UUNDERSTANDINGNDERSTANDING RRADIATIONADIATION ININ OOURUR WWORLDORLD COVER 2 UUNDERSTANDINGNDERSTANDING RRADIATIONADIATION ININ OOURUR WWORLDORLD National Safety Council’s Environmental Health Center 1025 Connecticut Ave., NW Suite 1200 Washington, DC 20036 202/293-2270 http://www.nsc.org/ehc.htm A Publication of the National Safety Council’s Environmental Health Center 1025 Connecticut Ave., NW Suite 1200 Washington, DC 20036 This guidebook was produced with funds from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under cooperative agreement no. 82486201. The contents of this document do not neces- sarily reflect that agency’s views or policies. Permission to reproduce portion of this guidebook is granted with use of the accompanying credit line: “Reproduced from Understanding Radiation in Our World, with permission from the Environmental Heath Center of the National Safety Council.” This guide benefited substantially from prepublication review by a range of experts, but their review does not necessarily connote their or their organizations’ endorsement of or support for all aspects of this guide. For information on ordering additional copies of this guide or copies of the supplemental materials, please visit the Environmental Health Center website: http://www.nsc.org/ehc/rad.htm or call 202/293-2270. Printed on recycled paper. UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD Table of Contents Preface . 7 Introduction . 9 Radiation as Part of Our Everyday Lives . 9 Dangers of Radiation . 9 About this Guidebook . 10 Chapter 1:What is the Nature of Radiation? . 11 Energy . 11 Types of Radiation . 11 Structure of Atoms . 12 Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Atoms . 13 Forms of Ionizing Radiation . 13 Radioactive Decay . 13 Half-Life . 14 Types and Sources of Ionizing Radiation . 14 Chapter 2:Where Does Radiation Come From? . 17 Sources of Ionizing Radiation . 17 Measuring Radiation Exposure . 17 Natural Sources . 18 Manmade Sources . 19 Sources of Nonionizing Radiation . 21 Chapter 3:What are the Benefits and Risks of Ionizing Radiation? . 25 Benefits of Ionizing Radiaton . 25 Medical Uses . 25 Industry . 27 Nuclear Power . 28 Agriculture . 29 Food Irradiation . 29 Consumer Products . 31 The Space Program . 31 Sea Power . 31 Research . 31 The Risks of Ionizing Radiation . 32 Measuring Human Exposure . 32 5 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD Studying Radiation’s Effects on Humans . 33 Human Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation . 33 Health Effects of Radon . 37 Radiation-Related Health Effects from Living Near Nuclear Power Plants . 39 Accidental Releases . 39 Determining Your Exposure . 40 Determining Levels of Risk . 41 Balancing the Benefits and Risks of Radiation . 43 Governmental Risk Assessments and Standards . 43 Individual Judgments . 43 Society’s Judgments, Pro and Con . 43 Future Prospects for Nuclear Power . 44 Chapter 4: How Are Radioactive Wastes Managed? . 45 Radioactive Waste Disposal . 45 The Search for Permanent Disposal Solutions . 45 Radioactive Waste Cleanup . 51 Transporting Radioactive Waste . 55 Chapter 5: How Is the Public Protected From Radiation? . 57 Government Responsibilities in Protecting the Public . 57 How You Can Limit Your Radiation Exposure . 58 Government Controls on Exposure to Radiation . 59 Controlling Medical Exposures . 60 Controlling Exposure to Radon . 61 Monitoring Radiation Levels in the Environment . 62 Controlling UV Radiation Exposure . 62 Controlling Occupational Exposures . 62 Responsible Federal Agencies . 65 Federal, State and Local Government Functions . 67 Other Roles in Managing Radiation . 69 Appendices Appendix A: Glossary of Radiation Terms . 73 Appendix B: List of Acronyms . 81 Appendix C: Additional Resources and References . 83 Appendix D: Brief Chronology of Radioactive Materials and Radioactive Waste in the United States . 93 Appendix E: Major Uses of Radioisotopes . 97 6 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD Preface “Radiation.” What images come to our minds? ✔ “Duck and cover” drills in schools in the 1950s, and orders to scurry under our desks. ✔ Waste drums and protests over waste disposal sites. ✔ Radon, the naturally-occurring radioactive gas present in many homes across the country. ✔ Medical X-rays or radiation therapy for cancer. ✔ Ultraviolet radiation from the sun. These are just a few examples of radiation, its sources, and uses. Radiation is part of our lives. Natural radiation is all around us and manmade radiation ben- efits our daily lives in many ways. Yet radiation is complex and often not well understood. Understanding radiation and its risks and benefits can help us—as individuals and as a society—to make informed decisions about the use of radiation and actions to protect ourselves from possible harm. Understanding Radiation in Our World attempts to explain the basics of radiation and some of its potential complexities and nuances, and to provide some perspective on its potential risks and benefits. The Guide has a companion set of videos: “A Look at Radiation” and “Managing Radiation.” This guide is one of the continuing series of “plain talk” guides produced by the National Safety Council's Environmental Health Center (EHC). The goal of the series is to help the public better understand, and therefore better manage, some of the leading environmental risks we face day in and day out. Bud Ward Executive Director, Environmental Health Center National Safety Council March 2001 7 BLANK UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD IntroductionI Radiation as a Part of Our • Conduct basic and applied research Everyday Lives Introduction Radiation is all around us, every minute of Dangers of Radiation every day. Some radiation is essential to life, Managing exposure to radiation is a major Dangers of such as heat and light from the sun. We concern to citizens and government offi- could not exist without it. Some radiation cials in the United States and around the Radiation informs and entertains us, through video world. signals and sounds from television sets and • Excessive exposure to high-energy (ion- radios. As used in medicine, radiation helps izing) radiation can trigger changes in us diagnose and treat diseases and save body cells leading to cancer, birth lives. Yet it can also pose serious risks. defects, and—in extreme cases—cata- Radiation is energy that comes from both strophic illness and death. natural sources, and manmade sources that • Too much exposure to the sun’s rays can provide many of the conveniences and damage eyes and burn skin, causing necessities of modern living. cataracts or cancer. Several events and circumstances continue Natural Radiation to influence public perceptions about radi- We are exposed to radiation from numerous ation dangers. natural background sources: the atmos- phere, soil and water, food, and even our • Pictures and stories of the terrible effects own bodies. On average, much more of of massive radiation doses to the people our exposure to radiation comes from of Hiroshima and Nagasaki have created these natural sources than from manmade a lasting fear of radiation. sources. • Development and testing of nuclear weapons have left a legacy of pollution Manmade Radiation that in the United States alone will take A smaller but increasing amount of the decades and billions of dollars to clean radiation we are exposed to is manmade. up. Modern technologies, for example, use radi- • Accidents at two nuclear power plants— ation to: Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania and • Diagnose and treat medical problems Chernobyl in the former Soviet • Communicate over long distances Union—introduced the term “melt- down” to popular culture and raised con- • Generate electricity for our domestic and tinuing questions about the safety of industrial needs nuclear power. • Eliminate harmful bacteria from food 9 UNDERSTANDING RADIATION IN OUR WORLD In addition, uncertainties remain about the safe disposal of spent fuel from nuclear power plants and other high-level radioac- tive waste. About this Guidebook This guidebook provides information on: • The nature and sources of radiation • Benefits and risks involved in use of radiation 1 • Management of radioactive waste Introduction • Actions by state, federal, and internation- al agencies and by individuals to ensure About this that public health is protected from radia- Guidebook tion hazards The goal of Understanding Radiation in Our World is to help you make informed judg- ments on important radiation issues that affect your health, your lifestyle,.