Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History of National Preparedness Efforts September 2006 Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force 1 Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History of National Preparedness Efforts September 2006 Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force 2 ABOUT THIS REPORT This report is the result of a requirement by the Director of the Department of Homeland Security’s National Preparedness Task Force to examine the history of national preparedness efforts in the United States. The report provides a concise and accessible historical overview of U.S. national preparedness efforts since World War I, identifying and analyzing key policy efforts, drivers of change, and lessons learned. While the report provides much critical information, it is not meant to be a substitute for more comprehensive historical and analytical treatments. It is hoped that the report will be an informative and useful resource for policymakers, those individuals interested in the history of what is today known as homeland security, and homeland security stakeholders responsible for the development and implementation of effective national preparedness policies and programs. 3 Introduction the Nation’s diverse communities, be carefully planned, capable of quickly providing From the air raid warning and plane spotting pertinent information to the populace about activities of the Office of Civil Defense in the imminent threats, and able to convey risk 1940s, to the Duck and Cover film strips and without creating unnecessary alarm. backyard shelters of the 1950s, to today’s all- hazards preparedness programs led by the The following narrative identifies some of the Department of Homeland Security, Federal key trends, drivers of change, and lessons strategies to enhance the nation’s learned in the history of U.S. national preparedness for disaster and attack have preparedness programs. A review of the evolved over the course of the 20th century history of these programs will assist the and into the 21st. Federal government in its efforts to develop and implement effective homeland security Presidential administrations can have a policy and better understand previous national powerful impact on both national and citizen preparedness initiatives. preparedness. By recommending funding levels, creating new policies, and implementing new programs; successive Pre-Cold War Period (1917-1945) administrations have adapted preparedness efforts to align with changing domestic World War I introduced a new type of attack: priorities and foreign policy goals. They have the use of strategic aerial strikes against an also instituted administrative reorganizations enemy’s population to degrade its ability and that reflected their preference for will to wage war. German aerial consolidated or dispersed civil defense and bombardment of towns in countries such as homeland security responsibilities within the France, Belgium, and Poland began in August Federal government. 1914, and in the following year Kaiser Wilhelm authorized sustained bombing Programs were seldom able to get ahead of campaigns against military and civilian targets, 1 world events, and were ultimately challenged particularly against England. From May in their ability to answer the public’s need for through October of 1915, Germany launched 2 protection from threats due to bureaucratic seven air strikes against London alone. turbulence created by frequent reorganization, England, like most other nations at the time, shifting funding priorities, and varying levels did not have an organized civil defense of support by senior policymakers. This in program to aid citizens during such attacks. turn has had an effect on the public’s Individuals were forced to find their own way perception of national preparedness. Public to safety, often taking refuge in the city’s 3 awareness and support have waxed and waned underground subway stations. By all over the years, as the government’s emphasis assessments, the damage and casualty figures on national preparedness has shifted. that resulted from these early bombing operations were comparatively insignificant, An analysis of the history of civil defense and but they exerted a psychological toll on the 4 homeland security programs in the United British public. It became clear that civilian States clearly indicates that to be considered defense, involving a range of actions to successful, national preparedness programs protect the general public in the event of must be long in their reach yet cost effective. attack, would become a major fixture in future They must also be appropriately tailored to warfare. 4 among all agencies involved in national Though the Axis and Allied powers continued preparedness. 13 to employ strategic bombing throughout World War I, leaders in the United States did As World War II ignited in Europe, Roosevelt not feel that the country was vulnerable to reestablished the Council of National Defense attack. They concentrated their public in 1940. 14 Once again States were asked to outreach on rallying support for the war establish local counterpart councils. Tensions effort. 5 Much of this task was coordinated by among Federal, State and local governments the Council of National Defense , began to rise about authority and resources. established on August 29, 1916 with the passage of an Army appropriations bill. 6 The The states claimed they were not given Council was a presidential advisory board that enough power to manage civil defense tasks in included the Secretaries of War, Navy, their own jurisdictions, and local governments Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor; asserted that State governments did not give assisted by an Advisory Committee appointed urban areas proper consideration and by the President. 7 Its responsibilities included resources. 15 Non-attack disaster preparedness “coordinating resources and industries for remained almost entirely the responsibility of national defense” and “stimulating civilian States, while federal funding was reserved morale.” 8 primarily for attack preparedness. The work of the Council escalated when the Because of extensive civilian bombing United States entered the war in 1917. In the campaigns in Europe, concerns about same year, the Federal government asked possible attacks against the U.S. homeland State governors to create their own local increased. Mayor Fiorello La Guardia of New councils of defense to support the National York City wrote a letter to President effort. 9 However, the Council’s activities Roosevelt stating: continued to focus more on facilitating mobilization for the war than on protecting “There is a need for a strong Federal civilian resources. When hostilities ended, the Department to coordinate activities, Council shifted its efforts toward and not only to coordinate but to demobilization. Its operations were initiate and get things going. Please suspended in June, 1921. 10 bear in mind that up to this war and never in our history, has the civilian population been exposed to attack. For the remainder of the 1920s, the Federal The new technique of war has created government undertook little public outreach the necessity for developing new related to defense and security. However, the techniques of civilian defense”. 16 1930s saw a revival of civil defense efforts, when aggressive actions and arms stockpiling President Roosevelt responded to the 11 in Europe fueled international concern. In increasing concern of the public and local 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt created by officials by creating the Office of Civilian executive order the National Emergency Defense (OCD) in 1941. 17 The President Council (NEC) which consisted of the delegated a number of responsibilities to the President, his Cabinet members, and the head OCD by broadly interpreting civilian of nearly every major Federal agency, protection to include morale maintenance, 12 commission, and board. The mission of the promotion of volunteer involvement, and NEC included a variety of programs unrelated nutrition and physical education.18 The OCD to civil defense; however, its duties also oversaw unprecedented federal involvement included coordination of emergency programs 5 in attack preparedness. As with the Council Truman Administration (1945-1953) of National Defense, the OCD created corresponding defense councils at the local Soon after taking office, Harry Truman did 19 level. follow Landis’ advice and abolished the OCD, reflecting the widely held belief that the The issue of whether the OCD should immediate threat of war had receded. 26 emphasize protective services, typically done Initially, civil defense was not a high priority at that time by men, or social welfare services, in the Truman Administration, as troops typically undertaken at that time by women, began to return home and other war time 20 created tension from the office’s inception. offices were diminished in scale or disbanded Director Fiorello LaGuardia referred to altogether. The development of the atomic “nonprotective” activities as “sissy stuff” and bomb, however, had opened up previously saw opportunities to build neighborhood unthinkable risks. Increasing hostilities with militias. Pressured to focus on other the Soviet Union and their pursuit of a nonprotective areas such as neighborhood nuclear bomb threatened the United States. support, he appointed Eleanor Roosevelt to 21 expand volunteer activities. The two leaders, In this context, Truman began to reexamine with their radically