrels a year, enhancing the nation’s ener- ganisms in food. gy security, and cutting the U.S. trade The irradiation process involves exposing deficit by billions of dollars each year. food to intense controlled amounts of ionizing radiation—gamma rays from cobalt-60 Agriculture or cesium-137, X-rays, or electron beams Radiation has become an increasingly from particle accelerators. The process has important tool in agricultural research and about the same effect on food as canning, practice. Some uses and their benefits are: cooking, or freezing. It kills pests and • Radioisotopes as a research tool help extends shelf life, but also reduces the food’s develop new strains of food crops that are nutritional value somewhat by destroying more nutritious, resist disease, and pro- vitamins A, B1 (thiamin), C, and E. No duce higher yields. radiation remains in the food after treatment. For example, radiation has been used in producing peanuts, tomatoes, onions, soy- Exposing materials, including foods, to radi- beans, barley, and the “miracle” rice that ation from an irradiator is very different has boosted rice production in Asia. from exposing them to radiation from a reactor. The gamma radiation from • Radioisotope tracers in plant nutrients aid cobalt-60 in an irradiator kills bacterial and in reducing soil and water pollution by germs, but does not leave any radioactive helping researchers to learn how plants residue or cause any of the exposed materi- absorb fertilizer and how to calculate the als to become radioactive. The cobalt-60 in optimum amount and frequency of fertil- an irradiator is contained in stainless steel izer applications. capsules and does not commingle with the • Insect sterilization with radiation results material being irradiated. On the other in mating without offspring, thus limiting hand, material exposed to neutrons from a insect population growth. This has elimi- reactor or linear accelerator can become nated screwworm infestation in the radioactive. southeastern United States and Mexico, 29 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Approvals and Bans • Irradiation can accelerate spoilage in sev- Irradiation has been approved by: eral fruits, including pears, apples, citrus fruits, and pineapples. • The FDA - for a number of foods including, herbs and spices, fresh fruits and veg- • The irradiation process may expose work- etables, wheat, flour, pork, poultry, and ers and the environment to radiation red meat hazards. • The World Health Organization • Irradiation reduces the food’s nutritional value by destroying some vitamins. • The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization While extensive studies have found no evidence that irradiated foods or compounds 3 • Approximately 40 countries besides the cause adverse health effects, some con- What Are United States sumers may find them unacceptable because the Three states—Maine, New Jersey, and New they prefer natural or organic foods. Benefits York—have banned the sale, however, of How do you know if the food in your and Risks irradiated foods and food ingredients grocery store has been irradiated? of Ionizing (except for spices). Many U.S. food producers have been reluctant to adopt food irradi- The FDA requires irradiated foods to be Radiation? ation because of protests by food-safety labeled with the green radiation logo, called groups and because of uncertainties about the radura (Figure 17) and the words “treat- Food consumer acceptance. ed by irradiation,” “treated with irradia- Irradiation tion,” or “irradiated.” Benefits However, processed foods containing irradi- Irradiation advocates, including the FDA ated ingredients and irradiated food sold in and the U.S. Department of Agriculture restaurants do not have to be labeled. (USDA), point to a number of benefits of Consumer groups are working to expand the food irradiation: labeling requirement. • The process is better for the environment than treating foods with toxic chemicals, Figure 17. Radura label required on irradiated food such as methyl bromide or ethylene oxide. • Irradiation, coupled with proper handling, cooking, and storage of food, can help reduce the incidence of food-borne disease. Some six million cases a year in the United States result in more than 9,000 deaths.

• By retarding spoilage and extending the Should you avoid irradiated food? shelf life of food, irradiation also helps humanitarian groups deliver food to If your only concern is possible adverse starving people. health effects, the government says no. Concerns • The FDA has found no evidence that irradiation of food is less safe than other However, critics point to a number of con- preservation methods. cerns with food irradiation: • Irradiation does a good job of killing • Irradiated foods could pose a botulism bacteria that cause food-borne diseases hazard because the process kills bacteria such as, salmonella in poultry and that cause spoiled food to smell or look seafood, E. coli in beef, trichinosis in bad, thereby eliminating the traditional pork, and cholera in fish. signals of inedible food. 30 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

But if it is more important to you that your Only a small fraction of our total annual foods are grown and packaged naturally exposure to radiation, about 11 millirem a without artificial treatments and with their year, comes from consumer products. vitamins and minerals intact, then irradiated foods may not be prime candidates for The Space Program your shopping list. The U.S. Space program has used radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) to Consumer Products power 24 of its space probes over the last 25 Radiation is used in, or to produce many years. The natural decay of plutonium diox- consumer products. For example, many ide produces heat, which is converted to smoke detectors—now installed in nearly electricity by a thermocouple device. 90 percent of American homes—use the Compact and relatively light, RTGs typical- 3 radioactive isotope americium-241, which ly produce about 300 watts of electricity What Are emits alpha radiation. By ionizing the air and can operate unattended for years. the sealed inside the detector, the radiation pro- Among the space research probes powered- Benefits duces an electric current that sets off the by RTGs were: alarm if interrupted by smoke in the detec- and Risks tor. • The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment of Ionizing Packages (1969–1971) Radioactive materials are also used to: Radiation? • Pioneer 10 and 11 (1972 and 1973) • Eliminate dust from computer disks and Sea Power audio and video tapes • Two Viking Mars spacecraft (1978) • Sterilize baby powder, bandages, cosmet- • Two Voyager spacecraft (1977) ics, hair products, and contact lens solu- • The Galileo (1989), Ulysses (1990), and tions (Exposing these materials to radia- Cassini (1997) spacecraft. tion, usually gamma radiation from cobalt-60 kills bacteria and germs.) Sea Power • Control the thickness of many sheet The U.S. Navy was an early user of nuclear products, such as paper, sandpaper, or alu- power, launching the USS NAUTILUS, the minum foil and the amount of liquid in first nuclear-powered submarine, in 1954. beverage can (Detectors measure, highly Since 1954, the Navy has built more than accurately, the amount of radiation pass- 200 submarines and surface ships powered ing through the materials and compare it by nuclear reactors. These vessels have trav- to the amount that should pass through eled more than 100 million miles of ocean the desired thickness.) on nuclear power. • Attach a non-stick surface to a frying pan Nuclear submarines have two major advan- tages: speed and underwater range without • Brighten the porcelain in false teeth to surfacing. A modern nuclear powered Navy make them look more real submarine can cruise up to one million None of the radiation remains in these con- miles, or more than 25 years, without sumer products after they are treated or refueling. sterilized. Radioactive materials also create the glow Research in luminous watches and in instrument Radioactive materials are valuable tools for panel dials and are used in some gas camp- research in nearly all fields of modern sci- ing lanterns. Radiation is also used in pro- ence: physics, mineralogy, metallurgy, biolo- duction of some clothing, eyeglass lenses, gy, medicine, agriculture, environmental lightning rods, tires, ceramic glazes on some science, geology, chemistry, and many china and decorative glassware, enameled others. jewelry, and cellophane dispensers. • Many scientists use X-rays and neutrons 31 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

to study the properties of a wide variety of in that debate, we must: materials, develop new plastics, and • Understand the risks—how and to what strengthen materials, such as those used extent the different kinds and sources of in aircraft. radiation can affect our health and envi- • Chemists and biologists use X-ray diffraction ronment. techniques to study the crystalline struc- • Learn what the producers and users of ture of proteins, the basic building blocks radiation, the government, and each of us of life, and also to study viruses that cause as individuals, can do to minimize those diseases ranging from the common cold to risks. AIDS. 3 • Environmental scientists use radioisotopes to Measuring Human Exposure What Are track chemical contaminants as they Several factors are involved in determining the move through water or the ground and to the potential health effects of exposure to study the global movement of wind and radiation. These include: Benefits water. and Risks • The size of the dose (amount of energy of Ionizing • Geologists read radioactive materials that deposited in the body) occur naturally in the earth to determine Radiation? • The ability of the radiation to harm the age of rocks and to study plate human tissue (See Ionizing Radiation, tectonics. Measuring Chapter 1, page 12.) • Archaeologists determine the age of prehis- Human • Which organs are affected toric artifacts through carbon dating, a Exposure process that measures radioactive Amount of the Dose. The most important carbon-14. When an organism is alive, its factor is the amount of the dose—the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 is the amount of energy actually deposited in your same as in the atmosphere. When the body. The more energy absorbed by cells, organism dies, the carbon-14 begins to the greater the biological damage. Health decay and the ratio changes. This ratio is physicists refer to the amount of energy used to determine how long ago the absorbed by the body as the radiation dose. organism died. The absorbed dose, the amount of energy absorbed per gram of body tissue, is usually • Criminologists use neutron activation analy- measured in units called rads. sis to detect the presence of toxic substances such as arsenic in the body. The amount of the dose depends on such factors as: • Investigators detect forgeries by measuring radioactive decay; and use “ultrasoft” X-rays • The number and energy level of the radi- to determine the authenticity of paintings ation particles emitted by the source (the and to aid in their restoration. source’s activity, measured in units called curies) The Risks of Ionizing Radiation • The distance from the source (Distance is Ionizing radiation is intricately woven into especially important with alpha radiation; the fabric of modern life. But living and more than a few centimeters from the working with radiation can be hazardous. If source, the amount of the dose approach- we want to continue enjoying the benefits es zero.) that radiation brings, we may have to • The amount of exposure time accept some additional risk to our health and environment. • The degree to which radiation dissipates in the air or in other substances between How much risk is acceptable to us as a soci- the source and the recipient ety? This is a subject of constant and often heated debate. To participate constructively • The penetrating power of the radiation 32 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Ability to Harm Tissue. Health physicists Everywhere! Los Alamos Science, Los also must take into account the ability of Alamos National Laboratory, Number 23, the type of radiation involved to harm 1995.) human tissue. To do this, they multiply the absorbed dose by a biological effectiveness Studying Radiation’s Effects on factor, the Q factor, to come up with a Humans measurement of harm called the dose-equiv- There are a number of studies of the effects alent. (Table 2) The Q factor is a “consen- of radiation on humans: sus factor” agreed upon by experts and used • The Radiation Effects Research for regulatory purposes. Foundation (RERF) has been studying Ta b le 2: the long-term effects of radiation on the 3 Biological Effectiveness survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki What Are bombings in Japan since 1947. RERF is Factor by Radiation Type the an international organization jointly Benefits Type of Radiation Q Factor funded by the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare, the U.S. and Risks Alpha particles 20 Department of Energy (DOE), and the of Ionizing Beta particles 1 National Cancer Institute (NCI), part of Radiation? Gamma radiation 1 National Institutes of Health. Protons, fast neutrons 10 • RERF researchers learn more about the Studying Slow (thermal) neutrons 2 effects of ionizing radiation by monitoring Radiation’s uranium miners and people who lived Effects near the Nevada nuclear weapons test on Human In the United States, dose-equivalent is sites used from 1951 through 1963. commonly expressed in rem, which stands • NCI is studying the people most affected for radiation equivalent man. Small doses by the 1987 Chernobyl nuclear power are measured in thousandths of a rem or plant accident in Ukraine, especially chil- millirem. The United States and interna- dren who lived nearby and workers who tional scientific communities also use units cleaned up the plant after the accident. called Sieverts, which are each equal to 100 rem. After rigorous peer review, the information from the studies is published in medical and Which Organs are Affected. The potential scientific journals and made available to the health effects of radiation also depend on public. Because of these and other studies, which organs of the body are most likely to more is known about the health effects of absorb radiation. ionizing radiation than of any other car- • When ingested, radiation from some cinogen. sources tends to accumulate in certain organs. For example, iodine-131 concen- Human Health Effects of trates in the thyroid gland, where its beta Ionizing Radiation radiation, at high doses, can be effective Ionization in destroying hyperactive thyroid cells. Most atoms are electrically neutral; they • Radiation from other sources is distrib- have the same number of positively charged uted more widely in the body. For protons in their nucleus as negatively example, water containing tritium (a charged electrons orbiting the nucleus. radioactive isotope of hydrogen) distrib- However, when ionizing radiation passes utes beta-emitting radioactivity through- through a material, it can transfer some of out the body. its energy to an electron; this “knocks” the (Adapted from Ionizing Radiation—It’s electron out of its orbit. The free negative 33 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

electron leaves behind a positively charged Figure 18. ion (see Figure 18). This process is called Ionization of an atom ionization.

Knowing about ioniza- free electron

tion is important for radiation two reasons. • First, ions formed in living tissue, such as Ion the human body, can cause both short- Transitional Stage term and long-term nucleus electron 3 Neutrally damage. Charged What Are radiation Atom the • Second, because ions have an electrical Benefits Source: The Ohio State University Extension and Risks charge, they are easy to detect. This of Ionizing makes it possible to measure the amount of radiation present—even at extremely millirem. Any exposure to radiation, how- Radiation? low levels. ever, may pose some risk. Exposure to Ionizing Radiation Many scientific studies have demonstrated a Human relationship between the amount of radia- Health Exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation tion and the likelihood of adverse health Effects of is dangerous, even deadly. Acute exposure effects. To minimize human health effects, Ionizing to radiation in the range of 300,000 to regulators assume that there is some risk Radiation 500,000 millirems can destroy cell tissue associated with any level of radiation, and almost immediately, causing death within a set exposure standards accordingly. few days or weeks for more than half of the exposed population. Fortunately, the chance High-Dose Effects of the average citizen receiving such a large In the first decades after the discovery of dose of radiation is extremely small. radioactivity and X-rays in the 1890s, the Doses above 5,000 millirem are known to health effects of ionizing radiation were not substantially increase the risk of infection recognized. Scientists and others who and cancer and potentially cause genetic worked with radioactive materials took no damage to the exposed person and his or special precautions to protect themselves. her offspring, Cataracts, premature aging, Skin cancers in scientists who were studying hair loss, skin burns, and a shortened life radioactivity were first reported in 1902. By span are other known consequences of 1912, researchers found leukemia in high-level exposure. Since a radiation- humans and animals exposed to radiation, induced cancer cannot be distinguished and by 1930 genetic effects were identified. from cancer caused by other factors, In the 1930s, the occupational hazards of however, it is difficult to single out ra- working with radiation became apparent. A diation as the cause of any particular 1931 report described cases of bone cancer cancer. in women who licked the brushes (to get a The average person in the United States better brush point) they used to paint receives an exposure of approximately 360 radioactive radium on watch dials. In 1944, millirems per year. While exposure above the first cases of leukemia were reported in 5,000 millirem can cause observable biolog- physicians and radiologists who used radia- ical effects (and at higher doses can be tion in their work. By 1951, thyroid cancer fatal), there is little evidence of health or was reported in persons exposed to radiation safety effects at exposure levels below 1,000 as children. 34 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

In 1945, Japanese citizens were exposed to Figure 19. high doses of radiation (up to 500,000 mil- Atomic bomb explosion lirem or more) during the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. (Figure 19) Studies of the atomic bomb survivors and other people exposed to high levels of radiation have shown that acute exposure to ionizing radiation can cause cancer, sterility, and genetic damage; and damage to bone marrow, the central nervous system, and the gastrointestinal system. 3 In the years since the bombing on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, scientists have What Are tracked the health histories of more than the 75,000 survivors. (See Studying Radiation’s Benefits Effects on Humans, page 33.) The studies and Risks indicate that radiation was a factor in of Ionizing approximately 12 percent of all the cancers Radiation? (including leukemia, breast cancer, thyroid cancer, and skin cancer), and approximately Human 9 percent of the 6,000 fatal cancers that Among the most important findings from Health developed among the atomic bomb sur- the human health studies are: Effects of vivors. In sum, this means approximately 500 more cancer deaths occurred among the • The larger the radiation dose a person Ionizing exposed population than an unexposed pop- receives, the greater the risk of develop- Radiation ulation of the same size. ing cancer. Other effects that appeared in the exposed • The chance of cancer occurring (but not population include the suppression of the the kind or severity of cancer) increases immune system and cataracts. An increased as the dose increases. rate of mental retardation has been found in • Most cancers do not appear until many atomic bomb survivors whose mothers were years after exposure (typically 10 to 40 between 8 and 25 weeks pregnant at the years). time of exposure. (The brain tissues of a fetus are especially sensitive to radiation at Low-Dose Effects certain stages of development.) So far, how- Determining the health effects of exposure ever, the children and grandchildren of to low levels of radiation has been much exposed survivors have shown no greater more difficult than determining the effects incidence of genetic problems than unex- of high-level exposure, for two reasons. posed populations. More than 56 percent of • Cells can repair some damage caused by the exposed survivors were still alive in low levels of radiation absorbed over long 1990, when the most recent cycle of mor- periods of time. tality information was completed. • It is difficult to tell whether a particular These studies have made it possible for sci- cancer was caused by radiation, by one of entists to record the long-term effects of a the more than 300 other known carcino- wide range of radiation doses, including gens in the environment, or by other doses comparable to an average person’s unknown factors. lifetime dose from naturally occurring back- Dr. Arthur C. Upton, former chairman of ground radiation, about 20,000 millirem the New York University Medical Center, (300 millirem a year for 70 years). Department of Environmental Medicine, 35 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

has compared efforts to detect the effects of hypothesis because it is consistent with low-level radiation with “trying to listen to other approaches to public health policy. one violin when the whole orchestra is The United States and other countries use playing. You can’t hear it.” linear estimates to set limits on all potential The numerous studies of potential health exposures to radiation, both for the public effects in people exposed to low-level radia- and for workers in jobs that expose them to tion (that is, below about 10,000 to 40,000 ionizing radiation. (See National Academy millirem) have yielded inconclusive results. of Sciences, Chapter 5, page 67.) For example, studies have been conducted In 1998, the BEIR Committee reported that in populations living with background radi- recent epidemiological studies of radiation ation several times higher than the United and cancer warrant a reevaluation of the 3 States. These studies have not found any health risks associated with low-level doses What Are statistically significant evidence of a corre- of radiation. The committee will review all the lation between cancer mortality and levels relevant data and develop new risk models Benefits of background radiation. to try to determine more definitively the and Risks Many scientists and policy makers take the health risks, if any, from low-level doses of of Ionizing position that any amount of radiation expo- radiation. Radiation? sure, even at background levels, poses some Lifetime Risk of Cancer from increased risk of adverse health effects. Just Increased Radiation Exposure Human how much risk, however, is still unknown The BEIR Committee estimated the life- Health and is the subject of continuing debate. time risk of cancer to individuals from high- Effects of Although no health effects have been level and low-level exposures to radiation. Ionizing observed at very low doses, regulators (Table 3) These estimates used the Radiation assume that any amount of radiation may linear no-threshold hypothesis to develop pose an increased risk for causing cancer average cancer estimates over all possible and hereditary effects. They also assume ages at which a person might be exposed, that there is a one-to-one, or linear rela- weighted by population and age distribu- tionship between a radiation dose and its tion. The calculation compares the esti- effect. That is, small doses have a small risk mated increase in cancers due to whole- in direct proportion to the known effects of body external radiation from a single, high- large doses. level exposure (10,000 millirem), and from This technique, known as the linear no- continuous low-level exposure (500 mil- threshold hypothesis, uses mathematical mod- lirem, the current upper limit for individual els to estimate the risks of very low expo- exposure recommended by federal sures based on the known risks of high-level guidance). exposures. Some scientists question the lin- Because of the extensive scientific research ear hypothesis because of the lack of evi- on radiation and the large number of studies dence of health effects from low radiation of exposed persons, these estimates have a doses, as well as the fact that many other higher degree of certainty than the risk esti- hazardous substances harmful at high doses mates for most chemical carcinogens. have little or no effect at low doses. The Genetic Effects U.S. Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR), convened by Both high-level and low-level radiation may the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), cause other adverse health effects besides acknowledged in 1990, that there is no data cancer, including genetic defects in the showing that low doses of radiation cause children of exposed parents or mental retar- cancer. dation in the children of mothers exposed during pregnancy. The risk of genetic effects The BEIR Committee, however, recom- due to radiation exposure, however, is much mended the use of the linear no-threshold 36 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD lower than the risk of developing cancer. Health Effects of Radon By breaking the electron bonds that hold Radon accounts for more than half of our molecules together, radiation can damage total average annual exposure to radiation, human DNA, the inherited compound that about 200 millirem per year. (Figure 21) controls the structure and function of cells. Radon is a known cause of lung cancer Radiation may damage DNA directly by in humans. The most recent National displacing electrons from the DNA mole- Academy of Science (NAS) report on cule, or indirectly by changing the structure radon, The Health Effects of Exposure to of other molecules in the cell, which may Radon (the BEIR VI Report, published in then interact with the DNA. When this 1999), stated that radon is the second lead- happens, a cell can be destroyed quickly or ing cause of lung cancer and a serious public 3 its growth or function may be altered health problem. The NAS report estimated through a change (mutation) that may not that about 12 percent of lung cancer deaths What Are be evident for many years. (Figure 20) At in the United States are attributable to the low radiation doses, however, the possibility exposure to radon in indoor air—about Benefits of such a change causing a clinically signifi- 15,000 to 22,000 lung cancer deaths each and Risks cant illness or other problem is believed to year. In a second NAS report published in of Ionizing be remote. 1999 on radon in drinking water, the NAS Radiation? estimated that about 89 percent of the fatal In addition, cells have the ability to repair cancers caused by radon in drinking water the damage done to DNA by radiation, were due to lung cancer from inhalation of Health chemicals, or physical trauma. How well radon released to indoor air, and about 11 Effects of cellular repair mechanisms work depends on percent were due to stomach cancer from Radon the kind of cell, the type and dose of radia- consuming water containing radon. tion, the individual and other biological factors. Radon decay products can attach themselves to tiny dust particles in indoor air, Figure 20. Genetic damage from radiation which are easily inhaled into the lungs. The particles then attach to the cells lining the lungs and emit a type of ionizing radiation 1. When radiation penetrates a human cell, it may damage called alpha radiation. This can damage molecules in its path. cells in the lungs, leading to lung cancer. Our knowledge of the health effects of radon comes from extensive studies of miners and of people exposed to radon in their homes. Experimental studies in animals and

2. If a DNA molecule is damaged, the chromsome containing that DNA molecule may break apart.

3. The chromosome may then recombine abnormally. This change in chromosome structure may lead to the death of the cell or the formation of a cancerous cell.

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 37 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD Ta b le 3: Estimated Lifetime Cancer Risk from Increased Radiation Exposure

Increase in cancers per 1,000 people Type of exposure to whole-body (above that expected for a similar but external radiation unexposed population)

Single, high-level exposure to 10,000 millirem 8 cancers (about 3%) Continuous low-level exposure to 500 millirem 5.6 cancers (about 2%) 3 Source: National Academy of Sciences What Are molecular and cellular studies provide sup- body, increasing the risk of cancer in irradi- porting evidence and some understanding of ated organs (although this increased risk is the the mechanisms by which radon (i.e., alpha significantly less than the risk from inhaling Benefits radiation) causes lung cancer. radon). and Risks A person’s risk of getting lung cancer from Most of the damage is not from radon gas of Ionizing radon depends upon several variables, itself, which is removed from the lungs by Radiation? including the level of radon in the home, exhalation, but from radon’s short-lived the amount of time spent in the home, and decay products (half-life measured in min- Health whether the person is a smoker. The risk of utes or less). When inhaled, these decay Effects of lung cancer is especially high for cigarette products may be deposited in the airways of Radon smokers exposed to elevated levels of indoor the lungs and subsequently emit alpha parti- radon. NAS found evidence of an interac- cles as they decay further. The increased tion between radon and cigarette smoking risk of lung cancer from radon primarily that increases the lung cancer risk to smok- results from alpha particles irradiating lung ers beyond what would be expected from tissues. When an alpha particle passes the additive effects of smoking and radon. through a cell nucleus, DNA is likely to be In most cases, radon in soil under homes is damaged, and available data indicate that a the biggest source of exposure to radon. single alpha particle passing through a However, there are public health concerns nucleus can cause genomic changes in a associated with drinking water containing cell, including mutation and transforma- radon. When radon in water is ingested, it tion. Since alpha particles are more massive is distributed throughout the body. Some of and more highly charged than other types it will decay and emit radiation while in the

Figure 21. Annual deaths from natural radiation and HIV and AIDS 17,000 selected other causes. Kidney diseases 25,000

Natural Radiation* 35,000

Diabetes 62,000 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (radiation esti- Stroke 160,000 mates) and National Center for Health Statistics (1997 Cancer 537,000 data).

0 200,000 400,000 600,000

*An estimated 20,000 from radon and 15,000 from natural sources other than radon. 38 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD of ionizing radiation, they are more damag- Accidental Releases ing to the living tissue. Many people worry about the risks of radia- An important finding of the BEIR VI report tion not so much because of routine, low- is that even very small exposures to radon level exposures, but because of the possibili- can result in lung cancer. The NAS con- ty of an accident at the plant. What if an cluded that no evidence currently exists explosion or meltdown at a nuclear reactor that shows a threshold of exposure below released deadly amounts of radiation or which radon levels are harmless, that is, a radioactive materials into the environment? level below which it is certain that no Public anxiety was heightened in March increased risk of lung cancer would exist. 1979 by the accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania. 3 Radiation-Related Health That accident was followed by a much What Are worse catastrophe at the Chernobyl nuclear the Effects from Living near power plant in the former Soviet Union in Nuclear Power Plants April 1986. Benefits and Risks Nuclear power plants expose people living Three Mile Island near them to small amounts of radiation, of Ionizing less than one millirem per year. (Figure 22) Three Mile Island is the only major acci- Radiation? In the United States, the EPA sets strict dent in the history of U.S. commercial standards governing radiation emissions, nuclear energy. Although some radioactive Accidental material escaped from the reactor contain- which are enforced by the Nuclear Releases Regulatory Commission. Radiation levels at ment building, the accident caused no nuclear power plants are monitored deaths or injuries. It resulted in an average 24–hours–a day. Neighboring soil, cows’ dose of eight millirems to people living milk, fish, and sediment in rivers and lakes within 10 miles of the plant (about the are monitored periodically. same as a chest X-ray) and only 1.5 millirem to people living within a 50-mile In September 1990, a National Cancer radius. The maximum individual dose was Institute study found no evidence of an less than 100 millirem. Subsequent studies increase in cancer mortality among people have found no evidence of increases in can- living in 107 counties that host or are adja- cer (including childhood leukemia), thyroid cent to 62 nuclear facilities in the United diseases, or other health effects as a result of States. The research, which evaluated mor- the accident. tality from 16 types of cancer, showed no increase in childhood leukemia mortality Figure 22. rates in the study counties after nuclear Nuclear power plant facilities were opened. The NCI surveyed 900,000 cancer deaths in counties near nuclear facilities that operated for at least five years prior to the start of the study (the minimum time considered sufficient for related health effects to appear). The conclusions of the NCI study, the broadest ever conducted, are supported by many other scientific studies in the United States, Canada, and Europe.

39 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Chernobyl target potentially unsafe conditions and The Chernobyl accident, however, was practices. If companies do not take prompt much more serious than Three Mile Island. action to correct such safety problems, they There was no containment building around can be forced to shut down their reactors. the reactor. A chemical explosion set the As new reactors replace older reactors, the reactor core on fire, directly releasing large new designs will include safety features such amounts of radioactivity into the atmos- as the use of gravity and convection in phere. Thirty-one plant workers and fire- cooling water systems rather than mechani- fighters, who received doses up to 1.6 mil- cal pumps and motors that might fail. New lion millirem, died from the accident, and control room designs will also reduce the more than 130 plant workers and rescuers possibility of human error, a significant fac- 3 suffered from confirmed cases of acute radia- tor in both the Three Mile Island and What Are tion sickness. The average radiation dose to Chernobyl accidents. The Nuclear Energy the the 135,000 people evacuated from the Institute, an industry group, argues that the Benefits region was 12,000 millirem. The doses advanced plants will be able to meet safety and Risks included external gamma radiation, beta goals that are more than 100 times more of Ionizing radiation to the skin, and internal doses to stringent than those of current nuclear Radiation? the thyroid. plants. During the first year after the accident, The haunting specters of Chernobyl and, to Accidental excess radiation doses to adults in seven a lesser extent, Three Mile Island, will Releases Western European countries ranged from linger in the public’s memory for years to 130 millirem in Switzerland, to 95 millirem come. But there are other issues related to in Poland, to 2 millirem in southern nuclear power, particularly the management England. Nearly 3 million acres of farmland and disposal of highly radioactive waste that in Ukraine were contaminated by radioiso- pose potential risks to public safety and the topes and plutonium, and may be unusable environment. These issues are discussed in for decades. Chernobyl was a graphic exam- Chapter 4. ple of just how serious the health and environmental consequences of a catastrophic Determining Your Exposure nuclear accident can be. Most of the exposure levels described in this Could such an accident happen again? guidebook are averages and may not reflect While there are still some Chernobyl-type your own individual exposure or that of reactors operating in Eastern Europe that members of your family. Depending on are cause for concern, remedial measures where you live, your lifestyle, and your were taken to enhance the safety of these occupation, you could be exposed to more reactors. Safety upgrades, performed or less radiation than the average person. between 1987 and 1991, essentially reme- For example, if you live in “mile-high” died the design deficiencies that con- Denver, Colorado, your average annual dose tributed to the accident. from cosmic radiation is about 50 millirem Reactor Safety Standards per year. If you live in Leadville, Colorado, at an altitude of two miles, your cosmic Most of the world’s nuclear power plants are radiation dose is closer to 125 millirem per built differently than Chernobyl and oper- year. However, if you live on a coastal plain, ate according to much stricter safety stan- like Florida, you receive only about 26 mil- dards. They have redundant safety systems lirem per year from cosmic radiation. to prevent the kind of explosion and fire that released radioactive material into the Some parts of the country have higher con- environment at Chernobyl. National and centrations of radon and radioactive miner- international nuclear regulatory bodies keep als in the soil than others. In Ohio, for a watchful eye on reactor operations and example, a line of Ohio Black Shale runs 40 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD through the center of the state from south • Distance from the source to north, along part of the Lake Erie shore, • Other factors that contribute to the risk and in the northwestern parts of the state. of harm resulting from exposure to Many people who live over this shale expe- radiation include: rience higher doses from radon than those who live elsewhere in Ohio. Also, very • Types of cells and specific parts of the high levels (hundreds or even thousands of body that absorb the radiation pCi/L ) of radon have been found in homes • The exposed person’s age, sex, physical built in the area known as the Reading condition, and genetic tendency either to Prong in the Northeastern United States. resist or be affected by radiation (See Radon, Chapter 2, page 18 and The (See Measuring Human Exposure in this Health Effects of Radon, Chapter 3, page 3 Chapter, page 32.) 37.) What Are 2. Dose-response assessment. This step Other factors that help determine your the determines the relationship between the Benefits exposure include: amount of exposure and the likelihood of • The consumer products you use regularly developing cancer and other health and Risks effects. The accuracy of this assessment is of Ionizing • The number of medical and dental proce- Radiation? dures using radiation that you undergo based on the quality of information avail- annually able from similar exposures. The data on radiation dose-response relationships are Determining • The kind of work you do. (Airline flight very reliable at high doses. Scientists Levels of Risk crews receive many times the average extrapolate the known dose-response rela- radiation exposure from cosmic rays while tionship to estimate risk at low levels of in the air, an extra 100 millirem per year exposure. This method is considered by on average.) many to be reasonably conservative, but • Whether you smoke has its critics who consider it either too • The kind of house you live in liberal or too conservative. You can use Table 4 to do a rough calcula- 3. Exposure assessment. This step involves tion of your annual exposure to radiation. estimating the extent to which people could be exposed to radiation emitted by Determining Levels of Risk the source. It includes estimating: To establish standards for protecting the • How much of the source exists, public from environmental hazards, includ- • How radiation from the source will reach ing radiation, regulators often use a type of people (e.g., through the air, water, or analysis called risk assessment. Risk food), and Assessment includes four steps: • How big a dose they will receive from 1. Hazard identification. In this step, each medium the radioactive material researchers determine whether a sub- travels through (e.g., How much contam- stance causes cancer or other health inated air will they breathe? How much effects. Human data has confirmed that contaminated water will they drink?). ionizing radiation can cause cancer in the human body. Factors to determining the 4. Risk characterization. This step com- hazard associated with exposure to partic- bines the results of the previous steps to ular radiation include the following: summarize the risk potential of the hazard, and describe the strengths and weak- • Amount of radioactivity nesses of the risk assessment. • Type of radiation involved • Duration of exposure 41 Ta ble 4:What Is Your Estimated Annual Radiation Dose?

Your Average Source Annual Dose (mrem)

Cosmic radiation at sea level (from outer space) 26 What is the elevation (in feet) of your town? up to 1000, add 2 mrem 5,000 - 6,000, add 29 mrem 1,000 - 2,000, add 5 mrem 6,000 - 7,000, add 40 mrem 2,000 - 3,000, add 9 mrem 7,000 - 8,000, add 53 mrem 3,000 - 4,000, add 15 mrem above 8,000, add 70 mrem 4,000 - 5,000 add 21 mrem

Terrestrial (from the ground): What region of the US do you live in? Gulf Coast, add 16 mrem Atlantic Coast, add 16 mrem Colorado Plateau, add 63 mrem Elsewhere in United States, add 30 mrem Internal radiation (in your body): From food and water, (e.g. potassium and radon in water) 40 From air, (radon) 200 Do you wear a plutonium powered pacemaker? If yes, add 100 mrem Do you have porcelain crowns or false teeth? If yes, add .07 mrem Travel Related Sources: Add .5 mrem for each hour in the air Are X-ray luggage inspection machines used at your airport? Yes, add .002 mrem Do you use a gas camping lantern? If yes, add .2 mrem Medical Sources X-rays: Extremity (arm, hand, foot, or leg) add 1 mrem Dental X-rays, add 1 mrem Chest X-rays, add 6 mrem Pelvis hip, add 65 mrem Skull/neck, add 20 mrem Barium enema, add 405 mrem Upper GI, add 245 mrem CAT Scan (head and body), add 110 mrem Nuclear Medicine (e.g. thyroid scan), add 14 mrem Miscellaneous Sources: Weapons test fallout 1 Do you live in a stone, adobe brick, or concrete building? If yes, add 7 mrem Do you wear a luminous wristwatch (LCD)? If yes, add.06 mrem Do you watch TV? If yes, add 1 mrem Do you use a computer terminal? If yes, add .1 mrem Do you have a smoke detector in your home? If yes, add .008 mrem Do you live within 50 miles of a nuclear power plant? If yes, add .01 mrem Do you live within 50 miles of a coal fired power plant? If yes, add .03 mrem

TOTAL YEARLY DOSE (in mrem):

[Note: The amount of radiation exposure is usually expressed in a unit called millimrem (mrem). In the United States, the average person is exposed to an effective dose equivalent of approximately 360 mrem (whole-body exposure) per year from all sources (NCRP Report No. 93).]

Source: U.S. EPA and American Nuclear Society based on Data from the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements Reports # 92 - 95 and #100. 42 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Balancing the Benefits and more risk than necessary (also see Risks of Radiation Chapter 5). Governmental Risk Assessments and It is always prudent to avoid unnecessary Standards exposure. However, refusing X-rays or radiation therapy may cost more money, time, Because exposure to high-level ionizing convenience, or health problems, than tak- radiation is known to cause cancer and ing advantage of radiation’s unique diagnos- other health problems, public health regula- tic and healing properties. Each of us must tors have taken a cautious approach. They make such decisions based on our tolerance assume that any exposure could cause simi- for risk, and our confidence in doctors and lar effects. They have established protective their medical advice. standards by directly extrapolating the risks 3 from high doses of radiation to minimize Society’s Judgments, Pro and Con What Are the risks of exposure to low doses. Much of Society as a whole must balance the risks the the current controversy surrounding radia- and benefits associated with nuclear energy, Benefits tion is based on whether we should assume including the use of radiation. Nuclear and Risks low doses also cause health affects. advocates argue that nuclear power is a of Ionizing Since most scientists assume that any radia- proven, secure, and inexhaustible long-term Radiation? tion exposure entails some risk, how do we source of energy. They argue that nuclear energy creates little air pollution, and con- decide what level of risk is justified by the Balancing the benefits of its use? In life, there is always a tributes almost nothing to global warming. Benefits and statistical chance that some people will Nuclear energy could become increasingly Risks of contract certain diseases. Scientists and important in the twenty-first century as public health professionals perform risk global energy demands continue to rise, and Radiation assessments to determine the additional nonrenewable energy sources, such as fossil likelihood of being harmed from exposure fuels and natural gas, are slowly depleted. or from certain behaviors. For a carcinogen Proponents say that nuclear power, if prop- such as radiation, risk is the additional like- erly managed, can benefit humanity and the lihood of contracting cancer from exposure. environment with a level of risk no greater Over the years since radiation was first dis- than that we routinely accept as part of our covered and used, the government has con- normal lives. stantly tightened the standards that limit Critics of nuclear power, however, ranging the amount of radiation to which workers from environmentalists to antiwar activists, and the public can be exposed. The nation- point to a variety of problems with nuclear al and international regulatory standards for energy, including: radiation exposure are based on more • The dangers inherent in transporting and research and more direct evidence of health disposing of the thousands of tons of effects than for almost any other hazardous high-level radioactive waste, now in tem- substance. By setting and enforcing strict porary storage at nuclear power plants exposure standards, governments have tried across the nation. (See Nuclear Reactor to balance the benefits of using radiation Waste, Chapter 4, page 52.) with the risks. • The possibility that radioactive material Individual Judgments used by and generated in nuclear reactors Making judgments on safety for society as a could be diverted by rogue nations (or whole is primarily the government’s respon- terrorists) to produce nuclear weapons. sibility (see Chapter 5). But each of us as • The risk of a dangerous accident, particu- individuals can also avoid unnecessary larly in aging reactors whose protective exposure to radiation, so that we derive the systems may have been weakened or benefits from radiation and do not undergo 43 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

whose containment structures may be tors, and find safer, more secure ways to inadequate to prevent the release of handle and dispose of radioactive wastes. radioactivity into the environment. Some proponents expect nuclear energy to • The siting of nuclear plants in densely contribute to a growing share of the world’s populated areas, which increases the dan- increasing energy needs in spite of contin- ger that an accident or terrorist attack ued protests and controversy. could expose large numbers of people to dangerous levels of radiation. • The unique problems associated with dismantling and decommissioning nuclear 3 facilities, and cleaning up sites after they What Are are closed down. the Some opponents of nuclear energy argue Benefits that the problems are so serious that we and Risks should shut down the nuclear power indus- of Ionizing try. A better alternative, nuclear critics Radiation? claim, would be to focus attention and resources on developing safe, nonpolluting, renewable energy sources such as solar, Balancing the wind, and geothermal power. Benefits and Risks of Future Prospects for Nuclear Power Radiation Partly because of these disagreements, the future of nuclear power is mixed. Even advocates acknowledge that few if any new nuclear power plants are likely to be built in the United States in the next decade. In part, this is due to the lack of public support. A March 1999 Associated Press poll, taken 20 years after Three Mile Island, showed that only 45 percent of Americans support the use of nuclear energy, 10 percent fewer than in 1989. Recent energy supply problems in California, however, have sparked some renewed interest in nuclear power. Another limiting factor is the high cost of building new nuclear plants. In addition, many of the existing plants now nearing the end of their useful lives are unlikely to be replaced, at least right away. Many will seek licenses to operate for a longer time period. Government and industry experts continue to design safer reactors, work to improve techniques for decontaminating older reac-

44 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

How Are Radioactive Wastes Managed?4

Radiation offers many important benefits to Radioactive Waste Disposal How Are society. However, every use of radioactive Much of the public anxiety and controversy Radio- materials—for mining, nuclear power, man- about nuclear energy and other uses of active aging nuclear weapons, nuclear medicine, radioactive materials concerns how radioac- Wastes and scientific research—generates radioactive waste is handled, transported, and dis- Managed? tive waste. The overall risk to the public posed of. Some high-level waste will remain from radioactive waste is lower than from hazardous for 10,000 years or more, further Radioactive other sources of radiation, such as radon complicating the problem of ensuring safe, and nuclear medicine. (See Balancing long-term disposal and raising questions Waste Radiation’s Benefits and Risks, Chapter 3, about our responsibility to future genera- Disposal page 43). tions. Areas where nuclear waste is produced, Several federal agencies and some states transported, and stored pose potential risks that regulate the risks of radioactive waste to the environment and people living close require disposal facilities to effectively to them. Care must be taken to properly isolate the waste. Examples: isolate the waste materials from the public • EPA has established environmental stan- and the environment. dards for disposal of radioactive milling Radioactive materials can: wastes. • Travel through air and water (both • EPA sets generally applicable environ- ground water and surface water) mental standards for disposal of other • Contaminate the air, soil, water supply, radioactive wastes. and food chain • NRC and DOE have established specific • Enter the human body through the skin regulations for different types of waste or when humans eat, drink, or inhale. (e.g., low-level radioactive waste). By responsibly managing the transportation, • The Department of Transportation storage, and disposal of radioactive materi- (DOT) and the NRC have established als, users and regulators of radiation can strict safety standards for vehicles and greatly reduce the risk to human health and containers used to ship radioactive waste. the environment. (See Transporting Radioactive Waste in this Chapter, page 55.) This chapter covers these topics: • Radioactive Waste Disposal • The Search for Permanent Disposal Solutions • Radioactive Waste Cleanup • Transporting Radioactive Waste 45 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Types of Radioactive Waste • Naturally occurring radioactive materials Radioactive waste is divided into seven gen- (NORM), usually from mineral extrac- eral categories: tion or processing activities, whose natural radioactivity has been technologically 1. Spent nuclear fuel and High-level waste enhanced (also referred to as “TENORM” include commercial spent reactor fuel and materials). other highly radioactive material which require careful isolation and security. Radioactive waste categories are based on the origin of the waste, not necessarily on 2. Transuranic waste contains manmade the level of radioactivity. For example, some radioisotopes heavier than uranium. This low-level waste is highly radioactive. waste is produced primarily from defense- Radioactive wastes can remain hazardous 4 related activities, such as nuclear weapons for a few days or for hundreds and even How Are research, production, and cleanup. It gen- thousands of years, depending on their Radio- erally consists of radioactively contami- radioactive half-lives. (See Ionizing active nated clothing, tools, glassware, equip- Radiation, Chapter 1, page 12.) ment, soil, and sludge. Wastes Sites and Methods of Waste Managed? 3. Low-level waste includes radioactively Disposal contaminated industrial or research waste such as paper, rags, plastic bags, packaging Several major environmental laws affect the Radioactive operations of many facilities that generate Waste materials, protective clothing, organic fluids, and water-treatment resins. It is gen- radioactive waste, including DOE’s nuclear Disposal erated by government facilities, nuclear weapons facilities. power plants, industries, and institutional • The Resource Conservation and facilities (e.g., universities and hospitals). Recovery Act (RCRA), regulates the More than 22,000 commercial users of generation, treatment, storage, and dis- radioactive materials generate some posal of municipal and industrial haz- amount of low-level waste. ardous and solid waste. 4. Mill tailings are mining and milling —Facilities that generate hazardous or residues of uranium ore that contain low mixed hazardous and radioactive wastes concentrations of naturally occurring must obtain RCRA permits from EPA radioactive materials. or authorized states to operate. They 5. Mixed waste is a combination of radioac- must also have RCRA permits to treat, tive materials and hazardous chemical store, or dispose of these wastes. waste. —The Hazardous and Solid Waste 6. Orphaned sources are radioactive contami- Amendments to RCRA (1984) require nants that find their way into non- DOE to eliminate contaminant releases nuclear facilities such as scrap yards, steel at or from its RCRA facilities. mills, and municipal waste disposal facili- • The Comprehensive Environmental ties. The contamination usually comes Response, Compensation, and Liability from discarded highly radioactive materi- Act (CERCLA, also known as als inside metal containers which are mis- Superfund) and its 1986 amendments taken as scrap metals. established hazardous and radioactive 7. Naturally-occurring and accelerator-pro- waste cleanup requirements for contami- duced radioactive materials (NARM) nated facilities, including those in the include: weapons complex. EPA has placed a number of DOE’s contaminated weapons • Radioactive waste products from sites on the Superfund National Priorities the operation of atomic particle accelera- List (NPL) for expedited evaluation and tors, and cleanup. 46 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

• The Atomic Energy Act as amended Transuranic Waste established requirements for the manage- Transuranic wastes are also temporarily ment and disposal of radioactive waste stored in metal drums and shielded casks at that is regulated by DOE, NRC and EPA. the sites where they are generated—prima- High-Level Waste: Interim Storage rily nuclear weapons facilities and national The United States currently has no perma- laboratories. Eventually they will be shipped nent disposal facility for high-level radioac- to DOE’s permanent disposal facility, the tive waste. The NRC says that interim stor- Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP). The age methods can be used safely for 100 WIPP, located near Carlsbad, New Mexico, years. However, NRC, the nuclear utility cleared its last legal challenges and began industry, and many independent observers receiving waste shipments in March 1999. 4 believe it is important to find a long-term The WIPP, authorized by Congress in 1979, How Are solution for nuclear waste disposal. is the world’s first geological repository for Radio- the permanent disposal of transuranic Significant obstacles to reaching a solution active include scientific challenges and public wastes and transuranic mixed wastes. concerns. (See The Search for Permanent (Figure 23) Wastes Disposal Solutions in this Chapter, page Managed? 49.) Figure 23. Aerial view of the WIPP Radioactive As an interim storage method, nuclear reactor operators keep spent nuclear reactor fuel Waste on site at nuclear power plants and other Disposal reactor sites, usually in concrete, steel-lined pools of water (see Nuclear Reactor Waste in this Chapter, page 52.) The water cools the warm fuel and also provides shielding from the radiation. Reactor operating licenses issued by NRC limit the amount of spent fuel that can be kept on site. Chemical reprocessing of spent fuel from reactors in the U.S. defense program is another type of high-level waste. This process, which has been suspended, recov- ered unused uranium and plutonium for making nuclear weapons. U.S. policies pro- hibit the reprocessing of spent fuel from commercial nuclear reactors. The liquid waste from reprocessing is being Source: U.S. Department of Energy temporarily stored in underground tanks or stainless steel silos. These are located on federal reservations in Washington, South Carolina, and Idaho, and at the Nuclear Fuel Services Plant in West Valley, New York. (See Nuclear Weapons Waste in this Chapter, page 51.) Scientists continue to refine techniques for treating this waste so it can be more easily and safely transported and disposed of after a permanent disposal site becomes available. 47 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

In 1992, Congress passed the WIPP Land Under the 1980 Low-Level Radioactive Withdrawal Act, which makes EPA respon- Waste Policy Act, each state must take sible for ensuring that the WIPP complies responsibility for the non-defense related with the agency’s radioactive waste disposal low-level waste generated within its bor- standards and other federal environmental ders. States can act on their own or in a laws and regulations. The law requires that compact with other states. They have estab- EPA certify that the waste stored in the lished processes for studying and selecting WIPP can be isolated from the human envi- new disposal sites in consultation with citi- ronment for at least 10,000 years. EPA zens and experts and in accordance with issued this safety certification for the WIPP federal and state regulations. By July 1, on May 13, 1998. The facility must be 2000, 44 states had entered into 10 com- 4 recertified by EPA every five years through- pacts. None of the compacts or states acting How Are out its operational life. alone had successfully opened a new dispos- Radio- As of the end of December 2000 the WIPP al facility (Figure 25) by that date, however. active had received 128 shipments of transuranic Disposal facilities must be designed, operat- Wastes waste from four DOE sites. ed, and controlled after they are sealed to Managed? Low-Level Radioactive Waste ensure that the maximum annual radiation exposure to any individual from the site Most low-level radioactive wastes are solidi- does not exceed 25 millirem per year. Radioactive fied, put into drums, and buried in 20-foot- Actual exposures from existing commercial Waste deep trenches, which are backfilled and facilities have been considerably lower than Disposal covered in clay each day. When full, the that figure. trenches are capped with clay and a foot of grassy topsoil. Mixed Waste Only a few commercial facilities that per- Waste containing both radioactive material manently dispose of low-level radioactive and hazardous chemicals must be treated and waste (Figure 24) are operating in the disposed of in accordance with the separate United States. The major facilities are laws governing the two different types of located in: waste. • Richland, Washington, which accepts • Under RCRA, EPA and authorized states waste only from 11 northwest and Rocky regulate hazardous waste. RCRA requires Mountain states. that low-level mixed waste be treated before it is sent to an authorized commer- • Barnwell, South Carolina, which is part cial land disposal facility. Technologies, of the newly formed Atlantic Compact. such as incineration and solidification, It was the only facility open to all states reduce its toxicity or volume and help (except North Carolina) as of mid-2000 ensure that hazardous materials will not and expects to accept limited amounts of migrate into the environment. non-Atlantic compact waste in the future. • Under the Atomic Energy Act, NRC, DOE, or authorized NRC “Agreement” • Clive, Utah, which accepts large-volume states are responsible for radioactive bulk forms of low-level waste, such as waste. High-level and transuranic mixed soils and building debris that are not waste is handled in much the same way as routinely accepted by the Richland or regular high-level or transuranic radioac- Barnwell sites. tive waste. DOE also has seven major low-level waste A number of commercial facilities are disposal sites (Figure 24) to dispose of authorized to treat, store, and dispose of wastes resulting from defense-related activi- mixed waste. These facilities include: ties, research, and cleanup. • Envirocare of Utah, Inc., Clive, Utah 48 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Figure 24. Map of low-level waste disposal sites

Richland Hanford

Idaho Nat'l Eng. and Env. Lab Envirocare Fernald Nevada Test Site Oak Ridge 4 Los Alamos Bamwell How Are Savannah River Plant Radio- active Wastes Managed? Commercial LLW Disposal Site Dept. of Energy or Dept. of Defense Disposal Site The Search

Source: U.S. Department of Energy for Permanent Disposal Solutions • Diversified Scientific Services, Inc., and selected three as candidates for further Kingston, Tennessee study in 1984. In 1987, Congress directed • Molten Metal Technology, Waltham, DOE to limit its study to the Yucca Massachusetts Mountain site and to determine whether the site would be suitable for development • NSSI, Houston, Texas as a repository. • Perma-Fix Environmental Services, Inc., Under the timetable set by Congress in the Gainesville, Florida. 1980s, a permanent repository would have begun receiving spent fuel by February The Search for Permanent 1998. By late 1998, however, DOE announced it would not be ready to make a Disposal Solutions recommendation on the suitability of the Proposed High-Level Waste Yucca Mountain site until 2001. The earli- Permanent Disposal Site est DOE anticipates operating a Yucca DOE has been evaluating a potential high- Mountain repository is 2010, and many level radioactive waste disposal site at Yucca observers believe even this timetable is Mountain, Nevada, since 1987. (Figure 26) optimistic. However, DOE has been unable to move Meanwhile, according to the Nuclear forward with final site selection because of Energy Institute, the nation’s nuclear elec- scientific complexities and strong political tric utilities and their customers have com- opposition in Nevada and elsewhere. mitted more than $14 billion, including In the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982, interest, to a Nuclear Waste Fund. This Congress called for the development of a fund is to pay for the government’s spent mined geologic repository to dispose of fuel management program, including the spent fuel and high-level radioactive waste. permanent repository, an interim storage DOE identified nine potential sites in 1983 facility, and the transportation of spent fuel. 49 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Figure 25. Map of low-level waste state compacts

4 How Are Radio- active Wastes Managed?

Radioactive Waste Cleanup

Source: LLW Forum, Inc.

It will cost about $4 billion of that money Environmental Radiation, a subcommittee of to determine if the Yucca Mountain site is the EPA’s Science Advisory Board (SAB) suitable. listed radioactive waste management as one Public Concerns about Permanent of the seven radiation-related issues most Disposal Options likely to have a significant impact on the future quality of the environment. Public In its March 1995 report, Future Issues in

Figure 26. Artist’s sketch of proposed Yucca Mountain disposal facility

50 Source: U.S. Department of Energy UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD apprehensions about disposal risks are a sig- Figure 27. nificant impediment to achieving perma- DOE’s Hanford site nent solutions. Here are some excerpts from the SAB report: Regardless of their categorization, radioactive wastes and the solutions proposed for the disposal problem are feared by many members of the public. This creates a challenging dilemma: on the one hand, the public’s per- ception of the risk of the materials argues strongly for ultimate disposal; on the other, 4 potential risks of the disposal itself are used How Are by opponents to argue against these efforts. Radio- As a result of this conflict, disposal is in a active stalemate. Although a majority of the public Wastes indicates that radioactive wastes should be disposed of permanently, progress toward this Managed? goal is slow, with numerous setbacks, for any form of wastes. On-site storage of high-level Radioactive radioactive waste is reaching capacity at some Waste locations, and the risks of such storage can Disposal only increase as these wastes accumulate …. Source: U.S. Department of Energy As the stalemate continues, waste material nation is primarily the result of the nation’s inventories continue to accumulate on site in arms race with the former Soviet Union less-than-optimal places such as hospitals … during the Cold War years following World laboratory and university storage rooms and War II, when a huge industrial complex buildings … and on reactor sites. Most of produced and managed thousands of nuclear these locations were selected for features weapons. other than isolation of waste materials, (and) continued reliance on their use increases the In addition, radioactive waste from disman- likelihood of the development of radioactive tled nuclear reactors, hospitals that use contamination on these sites, and/or release nuclear medicine, and research laboratories to the environment …. and other facilities that generate low-level waste will require continuing disposal The scientific community believes that feasi- efforts. ble disposal options exist to ensure the long- term isolation of most forms of radioactive Nuclear Weapons Waste wastes; what is lacking is the requisite public DOE is responsible for the bulk of the support for applying the technologies. nuclear weapons cleanup. In its 1995 report on its cleanup effort, Closing the Circle on Radioactive Waste Cleanup the Splitting of the Atom, DOE characterized One of the most difficult and expensive the waste and contamination from nuclear radiation-related challenges facing the weapons production as “a task that had, for nation in the next century will be to com- the most part, been postponed into the plete the cleanup of contaminated sites. indefinite future,” adding: “That future is More than 100 nuclear weapons production now upon us.” sites and thousands of facilities have been DOE’s nuclear weapons complex consists of contaminated by radioactivity and radioac- 16 major sites and dozens of smaller sites tive waste. This cleanup job will last well across the United States. According to the into the twenty-first century. The contami- 51 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

DOE report, every site in the nuclear the soil and sediments. Leaking drums weapons complex is contaminated to some filled with plutonium-contaminated waste degree with radioactive or hazardous materi- were stored in the 1950s and early 1960s als. Buildings, soil, air, ground water, and outside in an area near the plant. When surface water at the sites are contaminated. workers tried to clean up contaminated EPA sets the criteria for cleaning up the soil in the late 1960s, strong winds blew contamination at these facilities. Some plutonium-contaminated dust across a buildings and sites have been cleaned up, large area, spreading the contamination but DOE says that most sites have “signifi- and threatening the safety of cleanup cant and complicated problems that have workers. been compounded over several decades.” DOE has begun cleaning up the weapons 4 One of the most troubling examples of the complex. Some sites have been fully decon- How Are Atomic Age’s environmental legacy is taminated and turned over for other uses. Radio- DOE’s Hanford Site in Washington State DOE is working to: active (Figure 27). It is home to almost two-thirds, • Develop more effective remediation tech- Wastes by volume, of the entire solid and liquid nologies, Managed? hazardous and radioactive wastes created by the nuclear weapons program. This volume • Involve the public in decisions about includes more than 50 million gallons of where and how to treat and dispose of Radioactive nuclear waste, and Waste high-level radioactive waste stored in underground tanks. • Involve the public in decisions about the Disposal Severe contamination problems at the future of decontaminated sites. Hanford site include: But the job will not be finished until 2070 • One million gallons or more of high-level at the earliest. Meanwhile, places like mixed waste believed to have leaked from Hanford and Rocky Flats will continue to Hanford’s deteriorating storage tanks, pose some of the nation’s most urgent and some of which are at risk of exploding high-risk radiation management problems. • Radioactive tritium and other radionu- Nuclear Reactor Waste clides detected in the ground water at Every 12 to 24 months, each nuclear reac- Hanford which threaten to contaminate tor is shut down, and the oldest fuel assem- the Columbia River blies—those that have become depleted in • Widespread contamination with radioac- uranium fuel—are removed from the reactive iodine released from early operations tor. Each year, the 100-plus operating at the Hanford Site nuclear power plants in the United States produce about 2,000 metric tons of high- • Large buildings where spent fuel was level radioactive waste in the form of spent reprocessed at the Hanford Site (and the fuel. Savannah River Plant in South Carolina) so contaminated with radioactive materi- While the material is highly radioactive als that decontamination must be done by when removed from the reactor, it loses remote control to protect the workers about 50 percent of its radioactivity in three months and about 80 percent after a year. Other weapons sites have similar problems. About one percent remains radioactive for • At Fernald, Ohio, several hundred tons of thousands of years. Because the United uranium dust were released into the States has not yet built a permanent reposi- atmosphere and a local river, and drink- tory for long-term disposal of spent fuel (see ing water wells were contaminated with Sites and Methods of Waste Disposal, this uranium. Chapter, page 46), the fuel assemblies are • At the Rocky Flats Plant in Colorado, temporarily stored at the reactor site. Steel- traces of plutonium have been found in lined, concrete vaults filled with water, 52 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD called spent fuel pools, and above-ground taminated buildings and sites will generate steel or steel-reinforced concrete containers still more low-level waste in the future. with steel inner canisters are usually used Only about one percent of the total low- for storage. (Figures 28) level waste stream comes from hospitals, The nuclear reactor structures, which pro- medical schools, universities, and research duce radioactive spent fuel, themselves laboratories. Much of this waste can be safe- become radioactive over time. Eventually ly stored on site until its radioactivity has they must be shut down, and cleaned up, decayed to background levels. dismantled, or sealed off until the radioac- NRC regulates the medical, academic, and tivity has decayed to a point where it no industrial uses of nuclear materials genera- longer presents a hazard. ted by nuclear reactors through a compre- 4 These processes, called decontamination and hensive inspection and enforcement pro- How Are decommissioning, produce additional quanti- gram. Some 32 states have entered into Radio- ties of low-level radioactive waste, as well as agreements with NRC to assume regulatory active fission products and other radioactive com- authority over certain radioactive materials, ponents that require safe and secure storage including some radioisotopes. Wastes Managed? or disposal. Some of the contaminated As disposal costs have gone up, large-quan- metal from reactors may be salvaged and tity waste generators have increasingly Radioactive recycled for other uses. (See Orphaned turned to predisposal waste processing to Sources and Contaminated Scrap Metal in reduce the volume of low-level waste that Waste this Chapter, page 54.) must be sent to disposal facilities. This Disposal Low-Level Radioactive Waste involves measures such as: Government facilities, nuclear reactors, fuel • Separating radioactive from nonradioac- fabrication facilities, uranium fuel conver- tive components sion plants, industries, universities, research • Incinerating waste at specially designed institutes, and medical facilities generate incinerators low-level radioactive waste. In addition to DOE facilities, more than 22,000 commercial • Using hydraulic presses to compact the users of radioactive materials generate some waste before it is packaged for disposal, amount of this waste. The cleanup of con- which can reduce the volume of bulk waste by up to 90 percent Figure 28. • Decontaminating, reusing, or recycling Spent fuel in pool storage at a nuclear power plant radioactive materials whenever possible While these activities significantly reduce the volume of waste to be disposed of, they also concentrate the radioactivity and thus require more stringent disposal safeguards. Low-level wastes must be properly packaged and disposed of to minimize the chance of exposure to people or the environment. Disposal sites must have features that will isolate the waste from the environment. Radiation levels around disposal facilities must be monitored carefully to ensure that they meet regulatory standards.

Source: U.S. Department of Energy 53 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Orphaned Sources and percent of the metal used in the United Contaminated Scrap Metal States annually). Therefore, EPA has direct- Many DOE reactors have been shut down ed its efforts towards orphaned waste and in recent years, and hundreds of reactors, contaminated metal imports as the more processing facilities, and storage tanks will significant problem. be dismantled as part of the cleanup from The agency’s orphaned sources initiative, the nation’s nuclear weapons program. (See now being carried out in conjunction with Nuclear Weapons Waste in this Chapter, the Conference of Radiation Control page 51.) Dismantling these facilities cre- Programs Directors, has established a ates large amounts of scrap steel and other nationwide system that provides quick and metals, some of which is contaminated by effective information on identification, 4 radioactivity. removal, and disposal of orphaned sources. How Are Radio- Scrap metal and other waste can also be The lesser problem, preparation of contami- contaminated by so-called orphaned radioac- nated scrap metal from domestic nuclear active tive sources. These are primarily specialized facilities for recycling, continues to follow Wastes industrial devices, such as those used for guidance developed by the NRC and DOE Managed? measuring the moisture content of soil and in the 1970s. These standards apply to the density or thickness of materials. These materials that are contaminated on the sur- Radioactive devices often contain a small amount of face only and can be decontaminated. Waste radioactive material sealed in a metal casing DOE suspended the recycling of all contam- Disposal or housing. If equipment containing a inated metal in July 2000. sealed radioactive source is disposed of Naturally Occurring Radioactive improperly or sent out for recycling, the Materials sealed source may wind up in a metal recycling facility. If the item does not have Radioactive materials that occur in nature markings identifying its original owners, the and become concentrated through human source is called an orphaned source. activities (such as mineral extraction and processing) are considered radioactive Approximately 200 lost, stolen, or aban- wastes. These are receiving increasing doned licensed sources are reported each attention from the federal and state govern- year. Orphaned sources are one of the most ments. frequently reported radioactive contaminants in shipments received by scrap metal These materials are known as NORM (nat- facilities. If an orphaned source is melted urally occurring radioactive materials) or during reprocessing, it can contaminate TENORM (technologically enhanced entire batches of scrap metal, the processing NORM). They are a subset of a broader cat- equipment, and even the entire facility. The egory of wastes, NARM (naturally occuring radiation can also pose a hazard to facility and accelerator-produced radioactive mate- workers and to consumers if contaminated rials) which also includes radioactive waste recycled metal were to be used in consumer produced during the operation of atomic products. particle accelerators for medical, research, or industrial purposes. (See Types of EPA is working with state, federal, and Radioactive Waste in this Chapter, page international radiation protection organiza- 46.) The radioactivity contained in the tions to ensure a national supply of clean waste from accelerators is generally short metal for general use. In 1998, EPA deter- lived, less than one year, and constitutes a mined that uncontrolled, orphaned sources very small percentage of the nation’s total and contaminated metal imports pose a radioactive waste stream. higher risk to the public and workers than the recycling of scrap metal from nuclear NORM and TENORM, however, are of facilities (which is only one tenth of one growing concern because some of this waste 54 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD contains relatively high concentrations of ing, labeling, handling, loading, and radioactivity. Even NORM with a lower unloading. concentration of radioactivity can pose dis- • Transportation workers must be highly posal problems because of its high volume. qualified and receive special training. Metal mining and processing, for example, will generate an estimated 20 billion metric • Shipment routes must follow federal tons of waste over the next 20 years. guidelines, avoiding highly populated NORM is also a problem because some of it areas wherever possible. is used in construction, concrete, and road- • Transport vehicles for some waste types building, resulting in contamination of the must meet special safety standards, environment and possible human radiation including capabilities for satellite tracking exposure. and constant communication. 4 There were no federal regulations covering • Drivers and state and local officials must How Are disposal of NARM with high radioactivity receive special emergency response Radio- concentrations as of mid-2000. EPA is training. active working to improve the government’s High-level and transuranic wastes must be Wastes understanding of the radiological hazards transported in airtight, specially shielded Managed? posed by all these materials, and is working stainless steel containers designed to pre- with the states as they develop guidance vent radioactive releases even in a severe Transporting related to NORM and TENORM. At the accident or other emergency. The contain- Radioactive request of Congress, EPA sponsored a study ers (Figures 29 and 30), constructed with Waste of guidance and risk assessment approaches inner and outer containment vessels, must to TENORM. This study was conducted by survive extreme durability tests including the National Academy of Sciences and the following: completed in January 1999. • A 30-foot fall onto a steel-reinforced con- Transporting Radioactive Waste crete pad The federal government’s plans to create • A 40-inch drop onto a 6-inch steel spike permanent disposal facilities for radioactive • A 30-minute exposure to a fire of 1,475 waste lead to continuing public concern degrees Fahrenheit over the safe transport of these hazardous materials to their final resting places. Tens Figure 29. of thousands of shipments will be required Truck transporting radioactive waste to dispose of spent fuel from the nation’s nuclear reactors, high-level defense waste stored in nuclear weapons complexes, and transuranic waste designated for the WIPP in New Mexico. Even more shipments will be needed for the continuing stream of low- level waste. Two federal agencies, DOT and NRC, are primarily responsible for overseeing radioactive waste transportation. They must minimize the risk of any accidental releases of radiation and carry out a range of regulations: • All radioactive waste shipments must comply with federal standards for packag- Source: U.S. Department of Energy

55 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

• Submersion Figure 30. Transuranic Waste shipping containers in 50 feet of water for eight hours Some critics continue to question the safety of radioactive waste shipments and 4 the adequacy How Are of container Radio- testing. To active date, howev- Wastes er, the safety Managed? record for waste ship- Transporting ments has Radioactive been good, Waste much better than for ship- Source: U.S. Department of Energy ments of other hazardous materials. As of mid-1998, four accidents had occurred during spent fuel shipments. None of them released radioactive material. Between 1971 and 1999, 62 accidents occurred during the transport of low-level radioactive waste in the United States. Of these, only four resulted in the release of radioactive materials. The radioactive material was quickly cleaned up and repackaged with no measurable radiation exposure to people along the routes or to the emergency response personnel.

56 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

How Is the Public Protected from Radiation? 5

The U.S. government and state govern- Government Responsibilities in How Is ments play important roles in ensuring that Protecting the Public the Public radiation is responsibly managed to protect The federal government’s primary responsi- Protected the public and the environment from the bilities in protecting the public include: from risks of exposure to ionizing radiation. • Educating the public on radiation and its Radiation? Other organizations, including local govern- benefits and risks ments, Native American Tribes, and international bodies, share in this responsibility. • Regulating the storage, transportation, Government and disposal of radioactive waste Responsibilities Each of us as individuals also plays a key in Protecting role by learning about radiation and making • Controlling the sources and uses of radia- our opinions known in writing or at public tion, and setting and enforcing protective the Public forums and meetings. Individuals can have standards an effect on decisions about such issues as: • Conducting research to determine poten- • Balancing the benefits and risks of tial health effects and to find more effec- radiation tive ways to reduce radiation exposures • Safe disposal of radioactive waste • Providing guidance on appropriate precautions by individuals • Appropriate levels of cleanup for contaminated sites and facilities The first two responsibilities above have been discussed in previous chapters. This Each of us, as individuals, can also take rea- chapter discusses appropriate precautions sonable precautions to limit our own individuals can take against overexposure, exposure. governmental controls and standards for use This chapter provides an overview of how of radiation, and government research these public and individual responsibilities responsibilities. for protection from the harmful effects of radiation are carried out. Topics include: Controlling Risks of Exposure to Radiation: Federal and Individual • Government Responsibilities in Roles Protecting the Public The federal government regulates manmade • Government Controls on Exposure to and some naturally occurring radioactive Radiation materials by setting emissions, exposure, • Major Federal Legislation and cleanup standards. Allowable exposure levels are set to provide the appropriate • Responsible Federal Agencies level of protection for both workers and the • Federal, State, and Local Government public. (Table 4) The federal government Functions began setting radiation standards in 1957. • Other Roles in Managing Radiation NRC and EPA have primary responsibility 57 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Ta b le 4: Dose Standards for ionizing radiation exposure in the United States (expressed in terms of annual effective dose)

Population and source of radioactivity Dose Limit (mrem/yr) Occupational limit 5,000 General Public Limit for any licensed facility (excluding medical) 100 Limit for nuclear power facility 25 5 Limit for waste repository (excluding Yucca Mountain) 15 How Is NAS recommendation for Yucca Mountain 2-20 the Public EPA recommended “action level” for indoor radon 800 (approx.) Protected Source: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory from Radiation? for radiation protection except at DOE How You Can Limit Your Radiation Government facilities where DOE regulates its radiation- Exposure? Responsibilities related activities. Some recommended precautions that all in Protecting In 1995 the U.S. Environmental Protection individuals should take to limit exposure to the Public Agency’s Science Advisory Board (SAB), a radiation include: panel of independent experts that advises • Test your home for radon, and reduce EPA on the scientific aspects of its regulato- radon levels if necessary. (See Health ry responsibilities, studied the current state Effects of Radon, Chapter 3, page 37, and of knowledge about radiation and provided Controlling Exposure to Radon in this EPA with guidance on how it should Chapter, page 61.) approach radiation issues for the next 30 years. The SAB report, Future Issues in • Evaluate medical uses of radiation, and Environmental Radiation, concluded that: weigh benefits and risks. (See Controlling Medical Exposures in this Chapter, page • High priority governmental controls over 60.) sources and standards of radiation are already in place and undergoing continual • Minimize exposure to ultraviolet radia- refinement. tion from the sun by: • The greatest potential for further reduc- —Wearing protective clothing and sun- tion in public exposure is through indi- glasses vidual protective actions. —Wearing sunscreen The SAB found that the greatest potential — Limiting exposure to midday sun for reducing overall public exposure to con- • Participate in public decision-making trollable sources of radiation was not on issues such as facility sites and stan- through more government regulation, but dards. by individual action, primarily by avoiding unnecessary exposure to medical radiation You will find more details on some of these and by reducing exposure to indoor radon. precautions in the following sections.

58 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Government Controls on • EPA’s National Emissions Standards for Exposure to Radiation Hazardous Air Pollutants for radionuclides require facilities to limit their radionu- Controlling Radiation in the Air clide air emissions so that no member of Radioactive materials can enter the atmos- the public is exposed to more than 10 phere several ways: millirem of radiation per year. • By natural processes, such as the interac- • Facilities must submit annual reports doc- tion of cosmic radiation with nitrogen to umenting their emissions, and they may produce radioactive carbon-14 be subject to annual inspections. • By human activities that generate radia- Facilities regulated by NRC, such as nuclear tion or enhance natural radiation power plants, hospitals, medical research 5 • By wind or some other natural or human facilities, research reactors, and uranium How Is activity stirring up dust containing fuel cycle facilities, are subject to similar the Public radioactive particles limits. Protected Once airborne, particles can remain sus- EPA is also responsible for taking steps to from pended in the air for a long time, or they reduce indoor exposures from radon. (See Radiation? can settle in water, on the soil, or on sur- Health Effects of Radon, Chapter 3, page 37 and Controlling Radon Exposure in this faces of plants, where they can enter the Government Chapter, page 61.) food chain. Rain or snow can also remove Controls radioactive particles from the air. Controlling Radiation in Water on Exposure (Figure 31) Radioactive materials can enter water in to Radiation Under the Clean Air Act of 1970 and its several ways: amendments, EPA established standards to • By being deposited in surface water from regulate the release to the air of manmade the air radiation by most governmental and industrial facilities. • By entering groundwater or surface water

Figure 31. Major pathways by which dispersed radionuclides can affect living organisms

Source: U.S. Department of Energy 59 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

from the ground through erosion, seepage, to issue permits in accordance with water or human activities such as mining quality standards. Some radioactive particles dissolve and The government also controls radiation in move along with the water. Others are water by requiring low-level radioactive deposited in sediments or on soil or rocks. waste disposal facilities to be located away Two federal laws govern the regulation of from floodplains. These facilities are also radiation in water: designed to divert water away from the waste, or collect and remove radionuclides • The Safe Drinking Water Act from water that has come in contact with (SDWA) directed EPA to set standards the waste. This precaution minimizes the for drinking water contaminants that may amount of radioactive material released into 5 adversely affect human health. Under the water, keeping it out of the food chain and How Is SDWA, EPA set limits for some radioac- away from people. the Public tive materials in drinking water. Public Protected water supplies must comply with EPA’s from national primary drinking water regula- Controlling Medical Exposures Radiation? tions, which are based on the agency’s Government Controls and Guidance drinking water standards. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration Controlling In November 1999, EPA proposed a (FDA) and other federal and state agencies Medical National Primary Drinking Water regulate medical procedures that use radia- Regulation (NPDWR) for radon in drink- Exposures tion. Radiologists, health physicists, NRC, ing water based on a multimedia approach EPA, state agencies, the National Council designed to achieve greater risk reduction on Radiation Protection and Measurements, by addressing radon risks in indoor air, and other responsible parties are continually with public water systems providing pro- looking for ways to reduce risk while taking tection from the highest levels of radon in advantage of the benefits from medical uses their ground water supplies. The frame- of radiation. work for this proposal is set out in the Government agencies also issue guidance Safe Drinking Water Act as amended in designed to reduce unnecessary use of radia- 1996. This statutory-based framework tion in diagnosis and treatment and to reflects the characteristics uniquely specif- ensure that technicians, equipment, and ic to radon among drinking water con- techniques meet standards that minimize taminants. SDWA directs EPA to promul- radiation exposure. Within these standards, gate a maximum contaminant level however, patients and health care providers (MCL) for radon in drinking water, but must decide when to use radiation on a also to make available a higher alternative case-by-case basis. maximum contaminant level (AMCL) accompanied by a multimedia mitigation The National Institutes of Health (NIH) (MMM) program to address radon risks in points out that the radiation doses involved indoor air. in medical procedures have been decreasing over the past two decades as X-ray films and For more information on radon in drink- equipment have been improved. In addi- ing water, call EPA’s Drinking Water tion, the ability to target radiation more Hotline (1-800-426-4791) or visit the precisely to one part of the body has result- EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/safewater. ed in less exposure to the rest of the body. • The Federal Water Pollution Control In the NIH’s view, with the development of Act, as amended by the Clean Water better machines and the use of computers to Act, prohibits the discharge of radioac- plan treatment, the safety and effectiveness tive wastes or other pollutants into U.S. of radiotherapy has steadily improved. navigable waters without a permit. EPA and authorized states have the authority 60 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

In the overwhelming majority of cases, per liter (pCi/L), the level above which according to NIH, “the benefits of medical EPA recommends that homeowners volun- radiation far outweigh the risks associated tarily take steps to reduce radon exposures. with it.” For example: This level is cost and technology-based, • Diagnostic tests using radiation allow meaning that it takes into account the lim- doctors to treat patients without using its of the technology currently available and invasive and life-threatening procedures. affordable to address residential radon levels. There is currently no known safe level • Radiation, surgery, and chemotherapy are of exposure to radon decay products. Any the mainstays of cancer treatment and are level of exposure, no matter how small, may used in combination, depending on the pose some increased risk of lung cancer. cancer. (See Health Effects of Radon, Chapter 3 5 • Certain tumors can be treated successfully page 37.) Testing your home is the only way How Is with radiotherapy alone. to know if you and your family are at risk the Public “But,” notes the NIH, “there is a tradeoff. from radon in indoor air. Protected In this sense, radiation is no different than Individual Actions You Can Take from any other diagnostic or therapeutic agent, Testing for radon is easy: Radiation? except that we have more information than • Buy a low-cost, radon test kit from a qual- usual.” For example, doctors try to avoid Controlling exposure of large parts of the body to radia- ified laboratory through the mail or in hardware and home-improvement stores. Exposure to tion because this can cause serious side Radon effects like cancer. About five percent of all • Hire a professional to do the testing. In secondary cancers—cancers that develop this case, EPA recommends choosing a after treatment for the initial cancer—have qualified measurement company or indi- been linked to radiotherapy. vidual (e.g., home inspector). Check with Individual Actions You Can Take your state radon office; most states require radon professionals to be licensed, certi- You can minimize your exposure from med- fied or registered. ical radiation by taking these actions: If you find high radon concentrations: • Discuss your treatment with your doctor to determine if it is really the best alter- • A variety of methods are used to reduce native. radon in homes, schools, and other buildings. Simple systems using pipes and fans • Ask if MRI (magnetic resonance imag- may be used to reduce radon. Such sys- ing), ultrasound, and other nonionizing tems are called sub-slab depressurization diagnostic techniques are possible and do not require major changes to a options. home. These systems remove radon gas • Get a second opinion if you have any from below the concrete floor and the reservations. foundation before it can enter the build- • Always avoid radiation exposure if you ing. have reason to believe it is unnecessary. • The typical cost for a contractor to install a sub-slab depressurization system ranges from $500 to $2500, about the same cost Controlling Exposure to Radon as other common home repairs and rou- Government Guidance tine maintenance. EPA and the U.S. Surgeon General recom- • With the technology available today, ele- mend testing all homes below the third vated radon levels can be reduced to floor for radon and taking steps to reduce below four pCi/L more than 95 percent indoor radon levels to below four picocuries of the time, and to below two pCi/L an 61 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

estimated 70 to 80 percent of the time. Children are highly susceptible to harmful New homes can be built to be radon-resist- UV radiation. Just one or two blistering ant. sunburns in childhood may double the risk • In many areas of the country, construc- of developing melanoma, a highly malig- tion of new homes with radon-resistant nant form of skin cancer. An estimated 80 features is becoming common practice or percent of lifetime sun exposure occurs is required by code. before the age of 18. • EPA estimates the costs of building new Individual Actions You Can Take homes radon-resistant to be about $350 Sunburn, skin cancers, and other sun-relat- to $500. ed adverse health effects are largely prevent- 5 EPA has developed a number of publica- able when sun protection is practiced early How Is tions on radon which provide information and consistently. The best sun protection is the Public on how indoor air radon problems can be achieved by practicing a combination of recommended sun-safe behaviors: Protected fixed. (See Appendix C.) EPA also has a from National Radon Program to inform the pub- • Limit sun exposure during the hours Radiation? lic about radon risks, provide grants for when the sun’s rays are the strongest, state radon programs, and develop standards between 10am and 4pm. for radon-resistant buildings. For more Controlling • Seek shade, such as trees or umbrellas, information, call EPA’s radon hotline whenever possible. UV Radiation (1-800-SOS-Radon) or visit EPA’s web site Exposure (www.epa.gov/iaq/radon). • Wear a wide-brimmed hat, sunglasses, and long-sleeved, tightly woven clothing. Monitoring Radiation Levels in —A wide-brimmed hat protects the face the Environment from direct sun’s rays but not from rays To keep track of levels of radioactivity in reflected from lower-level surfaces. the air, water, and food chain, EPA operates —Clothing can physically block out the a national network of monitoring stations. sun's harmful rays. The Environmental Radiation Ambient —Sunglasses can block out 100 percent of Monitoring System samples air, precipita- UVA and UVB radiation to protect the tion, surface and drinking water, and milk eyes from damage. to track any radioactivity that reaches the public through the different environmental • Use a broad-spectrum sunscreen with a and food pathways. The system processes sun protective factor (SPF) of at least 15. about 2,000 samples per month and con- • Avoid tanning salons. Artificial UV radi- ducts 6,000 analyses of the data, which are ation can be as damaging as sunlight. published in the quarterly journal • Limit exposure to reflective surfaces such Environmental Radiation Data. These reports as snow and water. UV rays can be can also be viewed at www.epa.gov/narel. reflected off of sand, tile, water, snow, and Controlling UV Radiation buildings. Exposure Controlling Occupational Overexposure to the sun's ultraviolet (UV) Exposures rays threatens human health by causing: People who work at nuclear power plants or • Immediate painful sunburn in laboratories where radioactive materials • Skin cancer are used, wear thermoluminescent dosime- ters (TLDs) and/or film badges on the job. • Eye damage These devices measure cumulative whole- • Immune system suppression body exposures to ensure the exposure is • Premature aging not above regulatory limits. 62 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Ta b le 5: Major Federal Legislation on Radiation Protection

Law Year Agencies Passed Description

The Atomic 1946, NRC • Establishes roles and responsibilities for con- Energy Act amended in EPA trol of nuclear materials. NRC, DOE, and (AEA) 1954 DOE EPA manage use, possession, and disposal of regulated materials. • Charges EPA with setting generally applicable environmental standards to protect the environment from listed radioactive materials. EPA has issued standards for (a) environmental releases of radioactivity from nuclear fuel 5 cycle facilities (nuclear power reactors and supporting facilities), (b) disposal of radioac- Ta ble 5 tive materials from uranium ore refining, and (c) the disposal of high-level and transuranic radioactive waste anywhere except Yucca Major Mountain. Federal The Clean Air 1970, EPA • Establishes the National Emissions Standards Legislation Act (CAA) amended in for Hazardous Air Pollutants to regulate air 1977 pollution from various sources. on Radiation and 1990 • Section 112 applies specifically to airborne Protection emissions or releases of radionuclides (radioactive particles) into the environment and requires EPA to protect public health and the environment from these emissions. EPA developed standards that limit air emissions of radionuclides to the environment from various sources. EPA implements these standards across the country through its regional offices.

The 1980, EPA CERCLA and SARA require that cleanup of Comprehensive amended hazardous substances be conducted in a manner Environmental in 1986 protective of human health. EPA has established Response, site-specific methods to implement the mission Compensation, established by CERCLA as it relates to cleanup and Liability and remediation of radioactively contaminated Act (CER- sites. CLA), as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)

The Energy 1992 EPA Directs the NAS to develop scientific recom- Policy Act NRC mendations and EPA to issue public health and NAS safety standards for the operation of the potential high-level nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain. NRC will implement EPA’s standards for Yucca Mountain.

The Federal 1972, EPA Prohibits discharge of radioactive wastes or other Water Pollution amended pollutants into U.S. navigable waters without a Control Act, as in 1977 permit. EPA and authorized states have authority amended by the and 1987 to issue permits in accordance with national Clean Water water quality standards. Act 63 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Ta b le 5: Major Federal Legislation on Radiation Protection, con’t

Law Year Agencies Passed Descriptions

The Hazardous 1975 DOT Authorizes the DOT to set standards for the Materials transport of radioactive and other hazardous Transportation materials in interstate and foreign commerce. Act

The Indoor 1988 EPA Instructs EPA to reduce indoor exposures from Radon radon. Abatement 5 Act Ta ble 5 The Low- 1980 States Makes each state responsible for ensuring that Level adequate disposal capacity is available for com- Radioactive mercial low-level nuclear waste generated within Major Waste Policy its borders. Encourages states to join compacts to develop needed disposal capacity. Federal Act Legislation The Nuclear 1982, DOE • Authorizes DOE to develop two geologic on Radiation Waste Policy amended repositories to dispose of civilian spent nuclear Protection Act in 1987 fuel. • Assigns responsibilities for nuclear waste management to specific federal agencies and creates the Nuclear Waste Fund to pay for nuclear waste disposal costs from nuclear power user fees. • Charges EPA with developing generally applicable standards for repositories and NRC with developing specific technical requirements. • 1987 amendment directs DOE to investigate only one potential repository site: Yucca Mountain, Nevada.

The Safe 1974, EPA Requires EPA to publish standards for drinking Drinking amended water contaminants that may adversely affect Water Act in 1996 human health. EPA has set limits on radionu- (SDWA) clides in drinking water along with numerous other physical, chemical, and biological constituents. • Directs DOE to provide for stabilization and The Uranium 1978 DOE control of uranium mill tailings from inactive Mill Tailings NRC sites in a safe and environmentally sound Radiation EPA manner to minimize radiation hazards to the Control Act public. DOE is cleaning up 24 sites and more (amendment than 5,000 “vicinity properties” (contaminat- to AEA) ed off-site locations). • Charges EPA with developing standards of general application for both inactive and active uranium mill tailings sites. • Directs NRC to regulate operation and closure of active uranium mill tailing sites.

The Waste 1992 DOE Gives EPA regulatory oversight authority over Isolation Pilot many of DOE’s activities at the WIPP in south- Plant Land eastern New Mexico near Carlsbad. Withdrawal Act 64 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Radiation workers are also rigorously least as much health and safety protection trained to handle radioactive materials safe- as NRC standards prescribe. ly, to protect themselves and the public from possible radiation hazards. The respon- NRC limits the amount of radiation that sible authorities and government agencies, workers or members of the public can be in order to determine the cause and help exposed to from nuclear power plants and prevent recurrences, investigate accidents industrial and medical facilities that are that result in even slight radiation exposure licensed to use nuclear materials. NRC also or the release of small amounts of radioac- conducts research, testing, and training pro- tivity. If an investigation reveals careless- grams, and has the authority to regulate ness or neglect, the government can impose low-level and high-level radioactive waste heavy fines and even shut down the respon- facilities. NRC enforces its own standards as 5 sible facilities. well as some of EPA’s standards for protect- How Is ing the public from radiation. the Public Responsible Federal Agencies Department of Energy (DOE) Protected from The federal government’s radiation manage- DOE’s important responsibilities for protect- ment and protection programs are author- ing the public from radiation include: Radiation? ized by more than 20 laws enacted since • Issuing standards and guidelines and 1946. Table 5 outlines the major laws feder- enforcing some of EPA’s radiation stan- Responsible al agencies use to set standards and issue dards for protecting workers and the pub- Federal regulations for radiation protection. lic at DOE facilities. Agencies Nuclear Regulatory Commission • Developing the disposal system for spent (NRC) nuclear fuel from the nation’s civilian NRC protects public health and safety and nuclear power plants. (See Sites and the environment by ensuring that nuclear Methods of Waste Disposal, Chapter 4, materials are used safely. NRC’s regulatory page 46.) This activity is funded com- functions apply to both nuclear power pletely by a tax paid by the users of plants and other civilian users of nuclear nuclear-generated electricity. materials, including nuclear medicine at • Managing the cleanup and disposal of hospitals, academic activities at educational radioactive materials that resulted from institutions, research, and industrial appli- nuclear weapons production at federally cations. NRC ensures that these facilities owned facilities during the Cold War. operate in compliance with strict safety (See Nuclear Weapons Waste, Chapter 4, standards by: page 51.) • Licensing facilities that possess, use, or dispose of nuclear materials • Cooperating with state governments, trib- al governments, the public, and private • Establishing standards governing the industry to clean up other locations activities of licensees around the United States that were con- • Inspecting licensed facilities to ensure taminated with radiation as a result of compliance with its requirements government programs. • Providing technical advice and assistance NRC carries out its programs either directly to states and the private sector for manag- or through the Agreement State Program, in ing and disposing of low-level radioactive which NRC relinquishes its regulatory waste. authority for most facilities to qualified participating states. Under this arrangement, Agreement States perform the licensing and inspection functions. They must provide at 65 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Environmental Protection Agency Department of Defense (DOD) (EPA) DOD is in charge of the safe handling and Since its establishment in 1970 as part of storage of nuclear weapons and other mili- the executive branch of the federal govern- tary uses of nuclear energy under its custody. ment, EPA has been responsible for protect- These uses include fueling nuclear-powered ing the public health and the environment ships and research reactors, cleaning up and from avoidable exposures to radiation. In decommissioning military bases, and prac- carrying out this mission, EPA: ticing nuclear medicine. (DOE remains • Issues standards and guidance to limit responsible for the safe handling of radioac- radiation exposures and conducts a tive material at DOE defense weapons national monitoring program to keep production facilities.) 5 track of radiation levels in the environ- Department of Transportation How Is ment. (See Monitoring Radiation Levels (DOT) the Public in the Environment, this Chapter 4, page Protected 62.) DOT, in cooperation with NRC and the States, governs the packaging and transport from • Works with industry, the states, and other of radioactive materials. (See Transporting Radiation? government agencies to inform the public Radioactive Waste, Chapter 4, page 55.) about radiation risks and to promote The department regulates both the carriers Responsible actions that reduce human exposure. and the drivers who transport these materi- Federal • Assesses radiation effects on people and als. DOT’s Research and Special Programs Agencies the environment, studies radiation meas- Administration (RSPA) is responsible for urement and control, and provides tech- issuing hazardous materials regulations for nical assistance to states and other federal radioactive materials that are compatible agencies. with the regulations of the International • Administers the National Radon Program Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). (See Role and evaluates new and developing radia- of International Organizations in this tion control and cleanup technologies. Chapter, page 70.) • Provides technical assistance and support Department of Health and Human for cleaning up radioactively contaminat- Services (HHS) ed sites. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) EPA sets standards for the management and carries out HHS radiation responsibilities. disposal of radioactive wastes and guidelines FDA’s Center for Devices and Radiological relating to control of radiation exposure Health sets standards for X-ray machines, under the Atomic Energy Act, the Clean microwave ovens, and other electronic Air Act, and other legislation. (Table 5) products to ensure that the radiation these The legislation describes the result EPA items produce does not endanger human must produce (for example, “protect the health. FDA, in conjunction with the public health” with an “ample margin of Department of Agriculture, also regulates safety”). EPA must determine what levels or the use of radiation on food. (See Food limits are considered protective and specify Irradiation, Chapter 3, page 29.) measures or processes for putting these Occupational Safety and Health measures in place. In 1989, for example, Administration (OSHA) under the Clean Air Act, EPA published OSHA, part of the Department of Labor, standards limiting emissions of radioactive has the mission of saving lives, preventing materials from all federal and industrial injuries, and protecting the health of facilities. (See Controlling Radiation in the America’s workers. Under of the authority Air, Chapter 4, page 59.)

66 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD of the Occupational Safety and Health Act requires all domestic nuclear power plants of 1970, OSHA develops and enforces regu- to develop and test emergency plans. lations to protect workers who are not cov- A number of federal and state agencies have ered by other agencies from radiation expo- various roles in preparing for and respond- sure. ing to radiological emergencies: The National Academy of Sciences • State and local emergency government (NAS) response agencies have primary responsi- While not part of the federal government, bility for immediate response and public NAS frequently conducts studies at the protection in a radiological emergency. government’s request and advises federal • Seventeen U.S. government agencies agencies on scientific and technical aspects cooperated in developing the Federal 5 of radiation issues. For years, NAS has been Radiological Emergency Response Plan. How Is heavily involved in the government’s search This plan provides for coordinated federal the Public for a solution to the high-level and assistance to state and local governments Protected transuranic nuclear waste disposal problem. dealing with the risks posed by accidental The NAS’s Committee on the Biological from releases of radioactive material. Radiation? Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR Depending on the situation, EPA, NRC, Committee) and its predecessors have been DOD, NASA, DOE, HHS, the Federal Federal, issuing influential reports on radiation and Emergency Management Agency, and/or its health effects for the past 35 years. the Department of Agriculture may play State, and National Council on Radiation significant roles in any federal response. Local Government Protection and Measurements • EPA’s Radiological Emergency Response (NCRP) Team (RERT) provides quick response Functions NCRP is a nonprofit corporation chartered and support for incidents involving radio- by Congress in 1964 to study the scientific logical hazards. The RERT can monitor and technical aspects of radiation protec- and assess radioactivity in the environ- tion. With NRC and EPA, NCRP recom- ment from an accident to define the mends radiation standards that help form extent of exposure. the basis for federal, state, and local regula- • EPA determines the exposure levels at tions to protect the public health and the which protective actions, such as staying environment from radiation hazards. indoors or evacuating the area, should be NCRP’s members, chosen on the basis of considered in case of a release or poten- their scientific expertise, come from univer- tial release of radioactive material to the sities, medical centers, national and private environment. laboratories, and industry. NCRP’s international counterpart is the International • DOE’s Federal Radiological Monitoring Commission on Radiological Protection. and Assessment Center coordinates the (See ICRP in this Chapter, page 70.) primary federal equipment and material for environmental and personnel monitoring immediately following an emer- Federal, State, and Local gency. Government Functions Setting Standards Responding to Emergencies Radiation is classified as a class A carcino- The 1979 accident at Three Mile Island gen. This means there is specific scientific nuclear power plant changed the approach evidence proving that radiation can cause to responding to nuclear accidents in the cancer. EPA sets radiation protection stan- U.S. (See Accidental Releases, Chapter 3, dards so that the maximum allowable dose page 39.) As a result of the accident, NRC 67 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

to a member of the public is protective of its the concentration of naturally occur- human health and the environment. (For ring radium and thorium left behind at the purpose of setting radiation standards, the site to no more than five picocuries protective means not adding significantly to per gram in the upper 15 centimeters of the average risk of developing cancer.) soil. When setting standards, EPA considers In enforcing EPA’s exposure standards for additional factors, including: the nuclear industry, NRC limits the air and • The benefits provided by the source of water emissions of radionuclides from radiation nuclear reactors to levels that would expose no member of the public to more than 25 • The size of the dose received millirems of radiation per year. 5 • The frequency of exposure How Is For occupational exposures at nuclear the Public • The feasibility and cost of avoiding plants, NRC limits the sum of both internal Protected exposure and external doses to workers to 5,000 millirem per year. Actual annual occupational from EPA also considers public comments before finalizing its standards. exposures in the U.S. nuclear energy indus- Radiation? try average much less than 5,000 millirem. NCRP and The International Commission The average worker dose in the U.S. Federal, on Radiological Protection also have a role nuclear energy industry in 1995 was about State, and in recommending standards within the 160 millirem, less than 5 percent of the Local United States. (See Responsible Federal NRC limit. Agencies in this Chapter, p. 65.) The rec- Government ommendations issued by these organizations EPA and NRC co-chair the Interagency Functions provide the scientific basis for radiation pro- Steering Committee on Radiation tection efforts throughout the country. Standards, which includes representatives of Governmental organizations, including the DOE, DOD, and other federal agencies. NRC, the U.S. Public Health Service, EPA, The committee works to foster early resolu- and state governments, use recommendation and coordination of regulatory issues tions from ICRP and NCRP as the scientif- associated with radiation standards. ic basis for their protection activities. Issuing Guidance EPA sets radiation standards that minimize When radiation hazards exist but legally the public’s exposure to various sources of binding regulations are inappropriate, EPA radioactivity, including both manmade and, issues guidance, recommends action levels, in some instances, natural sources. (See and/or undertakes public education efforts Natural Sources, Chapter 2, page 18.) For that will help protect the public from exces- example: sive exposures. For example: • EPA’s drinking water standards control • EPA’s radon program recommends an the public’s exposure to both natural and action level of 4 pCi/L. EPA recom- man-made sources of radiation. Water mends, but does not require, that home- departments and other suppliers of drink- owners reduce radon levels below the ing water must comply with limits on the action level in their homes (see The radionuclide content in public water Health Effects of Radon, Chapter 3, page supplies. 37.) • EPA’s regulations for high-level radioac- • EPA’s radon educational efforts help tive waste disposal limit the exposure of reduce exposure to natural radiation. the public from such facilities to no more • EPA’s SunWise school program is a com- than 15 millirems per year. prehensive health and science related • For abandoned uranium mines, EPA lim- program designed to educate children 68 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

about overexposure to ultraviolet radia- tive materials from facilities (except tion from the sun and how it can affect nuclear power plants) within their juris- their health in the future. dictions to states, called Agreement • EPA’s 1987 guidelines help federal agen- States, that have reached an agreement cies to develop radiation exposure stan- with the NRC under the Atomic Energy dards for workers. These standards recom- Act of 1954. mend the maximum amount of radiation • NRC may also delegate to Agreement that workers in nuclear power, medicine, States regulation of low-level waste dis- industry, mining, and waste management posal facilities under the Low-Level can safely receive. Radioactive Waste Policy Act of 1980. Conducting Site Cleanup The law makes the states responsible, 5 either individually or in groups called Government agencies and private compa- compacts, for ensuring adequate disposal How Is nies alike are required by law to clean up capacity for the low-level radioactive the Public any hazardous and radioactive substances waste generated within their borders. Protected that could endanger public health and wel- • DOE must consult the state if it is consid- from fare and the environment. CERCLA gives Radiation? EPA the authority to determine the degree ering building a high-level waste storage of public hazard posed by contaminated or disposal facility within state borders, Other Roles sites. EPA places the most serious problem under the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of sites on the Superfund National Priorities 1982. If a state objects to the siting of in Managing List (NPL) for expedited study and cleanup. such a facility, both houses of Congress Radiation For sites on the NPL, EPA works closely must vote to overturn the state’s veto. with the affected states, with input from the • Native American tribes that may be public, to develop and monitor site assess- affected by a potential waste disposal site ment and cleanup schedules. are also guaranteed the same rights as EPA also supports efforts to clean up the affected states under the 1982 Act. In the many non-NPL sites in the United States early 1990s, several tribes actively partici- contaminated with radioactive material, pated in feasibility studies as potential including those contaminated with mixed hosts to a proposed interim storage facili- waste—a combination of radioactive and ty for spent nuclear fuel until a perma- hazardous chemical waste (See Mixed nent repository is built. (See Sites and Waste, Chapter 4, page 48.) Methods of Waste Disposal, Chapter 4, page 46.) Tribes with treaty claims to Other Roles in Managing lands currently occupied by DOE nuclear Radiation weapons facilities, such as the Hanford Role of the States and Native Site in Washington, are participating in American Tribes the decontamination and cleanup of those territories. Some tribes are voicing States have additional responsibilities for concerns about additional exposure from protecting the public and the environment the transport of nuclear waste. that go beyond responding to radiological emergencies. Both EPA and NRC are • States and tribes also play a role, with authorized to delegate some of their regula- NRC and DOT, in regulating the trans- tory authority over radioactive materials to portation of radioactive materials within the states. their borders. (See Transporting Radioactive Waste, Chapter 4, page 55.) • EPA can authorize states to regulate haz- and in preparing for accidents or emer- ardous wastes under the RCRA. gencies involving nuclear waste ship- • NRC can delegate regulation of radioac- ments.

69 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

• For TENORM, states are developing a activities that make use of IAEA materi- variety of standards and guidances. Many als, equipment, facilities, and services. states have developed regulations for the Countries that receive IAEA assistance management and disposal of radium-con- are required to observe health and safety taminated pipe scale from the oil and gas measures prescribed by the agency. industry. Some states have issued guid- • The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) is ance to address the disposal of sludge and an arm of the Organization for Economic residues resulting from the treatment of Cooperation and Development (OECD). water at public water supplies. NEA is a 23-member body that promotes • OSHA delegates some worker protection the exchange of information on nuclear 5 responsibilities to the states. waste issues; conducts and sponsors international research and development proj- How Is • Most states regulate the specifications for X-ray equipment. ects; and coordinates research, site inves- the Public tigations, and underground demonstration Protected Role of International Organizations projects by its members. NEA also recom- from National governments have primary respon- mends nuclear safety standards to OECD Radiation? sibility for ensuring the safety of nuclear member nations. operations within their borders. As the • The International Commission on Other Roles Chernobyl accident dramatically demon- Radiological Units and Measurements in Managing strated, however, radiation from nuclear (ICRU) recommends the units used in Radiation accidents can spread rapidly across interna- designating radiation protection levels. tional boundaries. (See Accidental The ICRU was created in 1925. Releases, Chapter 3, page 39.) • The United Nations Scientific Several international organizations have Committee on the Effects of Atomic been formed to help establish and ensure Radiation (UNSCEAR) was established compliance with worldwide radiation pro- in 1955 to evaluate doses, effects, and tection standards. risks from ionizing radiation on a global • The International Commission on scale. UNSCEAR is one of the interna- Radiological Protection (ICRP), estab- tional organizations studying the lished in 1928, provides worldwide rec- Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors. (See ommendations and guidance on radiation Studying Radiation’s Effects on Humans, protection. Its members come from 20 Chapter 3, page 33.) Based on its studies, countries and include scientists, physi- UNSCEAR makes risk estimates that are cians, and engineers. While ICRP has no used by the IAEA, the NEA, and other formal power to impose its proposals on organizations to set radiation exposure anyone, legislation in most countries standards. adheres closely to ICRP recommenda- Your Role as a Citizen tions. Congress chartered in 1964 the U.S. counterpart to the ICRP, the Since we are constantly exposed to many National Council on Radiation different sources of background radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). throughout our lives, there is no way to reduce our exposure to zero. Hence, we can- • The International Atomic Energy not guarantee that we are completely safe Agency (IAEA) is a 131-member inde- from the possible effects of radiation. As is pendent organization operating under the true for many other aspects of life, the very protection of the United Nations. IAEA fact of living means we have to accept a was organized in 1956 to promote peace- certain amount of risk from the radiation all ful uses of nuclear energy. It applies around us. nuclear safety and radiation protection standards to its own operations and to 70 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

As concerned citizens, the key question we their best to understand the environmental need to ask and try to help answer is: and other consequences of technological How much exposure to radiation change, including the benefits and risks beyond the normal levels of uncontrol- associated with radiation in all its forms. lable natural radiation should society The more we know, the better equipped we tolerate in order to balance the risks will be to help ensure that society develops and the benefits of radiation? and uses radiation wisely. Public participation can play a significant role in the way the government manages risk, including the risk of exposure to radiation. In a democracy, when citizens speak 5 up at public hearings, write to their elected How Is representatives and regulatory agencies, the Public march on picket lines, and file lawsuits, Protected their opinions count. The voices of citizens influence the debate that helps determine from what laws and regulations are written, Radiation? where and when facilities are built, and what levels of releases and exposure will be Other Roles permitted by the government. in Managing In fact, many government agencies are Radiation increasingly inviting this kind of public participation—called stakeholder involve- ment—in their decision-making process. They are doing so by • Publishing scientific and regulatory information on public issues, both in hard copy and on their World Wide Web sites • Holding public meetings and hearings and teleconferences • Encouraging citizens to submit written comments on proposed policies and programs The goal of these outreach efforts is to involve citizens more directly in determining the appropriate balance between, for example, sustaining our nations economic strength and other social values, such as maintaining environmental quality. Ultimately, we must rely on our elected officials and the regulators who are responsible for enforcing their decisions to find the best balance of social, political, and scientific factors for the benefit of society as a whole. Citizens can help them do their jobs more effectively by learning about and doing

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Appendix A: Glossary of RadiationA Terms

Acute Exposure: A single exposure to a Electrons revolve in orbits in the region sur- Appendix substance which results in biological harm rounding the nucleus. or death. Usually characterized by a brief Atomic energy: Energy released in nuclear Glossary of exposure lasting no more than a day, as reactions. Of particular interest is the ener- Radiation compared to longer, continuing exposure gy released when a neutron initiates the Terms over a period of time (chronic exposure). breaking up of an atom's nucleus into small- Agreement State: A State that has signed er pieces (fission), or when two nuclei are an agreement with the Nuclear Regulatory joined together under millions of degrees of Commission allowing the State to regulate heat (fusion). It is more correctly called the use of by-product radioactive material nuclear energy. within that State. Atomic Energy Commission: Federal ALARA: Acronym for “As Low As agency created in 1946 to manage the Reasonably Achievable.” It means making development, use, and control of nuclear every reasonable effort to maintain exposures energy for military and civilian applications. to ionizing radiation as far below the dose lim- Abolished by the Energy Reorganization its as practical, consistent with the purpose for Act of 1974 and succeeded by the Energy which the licensed activity is undertaken, tak- Research and Development Administration ing into account the state of technology, the (now part of the U. S. Department of economics of improvements in relation to Energy) and the U. S. Nuclear Regulatory state of technology and in relation to benefits Commission. to the public health and safety, and other soci- Atoms for Peace: President Eisenhower's etal and socioeconomic considerations. 1954 initiative to allow the peaceful uses of Alpha particle: A positively charged parti- atomic energy to be available to other cle ejected spontaneously from the nuclei of nations. some radioactive elements. It has low pene- Background radiation: Radiation from cos- trating power and a short range (a few cen- mic sources and terrestrial sources, includ- timeters in air). The most energetic alpha ing radon. It does not include radiation particle will generally fail to penetrate the from source or byproduct nuclear materials dead layers of cells covering the skin and regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory can be easily stopped by a sheet of paper. Commission. The average individual expo- Alpha particles are hazardous when an sure from background radiation is about 300 alpha-emitting isotope is inside the body. millrems per year. Atom: The smallest unit of an element Beta particle: A charged particle emitted that cannot be divided or broken up by from a nucleus during radioactive decay, chemical means. It consists of a central core with a mass equal to 1/1837 that of a pro- of protons and neutrons (except hydrogen ton. A negatively charged beta particle is which has no neutrons), called the nucleus. identical to an electron. A positively 73 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

charged beta particle is called a positron. to aid in the cooling of water that isused to Large amounts of beta radiation may cause cool exhaust steam exiting the turbines of a skin burns, and beta emitters are harmful if power plant. Cooling towers transfer they enter the body. Beta particles may be exhaust heat into the air instead of into a stopped by thin sheets of metal or plasitc. body of water. Biological effectiveness factor: Neutrons Core: The central portion of a nuclear and alpha particles do more harm per unit reactor containing the fuel elements, mod- dose than photons or beta particles. An erator, neutron poisons, and support struc- experimentally determined value for this tures. difference is referred to as the relative bio- Core melt accident: An event or sequence logical effectiveness (RBE) and is mostly of events that result in the melting of part restricted to uses in the field of radiobiology. of the fuel in a nuclear reactor core. Appendix Each species tested, each target organ within that species, and each radionuclide cho- Cosmic radiation: Ionizing radiation, both Glossary of sen might give a different RBE. For particulate and electromagnetic, originating Radiation humans, a conservative upper limit of the in outer space. Terms RBE, called the quality factor (Q) or the Criticality: A term used in reactor physics radiation weighting factor (WR), is used to to describe the state when the number of determine the dose equivalent. neutrons released by fission is exactly bal- Carcinogen: A cancer-causing substance. anced by the neutrons being absorbed and escaping the reactor core. A reactor is said Chain reaction: A reaction that initiates to be “critical” when it achieves a self-sus- its own repetition. In a fission chain reac- taining nuclear chain reaction, as when the tion, a fissionable nucleus absorbs a neutron reactor is operating. and fissions spontaneously, releasing additional neutrons. These, in turn, can be Cumulative dose: The total dose to an absorbed by other fissionable nuclei, releas- individual resulting from repeated exposures ing still more neutrons. A fission chain of ionizing radiation to the same portion of reaction is self-sustaining when the number the body, or to the whole body, over a peri- of neutrons released in a given time equals od of time. or exceeds the number of neutrons lost by Curie (Ci): The basic unit used to describe absorption in nonfissionable material or by the intensity of radioactivity in a sample of escape from the system. material. The curie is equal to 37 billion (3 10 Charged particle: An ion. An elementary X 10 ) disintegrations per second, which is particle carrying a positive or negative elec- approximately the activity of 1 gram of radi- tric charge. um. A curie is also a quantity of any radionuclide that decays at a rate of 37 bil- Chronic exposure: Exposure to a substance lion disintegrations per second. It is named over a long period of time resulting in for Marie and Pierre Curie, who discovered adverse health effects. radium in 1898. Compact: A group of two or more States Decay, radioactive: The decrease in the formed to dispose of low-level radioactive amount of any radioactive material with the waste on a regional basis. Forty-four States passage of time due to the spontaneous have formed ten compacts. emission of radiation from the atomic Contamination: The deposition of unwant- nuclei (either alpha or beta particles, often ed radioactive material on the surfaces of accompanied by gamma radiation). structures, areas, objects, or people. It may Decommission: The process of closing also be airborne, external, or internal down a nuclear facility and reducing (inside components or people). radioactivity at the facility to a level safe for Cooling tower: A heat exchanger designed unrestricted use. 74 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Decontamination: The reduction or Element: One of the 103 known chemical removal of contaminated radioactive mate- substances that cannot be broken down fur- rial from a structure, area, object, or person. ther without changing its chemical proper- Decontamination may be accomplished by: ties. Some examples include, hydrogen, (1) treating the surface to remove or nitrogen, gold, lead, and uranium. decrease the contamination, (2) letting the Entomb: A method of decommissioning a material stand so that the radioactivity is nuclear facility in which radioactive con- decreased as a result of natural radioactive taminants are encased in long-lived materi- decay, or (3) covering the contamination to al, such as concrete. The entombment limit the radiation emitted. structure is maintained and monitored until Dose, absorbed: Represents the amount of the radioactivity decays to a level allowing energy absorbed from the radiation in a decommissioning and ultimately, safe unre- gram of any material. It is expressed numer- stricted use of the property. Appendix ically in rads. Epidemiological studies: Studies of the dis- Glossary of Dose equivalent (also called biological tribution of disease and other health issues dose): is a measure of the biological damage as related to age, sex, race, ethnicity, occu- Radiation to living tissue from the radiation exposure. pation, economic status, or other factors. Terms It takes into account the type of radiation Fallout, nuclear: The slow decent of and the absorbed dose. For example when minute particles of radioactive debris in the considering beta, X-ray, and gamma ray atmosphere following a nuclear explosion. radiation, the equivalent dose (expressed in rems) is equal to the absorbed dose Film badge: Photographic film used for (expressed in rads). For alpha radiation, the measurement of ionizing radiation exposure equivalent dose is assumed to be twenty for personnel monitoring purposes. The film times the absorbed dose. It is expressed badge may contain two or three films of dif- numerically in rem. fering sensitivities, and it may also contain a filter that shields part of the film from cer- Dose rate: The ionizing radiation dose tain types of radiation. delivered per unit time. For example, rem per hour. Fissile material: Although sometimes used as a synonym for fissionable material, this Dosimeter: A small portable instrument term has acquired a more restricted mean- (such as a film badge, thermoluminescent, ing. Namely, any material fissionable by or pocket dosimeter) for measuring and thermal (slow) neutrons. The three primary recording the total accumulated personnel fissile materials are uranium-233, uranium- dose of ionizing radiation. 235, and plutonium-239. Electromagnetic radiation: Radiation con- Fission (fissioning): The splitting of a sisting of electric and magnetic waves. A nucleus into at least two other nuclei and traveling wave motion resulting from the release of a relatively large amount of changing electric or magnetic fields. It energy. Two or three neutrons are usually ranges from X-rays (and gamma rays) with released during this type of transformation. short wavelength, through the ultraviolet, Fissioning is also referred to as burning. visible, and infrared regions, to radar and radio waves with relatively long wave Fuel cycle: The series of steps involved in length. supplying and managing fuel used in nuclear power reactors. It can include mining, Electron: An elementary particle with a milling, isotopic enrichment, fabrication of negative charge and a mass 1/1,837 that of fuel elements, use in a reactor, reenrich- the proton. Electrons surround the positive- ment of the fuel material, refabrication into ly charged nucleus and determine the new fuel elements, and waste disposal. chemical properties of the atom. 75 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Fuel rod: A long, slender tube that holds tive material that, under current law, must fissionable material and managing (fuel) be permanently isolated. used in nuclear reactor use. Fuel rods are Ion: (1) An atom that has too many or too assembled into bundles called fuel elements few electrons, causing it to have an electri- or fuel assemblies, which are loaded individ- cal charge, and therefore, be chemically ually into the reactor core. active. (2) An electron that is not associat- Fusion: A reaction in which at least one ed (in orbit) with a nucleus. heavier, more stable nucleus is produced Ionization: The process of adding one or from two lighter, less stable nuclei. more electrons to, or removing one or more Reactions of this type are responsible for electrons from, atoms or molecules, thereby enormous release of energy, as in the energy creating ions. High temperatures, electrical of stars, for example. Appendix discharges, or nuclear radiation can cause Gamma radiation: High-energy, short ionization. wavelength, electromagnetic radiation Ionizing radiation: Any radiation capable Glossary of emitted from the nucleus. Gamma radiation Radiation of displacing electrons from atoms or mole- frequently accompanies alpha and beta cules, thereby producing ions. Some exam- Terms emissions. Gamma rays are very penetrating ples are alpha, beta, gamma, and X-rays. and are best stopped or shielded by dense High doses of ionizing radiation may pro- materials, such as lead. Gamma rays are duce severe skin or tissue damage. similar to X-rays Irradiation: Exposure to radiation Geiger counter (or Geiger-Mueller counter): A radiation detection and measuring Isotope: One of two or more atoms with instrument. It consists of a gas-filled tube the same number of protons, but different containing electrodes, between which there numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. For is an electrical voltage, but no current flow- example, carbon-12, carbon-13, and car- ing. When ionizing radiation passes through bon-14 are isotopes of the element carbon, the tube, a short, intense pulse of current the numbers denote the approximate atom- passes from the negative electrode to the ic weights. Isotopes have very nearly the positive electrode and is measured or count- same chemical properties, but often differ- ed. The number of pulses per second meas- ent physical properties (for example, car- ures the intensity of the radiation field. It is bon-12 and -13 are stable, carbon-14 is the most commonly used portable radiation radioactive). instrument. Linear- no-threshold-hypothesis: The the- Half-life: The time in which one half of ory that the number of cancers and other the atoms of a particular radioactive sub- effects of exposure to low levels of radiation stance decay into another nuclear form. are proportionate to the number of cancers Half-lives vary from millionths of a second from exposure to high levels of radiation. to billions of years. The precise effects are uncertain because it is very difficult to directly measure the Hazardous Waste: By-products that can effects of low levels of radiation. pose a substantial or potential hazard to human health or the environment when Manhatten Project: The U.S. government improperly managed. Hazardous waste has program to develop the first atomic at least one of four characteristics— weapons during World War II. ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic, or is Mill-tailings: Naturally radioactive residue listed in regulations as hazardous. from the processing of uranium ore. High-level waste: Highly radioactive Although the milling process recovers about material resulting from the reprocessing of 93 percent of the uranium, the residues, or spent nuclear fuel and other highly radioac- tailings, contain several naturally-occurring 76 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD radioactive elements, including uranium, tissue so that a picture can be taken. thorium, radium, polonium, and radon. Nucleus: The small, central, positively Molecule: A group of atoms held together charged region of an atom that carries the by chemical forces. A molecule is the small- atom's nuclei. All atomic nuclei contain est unit of a compound that can exist by both protons and neutrons (except for ordi- itself and retain all of its chemical nary hydrogen, which has a single proton). properties. The number of protons determines the total Neutron: An uncharged elementary parti- positive charge, or atomic number. cle with a mass slightly greater than that of Nuclide: A general term referring to all the proton, and found in the nucleus of known isotopes, both stable (279) and every atom heavier than hydrogen. unstable (about 5,000), of the chemical ele- Non-ionizing radiation: Radiation that has ments. Appendix lower energy levels and longer wavelengths. Photon: A quantum (or packet) of energy It is not strong enough to affect the struc- emitted in the form of electromagnetic radi- Glossary of ture of atoms it contacts, but it does heat ation. Gamma rays and X-rays are examples Radiation tissue and can cause harmful biological of photons. Terms effects. Examples include radio waves, Picocurie: One trillionth of a curie. microwaves, visible light, and infrared from a heat lamp. Plutonium: A very heavy element formed when uranium-238 absorbs neutrons. Like NARM/NORM: Naturally Occurring and uranium, it has two principal isotopes that Accelerator-Produced Radioactive Materials are fissile. (NARM) include by-products of petroleum production, coal ash, phosphate fertilizer Poison, neutron: In reactor physics, a production, drinking water treatment, and material other than fissionable material, in other industrial processes. NORM is a sub- the vicinity of the reactor core that will set of NARM and includes everything in absorb neutrons. The addition of poisons, NARM except accelator-produced materi- such as control rods or boron, into the reac- als. The federal government has not devel- tor is said to be an addition of negative oped a comprehensive policy for reactivity. NORM/NARM disposal. Positron: Particle equal in mass, but oppo- Nuclear energy: The heat energy produced site in charge, to the electron (a positive by the process of nuclear reaction (fission or electron). fusion) within a nuclear reactor or by Power reactor: A reactor designed to pro- radioactive decay. duce heat for electric generation, as distin- Nuclear power plant: An electrical gener- guished from reactors used for research, for ating facility using a nuclear reactor as its producing radiation or fissionable materials, power (heat) source. The coolant that or for reactor component testing. removes heat from the reactor core is nor- Proton: An elementary nuclear particle mally used to boil water. The steam pro- with a positive electric charge located in duced by the boiling water drives turbines the nucleus of an atom. that rotate electrical generators. Quality factor: The factor by which the Nuclear tracers: Radioisotopes that give absorbed dose (rad) is multiplied to obtain a doctors the ability to “look” inside the body quantity that expresses, on a common scale and observe soft tissues and organs, in a for all ionizing radiation, the biological manner similar to the way X-rays provide damage (rem) to an exposed individual. It is images of bones. A radioactive tracer is used because some types of radiation, such chemically attached to a compound that as alpha particles, are more biologically will concentrate naturally in an organ or damaging internally than other types. 77 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Rad: The unit of absorbed dose, which is 5,000 natural and artificial radioisotopes the amount of energy from any type of ion- have been identified. izing radiation (e.g., alpha, beta, gamma, Radionuclide: A radioactive nuclide. An etc.) deposited in any medium (e.g., water, unstable isotope of an element that decays tissue, air). A dose of one rad means the or disintegrates spontaneously, emitting absorption of 100 ergs (a small but measura- radiation. ble amount of energy) per gram of absorbing tissue. Radiology: The branch of medicine dealing with the diagnostic and therapeutic Radiation: Energy in the form of waves or applications of radiation, including X-rays particles sent out over a distance. and radioisotopes. Radiation sickness (or syndrome): The Radon (Rn): A radioactive element that is Appendix complex of symptoms characterizing the dis- one of the heaviest gases known. Its atomic ease known as radiation injury, resulting number is 86. It is found naturally in soil from excessive exposure (greater than 200 Glossary of and rocks and is formed by the radioactive rads) of the whole body (or large part) to decay of radium. Radiation ionizing radiation. The earliest of these Terms symptoms are nausea, fatigue, vomiting, and Reactor, nuclear: A device in which diarrhea, which may be followed by loss of nuclear fission may be sustained and con- hair, hemorrhage, inflammation of the trolled in a self-supporting nuclear reaction. mouth and throat, and general loss of ener- There are different designs. gy. In severe cases, where the radiation Recycling: The reuse of slightly contami- exposure has been approximately 1,000 rad nated materials. or more, death may occur within two to Rem: The unit of measurement of dose four weeks. equivalent. The rem value takes into Radiation standards: Exposure limits, per- account both the amount, or dose, of radia- missible concentrations, rules for safe han- tion and the biological effect of the specific dling, regulations for transportation, and type of radiation. Rem equals the absorbed regulations controlling the use of radiation dose multiplied by the quality factor. (100 and radioactive material. rem = 1 sievert) Radiation warning symbol: An officially Reprocessing: The mechanical and chemi- prescribed symbol (a magenta or black tre- cal process of separating out usable products foil) on a yellow background that must be (like uranium and plutonium) from spent or displayed where certain quantities of depleted reactor fuel then re-enriching and radioactive materials are present or where re-fabricating them inor new fuel elements. certain doses of radiation could be received. Risk: In many health fields, risk means the Radioactive contamination: Deposition of probability of incurring injury, disease, or radioactive material in any place where it death. Risk can be expressed as a value that may harm persons, equipment, or the envi- ranges from zero (no injury or harm will ronment. occur) to one hundred percent (harm or Radioactivity: The emission of radiation, injury will definitely occur). generally alpha or beta particles, often Risk assessment: Qualitative and quanti- accompanied by gamma rays, from the tative evaluation of the risk posed to human nucleus of an unstable isotope. Also, the health and/or the environment by the actu- rate at which radioactive material emits al or potential presence of hazards. radiation. Roentgen: A unit of exposure to ionizing Radioisotope: An unstable isotope of an radiation. It is the amount of gamma or X- element that decays or disintegrates sponta- rays required to produce ions resulting in a neously, emitting radiation. Approximately 78 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD charge of 0.000258 coulombs/kilogram of used in today's nuclear reactors is the fissile air under standard conditions. isotope uranium-235. Somatic effects of radiation: Effects of Uranium Mill Tailings: See Mill Tailings. radiation limited to the exposed individual, Waste, radioactive: Solid, liquid, and as distinguished from genetic effects, which gaseous materials from nuclear operations or may also affect subsequent unexposed gen- TENORM activities that are radioactive or erations. become radioactive and for which there is Spent (depleted) fuel: Nuclear reactor fuel no further use. that has been used to the extent that it can Whole body exposure: An exposure of the no longer effectively sustain a chain reac- body to radiation, in which the entire body, tion. rather than an isolated part, is irradiated. Subatomic particles: The matter that X-rays: One type of electromagnetic radia- Appendix makes up atoms. It includes particles such tion which arises as electrons are deflected as neutrons, protons, electrons, and many from their original paths or inner orbital Glossary of more. electrons change their energy levels around Radiation Superfund: The program operated under the atomic nucleus. Like gamma rays, X- Terms the authority of the Comprehensive rays require more shielding to reduce their Environmental Response, Compensation, intensity than do beta or alpha particles. and Liability Act (CERCLA) and the Sources: Superfund Amendments and • Glossary of Nuclear Terms, Nuclear Reauthorization Act (SARA) that funds Regulatory Commission, and carries out EPA hazardous waste emer- • http://www.nrc.gov/NRC/EDUCATE/ gency and long-term removal and remedial GLOSSARY/index.html#N activities. • Fact Sheet, Health Physics Society, Terrestrial radiation: Radiation that is http://www.hps.org/publicinformation/ emitted by naturally occurring radioactive radfactsheets.cfm materials in the earth, such as uranium, • Glossary of Nuclear Terms, thorium, and radon. http://ie.lbl.gov/education/glossary/ Thermoluminescent dosimeter: A small glossaryf.htm, Lawrence Berkely device used to measure radiation dose by Laboratory measuring the amount of visible light emit- • Glossary of Nuclear Terms, Frontline, ted from a crystal in the detector. The PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/ amount of light emitted is proportional to frontline/shows/reaction/etc/terms.html the radiation dose received. • Terms of Environment, Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/ Thermonuclear: An adjective referring to OCEPAterms/intro.htm. the process in which very high temperatures are used to bring about the fusion of light nuclei, such as those of the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium, with the accompanying liberation of energy. Ultraviolet radiation: Radiation of a wavelength between the shortest visible violet rays and low energy X-rays. Unstable isotope: A radioactive isotope. Uranium: The heaviest element normally found in nature. The principal fuel material

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Appendix B: List of AcronymsB AC alternating current the Organization for AEC Atomic Energy Commission Economic Cooperation and Appendix ALARA as low as reasonably Development achievable NEI Nuclear Energy Institute List of BEIR U.S. Committee on NIEHS National Institute of Acronyms Biological Effects of Environmental Health Ionizing Radiation Sciences CERCLA Comprehensive NIH National Institutes of Health Environmental Response, NIMBY not in my backyard Compensation, and Liability NORM naturally occurring Act radioactive materials CAA Clean Air Act NPL National Priority List for DoD Department of Defense the Superfund program DOE Department of Energy NRC Nuclear Regulatory DOT Department of Commission Transportation OSHA Occupational Safety and EMF electric and magnetic fields Health Administration EPA U.S. Environmental pCi/L picocuries per liter Protection Agency PET positron emission FDA Food and Drug tomography Administration RCRA Resource Conservation IAEA International Atomic Energy and Recovery Act Agency rad radiation absorbed dose ICRP International Commission rem roentgen equivalent man on Radiological Protection RERT EPA Radiological ICRU International Commission of Emergency Response Radiological Units and Team Measurements RF radio frequency MRI magnetic resonance imaging RTG radioisotope thermoelec- NARM naturally occurring and tric generator accelerator-produced SAB EPA’s Science Advisory radioactive materials Board NAS National Academy of SARA Superfund Amendments Sciences and Reauthorization Act NCI National Cancer Institute SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act NCRP National Council on TENORM technologically enhanced Radiation Protection and naturally occurring Measurements radioactive material NEA Nuclear Energy Agency of TLD thermoluminescent dosimeter 81 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

TRANSCOM Transportation Tracking and Communication System UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation WIPP Waste Isolation Pilot Plant

Appendix

List of Acronyms

82 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Appendix C: Additional Resources and ReferencesC

American Nuclear Society profit professional organization whose pri- Appendix 555 North Kensington Avenue mary membership is made up of individuals La Grange Park, Illinois 60526 in state and local government who regulate Additional Phone: 708/352-6611 the use of radiation sources, and others Resources Fax: 708/352-0499 interested in radiation protection. and Email: [email protected] References http://www.ans.org Health Physics Society The American Nuclear Society is a not-for- 1313 Dolley Madison Boulevard profit, international, scientific and educa- Suite 402 tional organization. Its membership includes McLean, Virginia 22101 approximately 13,000 individuals represent- Phone: 703/790-1745 ing 1,600 plus corporations, educational Fax: 703/790-2672 institutions, and government agencies. Email: [email protected] http://www.hps.org Concerned Citizens for Nuclear Safety The Health Physics Society is an interna- 107 Cienega tional professional scientific organization Santa Fe, NM 87501 that is active in all aspects of radiation pro- Phone: 505/ 982-5611 tection including information dissemina- Fax: 505/986-0997 tion, standards development, education, Email: [email protected] preparation of position papers, and promo- http://www.nuclearactive.org/ tion of scientific conferences and commit- Concerned Citizens for Nuclear Safety is a tees. nonprofit, nonpartisan organization that works to increase public awareness about Idaho State University radioactivity and the nuclear industry. It Department of Physics and Health particularly focuses on Los Alamos National Physics Laboratory (LANL) and the Waste Radiation Information Network Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP). Campus Box 8106 Pocatello, ID 83209 Conference of Radiation Control Program Phone: 208/236-2350 Directors, Inc. Fax: 208/236-4649 205 Capital Avenue Email: [email protected] Frankfort, KY 40601 http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/ Phone: 502/227-4543 This Idaho State University’s Radiation Fax: 502/227-7862 Information Network web site contains a http://www.crcpd.org/ wide range of information about Radiation The Conference of Radiation Control and the professions of Radiation Protection. Program Directors, Inc. (CRCPD) is a non- 83 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Institute for Energy and Environmental Email: [email protected] Research http://www.ncrp.com 6935 Laurel Avenue The National Council on Radiation Takoma Park, MD 20912 Protection and Measurements (NCRP) Phone: 301/270-5500 seeks to formulate and disseminate informa- Fax: 301/270-3029 tion, guidance and recommendations on Email: [email protected] radiation protection and measurements http://www.ieer.org which represent the consensus of leading The Institute for Energy and Environmental scientific thinking. Research is a nonprofit organization funded primarily through private foundation grants. National Institute of Environmental It provides activists, policymakers, journal- Health Sciences Appendix ists, and the public with understandable sci- Department of Health and entific and technical information on energy Human Services Additional and environmental issues, particularly P.O. Box 12233 Resources nuclear materials and technologies. 111 Alexander Drive and Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 References International Atomic Energy Agency Phone: 919/541-3345 P.O. Box 100, Wagramer Strasse 5 http://www.niehs.nih.aol A-1400 Vienna, Austria The National Institute of Environmental Phone: +431-2600-0 Health Sciences (NIEHS) undertakes bio- Fax: +431-2600-7 medical research, prevention and interven- Email: [email protected] tion efforts, and training, education, tech- http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/ nology transfer, and community outreach. It The International Atomic Energy Agency focuses on human health and human (IAEA) serves as the world's central inter- disease that result from three interactive governmental forum for scientific and tech- elements: environmental factors, individual nical co-operation in the nuclear field, and susceptibility, and age. as the international inspector of nuclear safeguards and verification measures in National Safety Council/ civilian nuclear programs. Environmental Health Center 1025 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 1200 International Commission on Radiological Washington, DC 20036 Protection Phone: 202/293-2270 S-171 16 Stockholm, Sweden Fax: 202/293-0032 Phone: +46-8-7297275 [email protected] Fax: +46-8-7297298 http://www.nsc.org/ehc.htm Email: [email protected] The Environmental Health Center is a divi- http://www.icrp.org sion of the National Safety Council, a The Commission works to advance for the nongovernmental, nonprofit public service public benefit the science of radiological organization. EHC provides information protection, in particular by providing rec- and resources on a range of environmental ommendations on all aspects of radiation issues. protection. Nevada Nuclear Waste Project Office National Council on Radiation 1802 N. Carson Street, Suite 252 Protection and Measurements Carson City, NV 89701 7910 Woodmont Avenue, Suite 800 Phone: 775/687-3744 Bethesda, MD 20814-3095 Fax: 775/687-5277 Phone: 301/657-2652 Email: [email protected] Fax: 301/907-8768 http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste 84 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

The State of Nevada’s agency for nuclear Nuclear Information and Resources Projects works to assure that the health, Service safety, and welfare of Nevada's citizens, 1424 16th Street NW, Suite 404 environment and economy are adequately Washington, DC 20036 protected with regard to any federal high- Phone: 202/328-0002 level nuclear waste disposal activities in the Fax: 202/462-2183 state. Email: [email protected] http://www.nirs.org New Mexico Environmental Evaluation The Nuclear Information and Resources Group Service is the information and networking 7007 Wyoming Blvd NE, Suite F-2 center for citizens and environmental Albuquerque, NM 87109 organizations concerned about nuclear Phone: 505/828-1003 power, radioactive waste, radiation, and Appendix Fax: 505/828-1062 sustainable energy issues. Email: [email protected] Additional http://www.eeg.org Southern States Energy Board Resources The New Mexico Environment Evaluation 6325 Amherst Court and Group (EEG) is an interdisciplinary group Norcross, GA 30092 References of scientists and engineers funded by the Phone: 770/242-7712 U.S. Department of Energy. EEG provides Fax: 770/242-0421 independent technical evaluation of the http://www.sseb.org/cpa_rmt.htm Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) to The Southern States Energy Board (SSEB) ensure the protection of public health and is a non-profit interstate compact organiza- safety, and the environment of New tion of 16 southern states and two territo- Mexico. ries. SSEB develops, promotes and recommends policies and programs which protect New Mexico WIPP Transportation Safety and enhance the environment without Program compromising the needs of future genera- 2040 South Pacheco tions. It has a Radioactive Materials Santa Fe, NM 87505 Transportation Committee which partici- Phone: 505/827-5950 pates in the policymaking process concern- http://www.emnrd.state.nm.us/wipp ing the U.S. Department of Energy's The State of New Mexico has implemented radioactive materials transportation the WIPP Transportation Safety Program to programs. ensure the safe and uneventful transportation of radioactive waste to the Department Union of Concerned Scientists of Energy’s Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 2 Brattle Square, (WIPP) in southeastern New Mexico. Cambridge, MA 02238-9105 Phone: 617-547-5552 Nuclear Energy Institute Email: [email protected] 176 I Street, NW, Suite 400 http://www.ucsusa.org Washington, DC 20006 The Union of Concerned Scientists is an Phone: 202/739-8009 independent nonprofit organization repre- Fax: 573/445-2135 senting scientists and other citizens around Email: [email protected] the country. It does research, public educa- http://www.nei.org tion and citizen advocacy particularly on The Nuclear Energy Institute represents the environmental and related issues. commercial nuclear energy industry. It advocates policies that ensure the beneficial uses of nuclear energy and related technologies. 85 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

U.S. Department of Energy 2355 Bonisteel Blvd. 600 Maryland Avenue, NW, Suite 760 Ann Arbor, MI 48109 Washington, DC 20024 Phone: 734/764-4260 Phone: 202/488-6220 Fax: 734/763-4540 National Transuranic Waste Program Email: [email protected] P.O. Box 3090 http://www.engin.umich.edu/~nuclear Carlsbad, NM 88221-3090 The University of Michigan’s Department Phone: 505/234-7302 of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Email: [email protected] Sciences conducts research and provides http://www.wipp.carlsbad.nm.us education on range of issues including radi- The U.S. Department of Energy is the fed- ation detection, fission power, fusion power, eral agency responsible for developing and radiological health, and waste management. Appendix managing the country’s nuclear weapons, and for managing its waste and cleaning up Western Governors’ Association Additional its facilities. In addition, DOE has more 600 17th Street Resources 30,000 scientists and engineers conducting Denver, CO 80202-5452 research. The National Transuranic Waste Phone: 303/623-9378 and Program manages the Waste Isolation Pilot Email: [email protected] References Plant (WIPP) Facility. http://www.westgov.org/wipp The Western Governors' Association is an U.S. Environmental Protection Agency independent, non-partisan organization of Ariel Rios Building governors from 18 western states, two 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. Pacific-flag territories and one common- Washington, DC 20460 wealth. The Association addresses key poli- Phone: 202/564-9290 cy and governance issues in natural http://www.epa.gov/radiation resources, the environment, human servic- The U.S. Environmental Protection es, economic development, international Agency (EPA) is an independent federal relations and public management. agency that works to protect human health and to safeguard the natural environment – State Radiation Program Contacts air, water, and land. List of state radiation program contacts available at: http://www.hsrd.ornl. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission gov/nrc/asframe.htm 11555 Rockville Pike Rockville, MD 20852-2738 Publications Phone: 301/415-7000 http://www.nrc.gov “1997 Findings and Recommendations: The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Report to The U.S. Congress and The (NRC) is an independent federal agency Secretary of Energy.” U.S. Nuclear Waste responsible for overseeing the use of nuclear Technical Review Board (Arlington, VA, materials in the United States. NRC's scope undated) of responsibility includes regulation of commercial nuclear power reactors; medical, “A Fact Sheet on the Health Effects from academic, and industrial uses of nuclear Ionizing Radiation” materials; and the transport, storage, and (ANR459)(http://www.epa. disposal of nuclear materials and waste. gov/radiation/ionize2.htm). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of University of Michigan Radiation & Indoor Air, Radiation Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Protection Division (Washington, DC, June Sciences 1991) 1906 Cooley Building 86 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

A Reporter’s Guide to the Waste Isolation Pilot “Chronology of Key Political and Policy Plant (WIPP). National Safety Council, Developments Regarding The Yucca Environmental Health Center Mountain Repository Program” (Washington, DC, September 1997) (http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/yucca/chro no.htm). State of Nevada, Nuclear Waste Accelerating Cleanup: Paths to Closure Project Office (Carson City, NV, undated) (DOE/EM-0342). U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environmental “A Citizen’s Guide To Radon.” U.S. Management (Washington, DC, February Environmental Protection Agency 1998) (Washington, DC, September 1992)

“ACHRE Report: How Do Scientists “Clinically Observed Effects in Individuals Determine the Long-Term Risks from Exposed to Radiation as a Result of the Appendix Radiation?” (http://tisnt.eh.doe.gov/ohre/ Chernobyl Accident” roadmap/achre/intro_9_8.html). U.S. (http://www.iaea.or.at/world Additional Department of Energy, Advisory Committee atom/thisweek/preview/chernobyl/paper1.ht Resources on Human Radiation Experiments ml). International Atomic Energy Agency and (Washington, DC, June 11, 1996) (Vienna, Austria, undated) References “Americans ambivalent on nuclear power use: Poll finds only 45% support it for ener- Closing the Circle on the Splitting of the gy.” The Associated Press (Washington, Atom (DOE/EM-0266). U.S. Department DC, March 19, 1999) of Energy, Office of Environmental Management (Washington, DC, January “An Overview of Mixed Waste” 1996) (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/mixed- waste/mw_pg3.htm). U.S. Environmental Committed to Results: DOE’s Environmental Protection Agency, Mixed Waste Team Management Program (DOE/EM-0152P) (Washington, DC, Feb. 6, 1998) U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environmental Management (Washington, An SAB Report: Future Issues in DC, April 1994) Environmental Radiation (EPA-SAB-RAC- 95-006). U.S. Environmental Protection “Consumer’s Guide to Radon Reduction.” Agency, Science Advisory Board, Radiation U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Futures Subcommittee (Washington, DC, August 1992) (Washington, DC, March 1995) “Decommissioning of Nuclear Power Plants “Assessment of Health Effects from (http://www.nei.org/pressrm/facts/infob17.ht Exposure to Power-Line Frequency Electric m). Nuclear Energy Institute (Washington, and Magnetic Fields: Working Group DC, February 1998) Report” (http://www.niehs.nih.gov/ emfrapid/html/WGReport/doc.html). “Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste” National Institutes of Health, National (http://www.nei.org/library/infob30.htm). Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Nuclear Energy Institute (Washington, DC, (Washington, DC, June 1998) April 1998) “Disposal of Naturally Occurring and “Background on 40 CFR Part 197: Accelerator-Produced Radioactive Materials Environmental Radiation Protection (NARM).” Radioactive Waste Disposal: An Standards for Yucca Mountain.” Capt. Environmental Perspective (EPA 402-K-94- Raymond L. Clark, U.S. Environmental 001). U.S. Environmental Protection Protection Agency, Office of Radiation and Agency, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, Indoor Air (Washington, DC, undated) 87 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Radiation Protection Division “Food Irradiation” (Washington, DC, August 1994) (http://www.nei.org/pressrm/facts/infob34.ht m). Nuclear Energy Institute (Washington, Electromagnetic Fields and Human Health. DC, 1998) John E. Moulder, Ph.D., Professor of Radiation Oncology, Medical College of “Frequently Asked Questions about Mixed Wisconsin (Madison, WI, June 1998) Waste” (http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/mixed- “EMFs’ Biological Influences: waste/mw_pg 17.htm). U.S. Environmental Electromagnetic fields exert effects on and Protection Agency, Mixed Waste Team through hormones” (http://www.science- (Washington, DC, Dec. 8, 1998) news.org/sn_arc98/1_10_98/bob1.htm). Appendix Janet Raloff, Science News Online “Haste Makes Waste” (http://www.essen- (Washington, DC, Jan. 10, 1998) tial.org/orgs/FOE/scissors95/greenpart13.htm Additional l). Friends of the Earth, Green Scissors Resources Report (San Francisco, CA, undated) and “Experts Critical of DOE Technical Report “Hazard-Based Classification of Nuclear on Yucca Mountain” (http://www.nas.edu/ References Waste – A Wiser Arrangement” onpi/pr/nov95/yucca.html). National (http://www.nonukes.org/w29hazl.htm). Academy of Sciences, National Research Ward A. Young, Nuclear Guardianship Council (Washington, DC, Nov. 30, 1995) Forum, #3 (Spring 1994)

“Fact Sheet: Setting Environmental “Health and Environmental Impacts of Standards For Yucca Mountain” Nuclear Weapons Production: Radioactivity (http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/yucca/fac- in the Fernald Neighborhood” trev.htm). U.S. Environmental Protection (http://www.ieer.org/ieer/sdafiles/vol_5/5- Agency, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, 3/fern-res.html). Arjun Makhijani, Institute Radiation Protection Division for Energy and Environmental Reserch (Washington, DC, Jan. 21, 1998) (Takoma Park, MD, March 1997)

“Facts about Food Irradiation” “High-Level Nuclear Waste” (http://www.iaea.or.at:80/worldatom/infore- (http://www.nei.org/library/infob31.htm). source/other/food/status.html). Food and Nuclear Energy Institute (Washington, DC, Agricultural Organization, International June 1998) Atomic Energy Agency and World Health Organization, International Consultative “High-Level Waste: What will we do with Group on Food Irradiation (Vienna, used nuclear fuel?” Nuclear Energy Institute Austria, undated) (Washington, DC, undated)

“Failure of the Nuclear Regulatory “Home Buyer’s and Seller’s Guide to Commission: Whistleblowers are doing the Radon.” U.S. Environmental Protection NRC’s job” (http://www.igc.apc.org/nrd Agency (Washington, DC, July 2000) c/bkgrd/nuusnrc.html). Natural Resources Defense Council (New York, NY, 1996) “How Can We Face the Challenge? – Fifty “Food Irradiation” Years at a Time” (http://www.acesag.auburn.edu/department/f (http://www.nonukes.org/r05howca.htm). amily/foodsafe/irrad.htm). W.T. Roberts and Molly Young Brown, Nuclear Guardianship Jean Olds Weese, Auburn University Library (undated) (Auburn, AL, undated) 88 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

“How Do Radioactive Materials Move “Issues Paper on Radiation Site Cleanup Through the Environment to People?” Regulations” (http://www.epa.gov/radia- (RER-25) (http://www.ag.ohio- tion/cleanup/html/issueppr.txt). U.S. state.edu/~rer/rerhtml/rer_25.html). Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Office of State University Extension Research Radiation and Indoor Air (Washington, (Columbus, OH, undated) DC, September 1993)

“Human Radiation Experiments.” Interim “Key Federal Laws and Regulations” Report of the Advisory Committee on (http://www.rw.doe.gov/pages/intro/96ar/ocr Human Radiation Experiments wm008.htm). U.S. Department of Energy, (Washington, DC, Oct. 21, 1994) Office of Environmental Management, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste “International law and nuclear energy: Management (Washington, DC, 1996) Appendix Overview of the legal framework” (http://ecoluinfo.unige.ch/colloques/Cherno Additional byl/Pages/Opelz.html). Mohamed Elbaradei, “Leukemia Clusters Near La Hague and Resources Edwin Nwogugu, and John Rames, Sellafield” (http://www.ieer.org/ and International Atomic Energy Agency ieer/ensec/no-4/lahague.html). Anita Seth, References (Vienna, Austria, undated) Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (Takoma Park, MD, February “Ionizing Radiation Series No. 1” 1998) (ANR459) (http://www.epa.gov/ radiation/ionize.htm). U.S. Environmental “Living with Radiation.” National Protection Agency, Office of Radiation & Geographic, Vol. 175, No. 4, pp. 402-437 Indoor Air, Radiation Protection Division (Washington, DC, April 1989) (Washington, DC, September 1990) “Low-Level Radioactive Waste Fact Sheets” “Ionizing Radiation-It’s Everywhere!” Los (RER-00, -10, -12, -13, -14, -32, -33, -40, - Alamos Science, Number 23, Los Alamos 41, -42, -43, -44, -45, -46, -47, -49, -50, -61, National Laboratory (Los Alamos, NM, -65, and –66) (http://www.ag.ohio- 1995) state.edu/~rer/). Ohio State University Extension Research (Columbus, OH, “Irradiation in the Production, Processing undated) and Handling of Food” (21 CFR Part 179). Federal Register, Vol. 62, No. 232, pp. “Low-Level Waste: What should we know 64101-64107, U.S. Department of Health about it?” Nuclear Energy Institute and Human Services, Food and Drug (Washington, DC, undated) Administration (Washington, DC, Dec. 3, 1997) “Managing Used Fuel from Nuclear Power Plants” (http://www.nei.org/pressr “Irradiation: A Safe Measure for Safer m/briefs/usedfuel.htm). Nuclear Energy Food” (http://www.fda.gov/fdac/fea- Institute (Washington, DC, February 1998) tures/1998/398_rad.html). FDA Consumer, U.S. Food and Drug Administration “Medical and Industrial Uses of Radioactive (Washington, DC, May-June 1998) Materials” (http://www.nei.org/pressrm “Irradiation-An Overview of a Safe /facts/infob35.htm). Nuclear Energy Alternative to Fumigation.” U.S. Institute (Washington, DC, February 1998) Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (Washington, DC, October 1997) 89 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

“Medical Waste: Trojan Horse? ‘Don’t get mr.edu/~ans/QA.html). University of hooked by medical arguments’” Missouri-Rolla American Nuclear Society (http://www.nonukes.org/r07waste.htm) (Rolla, MO, undated) Wendy Oser, Nuclear Guardianship Forum, #3, Spring 1994 “Radiation and Risk: A Hard Look at the Data.” Los Alamos Science, Number 23, “Mixed Waste FAQ” Los Alamos National Laboratory (Los (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/mixed- Alamos, NM, 1995) waste/mw_pg17.htm). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Mixed Waste Team “Radiation Protection Today and (Washington, DC, March 4, 1998) Tomorrow: An Assessment of the Present Status and Future Perspectives of Radiation Appendix “Nuclear Energy: Pros, Cons, and Prospects” Protection” (http://www.nea.fr/html (http://www.lehigh.edu/~ghh2/index.html). /rp/rp.html). Organization for Economic Additional Kyle Kononowitz, Jared Hess, and Gregg Cooperation and Development, Nuclear Resources Hilzer, Lehigh University (Bethlehem, PA, Energy Agency, Committee on Radiation and undated) Protection and Public Health (Paris, References France, 1993) “Nuclear Power Plant Oversight: Industry and Government Roles” “Radiation Roulette” (http://www.newscien- (http://www.nei.org/pressrm/facts/infob10.ht tist.com/ns/971115/radiation.html). New m). Nuclear Energy Institute (Washington, Scientist (Great Britain, Nov. 15, 1997) DC, February 1998) “Radiation Standards and Organizations: A The Nuclear Waste Primer. League of Woman Historical Perspective” Voters Education Fund (Washington, DC, (http://www.nei.org/pressrm 1993) /facts/infob25.htm). Nuclear Energy Institute (Washington, DC, February 1998) “Orphaned Sources Initiative” (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/cleanmetals/o Radiation: Risks and Realities (EPA 402-K- rphan.htm). U.S. Environmental Protection 92-004). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, Agency, Office of Air and Radiation Radiation Protection Division (Washington, DC, August 1993) (Washington, DC, undated) “Radiation Waste: Too Hot to Handle? An “Plant Regulation” Interview With Dr. Rustum Roy on How To (http://www.nei.org/safe/reg.htm). Nuclear Package Nuclear Waste” Energy Institute (Washington, DC, (http://www.nonukes.org/r27pack.htm). undated) Francis Macy, Nuclear Guardianship Forum, Issue 2, Spring 1993 “Questions and Answers about EMF: Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated Radioactive Waste Disposal: An with the Use of Electric Power” Environmental Perspective (EPA 402-K-94- (http://www.niehs.nih.gov/oc/factsheets/emf 001). U.S. Environmental Protection /emf.htm). National Institutes of Health, Agency, Office of Radiation & Indoor Air, National Institute of Environmental Health Radiation Protection Division Sciences (Washington, DC, January 1995 (Washington, DC, August 1994) (revised Jan. 27, 1998)) “Radioactive Waste: Production, Storage, “Questions and Answers about Nuclear Disposal” (NUREG/BR-0216). U.S. Energy” (http://www.nuc.u 90 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Nuclear Regulatory Commission Radiation and Dose” (http://www.ieer. (Washington, DC, July 1996) org/ieer/ensec/no-4/units.html). Institute for Energy and Environmental Research “Radioactive Waste: Yucca Mountain May (Takoma Park, MD, February 1998) Be Unstable For Permanent Repository, Study Finds” “Site Recommendation” (http://www.junkscience.com/news/yucca.ht (http://www.ymp.gov/timeline/sr/index.htm) m). Bureau of National Affairs, Daily . U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environment Report (Washington, DC, Civilian Radioactive Waste Management March 30, 1998) (Washington, DC, undated)

“Radionuclides (Uranium, Radium, and “State or Federal Regulations: Which do I Radon)” (wysiwyg://42/http:www. use?” (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/mixed- Appendix epa.gov/ttn/uatw/hlthef/radionuc.html). waste/mw_pg6.htm) U.S. Environmental U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Protection Agency, Mixed Waste Team Additional Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards (Washington, DC, Feb. 6, 1998) Resources (Washington, DC, May 26, 1998) and “Static Electric and Magnetic Fields and References Ready to Respond (EPA 520/1-91-027). U.S. Cancer FAQs” (http://www.mcw.edu/ Environmental Protection Agency, Office of gcrc/cop/static-fields-cancer-FAQ/toc.html); Air and Radiation (Washington, DC, and “Cellular Phone Antennas and Human February 1992) Health” (http://mcw.edu/gcrc/cop/cell- phone-health-FAQ/toc.html). The Regulation and Use of Radioisotopes in Today’s World (NUREG/BR-0217). U.S. “Sustainable Development and Nuclear Nuclear Regulatory Commission Power” (http://www.iaea.org/ (Washington, DC, July 1996) worldatom/inforesource/other/development/index.html). International Atomic “Regulatory History of Mixed Waste” Energy Agency (Vienna, Austria, undated) (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/mixed- waste/mw_pg4.htm). U.S. Environmental “The TMI 2 Accident: Its Impact, Its Protection Agency, Mixed Waste Team Lessons” (http://www.nei.org/ (Washington, DC, April 9, 1998) pressrm/facts/infob19.htm). Nuclear Energy Institute (Washington, DC, April 1998) “Safety in Motion: Transportation of radioactive materials.” Nuclear Energy “TIP:36-Biological Effects of Radiation” Institute (Washington, DC, undated) (http://www.nrc.gov/OPA/gmo/tip9836.htm). U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission “Science for the Critical Masses: Radiation (Washington, DC, undated) Doses” (http://www.ieer.org/ieer/ensec/no- 4/dose-exp.html). Institute for Energy and “Transporting Radioactive Materials” Environmental Research (Takoma Park, (http://www.nei.org/pressrm/facts/infob32.ht MD, February 1998) m). Nuclear Energy Institute (Washington, DC, April 1998) “Science For The Critical Masses: Radiation Protection” (http://www.ieer.org/ The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s ieer/ensec/no-4/protec.html). Institute for Regulatory Program. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Energy and Environmental Research Commission, Office of Nuclear Material Safety (Takoma Park, MD, February 1998) and Safeguards (Washington, DC, undated) “Science for the Critical Masses: Units of 91 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

“Waste Disposal” (http://www.em.doe.gov/em30/wastdisp.htm l) U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environmental Management, Office of Waste Management (Washington, DC, April 14, 1998)

“What Are the Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation?” (RER-24); “How Are People Protected From Ionizing Radiation?” (RER- 26) (http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~rer/rer html/rer_24.html;rer_26.html). Ohio State Appendix University Extension Research (Columbus, OH, undated) Additional Resources “What Are the Sources of Ionizing Radiation?” (RER-22) (http://www.ag.ohio- and state.edu/~rer/rerhtml/rer_22.html). Ohio References State University Extension Research (Columbus, OH, undated)

“What Is Radioactive Material and How Does It Decay?” (RER-20); “What Is Ionizing Radiation?” (RER-21); “How is Ionizing Radiation Measured?” (RER-23) (http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~rer/rerhtml). Ohio State University Extension Research (Columbus, OH, undated)

“What Processes Use Radioactive Materials?” (RER-11) (http://www.ohio- line.ag.ohiostate.edu/~rer/rerhtml/rer_11.ht ml). Ohio State University Extension Research (Columbus, OH, undated)

“What We Know About Radiation.” National Institutes of Health, Office of Communications (Washington, DC, April 11, 1994)

“White Paper: Research Needs for Nonionizing Radiation” (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ctwpnira.html). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Washington, DC/Atlanta, GA, March 1998)

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Appendix D: Brief Chronology of Radioactive Materials and RadioactiveD Waste in the United States Appendix 1895 Roentgen discovers X-rays. nuclear chain reaction in a 1896 First diagnostic X-ray in US. lab at the University of Brief 1898 Marie & Pierre Curie coin Chicago. Chronology word “radioactivity.” 1946 Atomic Energy Act is passed; of 1903 Marie and Pierre Curie establishes Atomic Energy Radioactive awarded the Nobel Prize for Commission. Materials Physics. 1946 The U.S. Advisory and 1905 Albert Einstein develops Committee was reorganized Radioactive theory about the relationship and renamed the National Waste in of mass and energy. Committee on Radiation 1910 Curie unit defined as activity Protection and operating out the United of 1 gram of radium. of the Bureau of Standards. States 1915 The British Roentgen Society 1951 First electricity is generated adopted a resolution to from atomic power at EBR-1 protect people from Idaho National Engineering overexposure Lab, Idaho Falls. to X-rays. 1954 Atomic Energy Act of 1954 is 1922 Many American organizations passed to promote the adopted the British protection peaceful uses of nuclear rules. energy through private 1925-1929 The saga of radium dial enterprises and to implement painters unfolds. President Eisenhower's Atoms 1928 Organization of US Advisory for Peace Program. Committee on X-ray and 1954 The first nuclear submarine, Radium Protection U.S.S. Nautilus, is launched. (predecessor of National 1955 Arco, Idaho becomes the fist Council on Radiation U.S. town to be powered by Protection). nuclear energy. 1939 Enrico Fermi patents first 1957 The first U.S. large-scale reactor (conceptual plans). nuclear power plant begins 1942 The Manhattan Project is operating in Shipingport, formed to secretly build the Pennsylvania. atomic bomb before the 1957 United Nations establishes Germans. the International Atomic 1942 Enrico Fermi demonstrates Energy Agency (IAEA) the first self-sustaining

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1958 Bureau of Radiological Health 1976 The Resource Conservation organized within US Public and Recovery Act (RCRA) is Health Service. passed to protect human 1959 Federal Radiation Council health and the environment (FRC) formed to advise the from the potential hazards of US President about radiation waste disposal. matters, especially standards. 1977 The U.S. Department of 1962 The first commercial low- Energy replaces the Energy level waste disposal site was Research and Development established in Beatty, Nevada. Administration. 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation 1977 Maxey Flats, Kentucky low- Treaty calling for halting the level waste site closed after Appendix spread of nuclear weapons some radioactive materials capabilities is signed. migrated from the site and the Brief 1970 U.S. Environmental state imposed additional sur Chronology Protection Agency is formed. charges making disposal of Responsibilities include uneconomical. radiation protection. 1978 Sheffield, Illinois low-level Radioactive 1970 National Environmental waste site closed after Materials Policy Act is signed requiring reaching capacity. and the Federal government to 1979 Three Mile Island Radioactive review the environmental (Middletown, Pa) nuclear Waste in impact of any action - such as power plant suffers hydrogen the United construction of a facility - explosions and a partial core States that might significantly affect meltdown. the environment. 1979 Beaty, Nevada and Richland, 1971 Six commercial low-level Washington low-level waste waste sites operating. sites closed temporarily 1972 Computer axial tomography, because damaged and leaking commonly known as CAT nuclear waste containers were scanning, is introduced. A being delivered. CAT scan combines many 1980 The Low-Level Radioactive high-definition cross-sectional Waste Policy Act is passed, X-rays to produce a two- making states responsible for dimensional image of a the disposal of their own low- patients anatomy. level nuclear waste, such as 1972 AEC reveals that since 1946 from the hospitals and radioactive waste was dumped industry. off shore of US coast; biggest 1980 The Comprehensive dumps near San Francisco, Environmental Response, CA, 47,500 55-gallon drums. Compensation, and Liability 1974 Atomic Energy Commission is Act (also known as Super abolished and the Nuclear fund) is passed in response to Regulatory Commission and the discovery in the late the Energy Research and 1970s of a large number of Development Administration abandoned, leaking hazardous are established. waste dumps. 1975 West Valley, New York low- 1983 The Nuclear Waste Policy level waste site closed after Act of 1982 is signed, water overflowed from two of authorizing the development its burial trenches. 94 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

of a high-level nuclear waste 1993 The Beatty, Nevada, low-level repository. waste site closed to low-level 1985 Because no low-level waste waste. state compacts had yet been 1996 The United Nations ratified or sites selected, approves the Comprehensive Congress amended the act to Test Ban Treaty which bans create siting milestones, nuclear test explosions deadlines for compliance, and 1999 An accident at the uranium penalties for failure to meet processing plant at the deadlines. It provided that Tokaimura, Japan, exposed on Jan. 1, 1993, the three fifty-five workers to radiation. states with sites (Washington, One worker later dies. South Carolina and Nevada) 1999 The Waste Isolation Pilot Appendix could refuse to accept low- Plant began receiving level waste generated outside shipments of transuranic Brief their borders by states that are waste. Chronology not in their respective of compacts. Sources: Radioactive 1986 Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor Materials meltdown and fire occur in “A Brief Chronology of Radiation and the Soviet Union. Much Protection.” by J. Ellsworth Weaver III and radioactive material is 1994,1995, http://www.sph.umich. Radioactive released. edu/eih/UMSCHPS/chrono.htm#top Waste in 1987 Nuclear Waste Policy the United Amendments Act designates The Nuclear Waste Primer, League of States Yucca Mountain, Nevada, for Women Voters, 1993 scientific investigation as only candidate site for the US's “Radiation Protection: An Historical first geological repository for Perspective,” U.S. Environmental high-level radioactive waste Protection Agency and spent nuclear fuel. 1989 DOE changes its focus from “Nuclear Age Timeline,” U.S. Department nuclear materials production of Energy to environmental cleanup by forming the Office of Environmental Restoration and Waste Management. 1991 The United States and Soviet Union sign historic agreement to cut back on long-range nuclear weapons by ore than 30 percent over the next seven years. 1992 The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) Land Withdrawal Act withdraws public lands for WIPP, a test repository for transuranic nuclear waste located in a salt deposit deep under the desert. 95 BLANK UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Appendix E: Major Uses of RadioisotopesE

Americium-241 – Used in many smoke Chromium-51 – Used in research in red Appendix detectors for homes and businesses ... to blood cell survival studies. measure levels of toxic lead in dried paint Major Uses samples ... to ensure uniform thickness in Cobalt-57 – Used as a tracer to diagnose of Radioiso- rolling processes like steel and paper pro- pernicious anemia. topes duction ... and to help determine where oil wells should be drilled. Cobalt-60 – Used to sterilize surgical instruments ... and to improve the safety and reli- Cadmium-109 – Used to analyze metal ability of industrial fuel oil burners. Used in alloys for checking stock, scrap sorting. cancer treatment, food irradiation, gauges, and radiography. Calcium-47 – Important aid to biomedical researchers studying the cellular functions Copper-67 – When injected with mono- and bone formation in mammals. clonal antibodies into a cancer patient, helps the antibodies bind to and destroy the Californium-252 – Used to inspect airline tumor. luggage for hidden explosives ... to gauge the moisture content of soil in the road Curium-244 – Used in mining to analyze construction and building industries ... and material excavated from pits ... and slurries to measure the moisture of materials stored from drilling operations. in soils. Gallium-67 – Used in medical diagnosis. Carbon-14 – Major research tool. Helps in research to ensure that potential new drugs Iodine-123 – Widely used to diagnose thy- are metabolized without forming harmful roid disorders and other metabolic disorders by-products. Used in biological research, including brain function. agriculture, pollution control, and archeology. Iodine-125 – Major diagnostic tool used in clinical tests and to diagnose thyroid disor- Cesium-137 – Used to treat cancerous ders. Also used in biomedical research. tumors ... to measure correct patient dosages of radioactive pharmaceuticals ... to meas- Iodine-129 – Used to check some radioac- ure and control the liquid flow in oil tivity counters in in vitro diagnostic testing pipelines ... to tell researchers whether oil laboratories. wells are plugged by sand ... and to ensure the right fill level for packages of food, Iodine-131 – Used to treat thyroid disor- drugs and other products. (The products in ders. (Former President George Bush and these packages do not become radioactive.) Mrs. Bush were both successfully treated for 97 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Graves' disease, a thyroid disease, with Strontium-85 – Used to study bone forma- iodine- 131.) tion and metabolism.

Iridium-192 – Used to test the integrity of Sulphur-35 – Used in survey meters by pipeline welds, boilers and aircraft parts and schools, the military and emergency man- in brachytherapy/tumor irradiation. agement authorities. Also used in cigarette manufacturing sensors and medical treat- Iron-55 – Used to analyze electroplating ment. solutions and to detect the presence of sulphur in the air. Used in metabolism Technetium-99m – Used in genetics and research. molecular biology research. The most widely used radioactive pharmaceutical for diag- Appendix Krypton-85 – Used in indicator lights in nostic studies in nuclear medicine. Different appliances such as clothes washers and dry- chemical forms are used for brain, bone, Major Uses ers, stereos, and coffee makers ... to gauge liver, spleen and kidney imaging and also of Radioiso- the thickness of thin plastics and sheet for blood flow studies. topes metal, rubber, textiles and paper... and to measure dust and pollutant levels. Thallium-201 – Used in nuclear medicine for nuclear cardiology and tumor detection. Nickel-63 – Used to detect explosives, and in voltage regulators and current surge pro- Thallium-204 – Measures the dust and pol- tectors in electronic devices, and in elec- lutant levels on filter paper ... and gauges tron capture detectors for gas chro- the thickness of plastics, sheet metal, rub- matographs. ber, textiles and paper.

Phosphorus-32 – Used in molecular biolo- Thoriated Tungsten – Used in electric arc gy and genetics research. welding rods in construction, aircraft, petro- chemical and food processing equipment Phosphorus-33 – Used in molecular biolo- industries. They produce easier starting, gy and genetics research. greater arc stability and less metal contamination. Plutonium-238 – Has powered more than 20 NASA spacecraft since 1972. Thorium-229 – Helps fluorescent lights last longer. Polonium-210 – Reduces the static charge in production of photographic film and Thorium-230 – Provides coloring and fluo- other materials. rescence in colored glazes and glassware.

Promethium-147 – Used in electric blanket Tritium – Major tool for biomedical thermostats ... and to gauge the thickness of research. Used for life science and drug thin plastics, thin sheet metal, rubber, tex- metabolism studies to ensure the safety of tile and paper. potential new drugs ... for self-luminous aircraft and commercial exit signs ... for lumi- Radium-226 – Makes lightning rods more nous dials, gauges and wrist watches ... to effective. produce luminous paint, and for geological prospecting and hydrology. Selenium-75 – Used in protein studies in life science research. Uranium-234 – Used in dental fixtures like crowns and dentures to provide a natural Sodium-24 – Used to locate leaks in indus- color and brightness. trial pipe lines and in oil well studies. 98 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD

Uranium-235 – Fuel for nuclear power plants and naval nuclear propulsion systems ... and used to produce fluorescent glassware, a variety of colored glazes and wall tiles.

Xenon-133 – Used in nuclear medicine for lung ventilation and blood flow studies.

Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “The Regulation and Use Of Radioisotopes in Today's World” (NUREG/BR-0217) Appendix

Major Uses of Radioiso- topes

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