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Embracing the Orient, undoing the Occident: Cultural Study of Pierre Loti’s India ______Vishakha Sen Ph.D Scholar, Department of English and MEL, University of Lucknow, India ______Abstract Cultural studies incorporate praxis of representation, custom, routine in the Introduction groundwork of culture through language. Cultural studies in India largely cover the Chris Barker symbolizes cultural studies as ambit of either popular culture or religious a magpie which borrows from others’ nest fanaticism. It has been preceded by Edward yet maintains individuality. Indian culture Said’s Orientalism that beacons on also witnessed multicultural interactions criticism of the Occident’s knowledge during Imperialism. It fascinated many production of the Orient to maintain European writers like P.B. Shelley, T.S. hegemonic ideology. It has perpetuated Eliot, Edward Thompson, Flora Steel, hemispherical debate of Europeans and Maud Diver etc. But Pierre Loti has unique Asians. Said’s essay “Secular Criticism” as reverence for the vivid culture of India part of his work The World, the Text, and during nineteenth century. He attempts to the Critic, focuses on individual critics’ discover idyllic and intriguing India attempt to balance literature with social through an inside-out technique in his work structures, political power and knowledge India 1901, translated by George A.F. for making it accessible to mass Inman. This paper examines how Pierre consciousness within a culture. He had Loti’s India describes facets of Indian shifted from epistemological standpoints of culture not from a Eurocentric approach but Foucault, Derrida towards and ontological as comprehensive study of culture as approach of theory that addresses the postcolonial entity within travel narratives. concerns of the society using literature. Critiquing the travel narratives of the millennium, he analyzes fiction, particularly Arab novels, to be engaging, and embattling and problematic (Foreword Keywords: Pierre Loti, Indian culture, pp. x, xi) due to the struggles of political cultural studies in India, cultural power. Most of the postcolonial discourses materialism, ethical criticism, secular on travel, including Edward criticism, travel writing about India Said’s Orientalism (Said 1978) have delineated role of theory in travel

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RESEARCH ARTICLE narratives. His book is pioneer in amalgamation of multiple location and connecting discourse analysis of travel language. Such cultural writing stands apart writings directly to into the discursive from the occident-orient cultural war. power representation, difference of political sides and desire of experience in a Indian culture has witnessed globalising world. They criticize the loop multicultural interactions during side of European imperialism for calling Imperialism. It fascinated many European travel literature outside Eurocentric realm writers like P.B. Shelley, T.S. Eliot, as other-literature, as pointed out by Paul de Edward Thompson, Flora Steel, Maud Man in Allegories of Reading referring to Diver etc. Romantic poet Shelley could not dismissive reference towards external the visit India. To satiate his interest for Indian external politics of literature. (De culture he ordered Southey’s The Curse of Man 1979, 3). But cultural studies hunt for Kehama 1810, Edward Moore’s Hindu the stories like those European texts which Pantheon 1810, Lady Morgan Sydney opposed the occident vision. Time stacked Owenson’s The Missionary: An Indian Tale these positive stories with dust in archives 1776-1859. Modern poet Eliot draws on of dark oblivion. To establish a framework Brihadaranyanka Upanishad for his poem of discourse on cultural studies in India, it The Wasteland 1922. The image of India is necessary to study such texts which map appealed to many British authors but Pierre both location and language, containing Loti has unique reverence for the vivid multicultural essence in clusters of images, culture of India. Louis Marie-Julien Viaud ideas and practices. was a French naval officer and novelist of mid 19th century. His first book introduced Discussing Indian culture in to the wider public is Polynesian idyll isolation can never fulfil the aim of cultural originally titled Rarahu 1880, which was studies that is to trace continual cultural reprinted as Le Mariage de Loti. Here the difference in the currents of textual, social, narrator explains how the name Loti was historical and anthropological thoughts. bestowed on Julien Viaud by the natives, Nineteenth century French author Pierre after his mispronunciation of "roti" (a red Loti is one such European author who flower). attempted to discover the vivid culture of India through an inside-out technique in his The book inspired the 1883 work India 1901, translated by George A.F. opera Lakmé by Léo Delibes. This was Inman. India exhibits cultural studies’ followed by Le Roman d'un spahi (1881), a paradigm as it is a unique representation of record of the melancholy adventures of a Indian culture from French perception, an soldier in Senegal. In 1882, Loti issued a

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RESEARCH ARTICLE collection of four shorter pieces, three stories and a travel piece, under the general title of Fleurs d'ennui (Flowers of Boredom). In 1883 Loti achieved a wider public spotlight. He published the critically acclaimed Mon Frère Yves (My Brother Yves), a novel describing the life of a French naval officer (Pierre Loti), and a Breton sailor (Yves Kermadec, inspired by Loti companion Pierre le Cor). Loti published three articles in the newspaper Le Figaro in 1883 about atrocities that occurred during the Battle of Thuận An (August 20, 1883), an attack by the

French on the Vietnamese coastal defences Loti, engraving after a drawing by Gaston of Hue. He was threatened with suspension Vuillier, c. 1891 Courtesy of the from the service for this indiscretion, thus Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. gaining wider public acclaim. In 1886 Loti published a novel of life among It shows Loti adapted some of the the Breton fisherfolk, called Pêcheur Impressionist techniques of contemporary d'Islande (An Iceland Fisherman), which painters, especially Monet, to prose, and is Edmund Gosse characterized as "the most a classic of French literature, followed by popular and finest of all his writings." (50) Propos d'exil, a series of short studies of exotic places, in his characteristic semi- autobiographic style, Madame Chrysanthème, a novel of Japanese manners that is a precursor to Madama Butterfly and Miss Saigon 1887 (a combination of narrative and travelogue), Le Roman d'un enfant (The Story of a Child) 1890, a fictionalized recollection of Loti's childhood that would greatly influence Marcel Proust. Loti was aboard ship at the port of Algiers when news reached him of his election, on May 21, 1891, to the Académie française. He ISSN: 2581-8333 Copyright © 2021 SP Publications Page 113

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RESEARCH ARTICLE described a visit to the Holy Land, worldview. Though alienated he transposes Istanbul in three volumes, The his self and sensibility in the milieu of the Desert, Jerusalem, and Galilee, (1895– culture he visits. Roland Barthes explains 1896), and wrote a that, novel, Ramuntcho (1897), a story of contraband runners in the Basque province, Loti knows, transposed into which is one of his best writings. The modern terms the three Turkish government named one of graduated moments of all Istanbul's famous hills "Pierre Loti Tepesi" alienation: the journey, the or "Hill of Pierre Loti". Also, there is a sojourn, and coffee shop located at the top of that hill naturalization...Of these which changed its name to "Pierre Loti three moments the most Coffee Shop", and there is also a Pierre Loti contradictory is the sojourn Street in another part of Istanbul - all of (the residence): here the which suggests that most Turkish people subject no longer has the have not yet forgotten Pierre Loti. Between tourist ethical 1900 and 1902 he was put in retirement irresponsibility (who is then reinstated in the navy for which he simply a national on tour), spent in Asia, where he wrote The Last but does not have the Days of Beijing 1902 and India without the citizens’ responsibility English 1903 and from that year, he spent (civilian, political, twenty months again to Istanbul, the military)...whether Turkish Constantinople in charge of the East. or Maghrebi, the Orient is merely a square on the Loti in three articles for Le Figaro board, the emphatic term of criticized colonialism. Each of Loti’s an alternative: The occident novels corresponds to a crisis faced by the or something else. As long country and he courageously criticizes the as the opposition is colonialist splurge of France for which he unresolved, merely subjected had been cancelled commission, be it to forces of temptation, Indochina war. He immerses himself in the meaning functions host culture. He has a vision of otherness positively: the book is that is both intellectual and possible, it develops. (105) sensitive. According to him, there is nothing to do at home, so he goes abroad to Barthes emphasis on the find something to exalt, a unique nihilistic development of a book by a resident indeed

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RESEARCH ARTICLE overshadows the binary of orient and volumes about the origins and perpetuity of occident. Loti embraces the Indian culture. Yoga as a Buddhist ritual. He shares his He never refers to it as ‘orient’. He writes doubt openly: about Indian culture as a resident. He is familiar with local culture, manners, and I cannot understand these languages. He is always free to leave and symbols, and this Buddhist go back to his country, and he eventually peace is as yet hidden from does it. me; the guardian in the yellow robe goes calmly The cultural non-fiction narrative back to his hermitage- priest India contains six chapters covering of strange temple, having no Ceylon, Anuradhapura, Travancore, other care than the Tanjore, Hyderabad, Banaras. It begins arrangement of his flowers, with voyage on Red Sea from where Loti living a joyless life in this reaches to Ceylon, modern day Sri Lanka. deserted place, where sorrow He visits a buried city of Anuradhapura, never comes, living only in “the city which was buried in a night of the hope that he may prolong leaves more than a thousand years ago.” (7) his ego- after this present He describes how Buddhist religious incarnation has ended- it is spiritualism reached Anuradhapura. an impersonal and sad entity. Princess Sanghamitta is believed to have (19) brought a branch of the tree under which Lord Buddha realized true faith to receive Despite Loti’s Christian beliefs, he enlightenment. In the whole book he never thinks of the detachment of spiritual uses the word ‘Lord’. It shows a kind of guardian as a sad impersonal gesture. He cultural jet lag. He accepts Buddha, a calls the place both a deserted area and a spiritual leader more as a living, breathing place without sorrow. He constantly human than as incarnation of God. The next questions detachment of spirituality chapter he mentions his visit to Buddhist unknowingly, that he himself delves into a Rock Temple where Loti describes a similar spiritual journey by leaving his moment where dream and reality homeland and seeking for greener pastures. intermingle. He is perplexed by the priests’ He is similar to the animal that sees its own silent poised position of meditation. A reflection on water and rebels it. His naval officer who knows only travelling to Christian practices depend on the image of farther lands, away from home, encounters Christ as saviour. Hence contrary to the such practice for the first time. This speaks culture Loti grew up with is totally opposite

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RESEARCH ARTICLE of a meditative saint who subjectively transgression chiefly involves moving from attains redemption or at least tries to one domain to another, the testing and achieve it. challenging of limits, the mixing and intermingling of heterogeneities, cutting Yet his dialectical approach to across expectations, providing unforeseen fathom the depths of host Indian culture is pleasures, discoveries, experiences.”(238) particular in its cause to present an organic Said postulates the concept of whole word-image of the feeling of ‘Contrapuntal reading’ which takes into tranquillity Loti experiences. We can account both processes, one of imperialism examine universals across cultures while and other of resistance to it. It is a way to admitting that the meaning assigned by include what has been forcibly excluded. individuals to a particular event may differ Loti also approaches his text with from culture to culture. This must also individual insider’s view to understand both incorporate the individual differences in dominant and suppressed voice. behaviour of understanding different cultures. He lands in Travancore, modern Cultural studies is never devoid the day Kerala under the hospitality of political enumerations. Like Rudyard Maharaja of Travancore. As Loti narrates Kipling’s Kim, Plain Tales from the Hills his account of the journey, always presents fictionalized account of India to recording the exact day, night time, he discuss the political agenda. India was confuses with stars and night flies. It is a initially occupied by the French but Loti raw, natural description devoid of remains aloof from political discussion. It imperialistic prejudices. He compares may be because of his isolated profession. Ceylon to Kerala, and Buddha Rock temple Loti’s voice does not seem to question to oak woods of Saintonge, Aunis. Even the Imperialism as he is neither a British nor statue of Buddha resembles that of St. has political overtures. Said always ends up Peter. He is mesmerized by the view of interpreting metropolitan texts and Goddess twelve-feet height because he is theorists, not with the aim of telling an influenced by the idols, statues as mighty ‘Other’ story, but of being a critical, symbols. He is a protestant so there is no interlocutor of imperial culture. He culture of idol worship. This speaks volume somewhere failed to comprehensively about his interest in these rocks sanitized discuss the ‘absent’ oriental culture, for into heritage. He is astonished at how these which he has criticized occidental at length figures were designed and overcame the in his works. While Said pointed the test of perennial time. Loti’s India fits best western works, he could compare and in Said’s critical opinion that, “Secular position a category of works such as Loti’s

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RESEARCH ARTICLE where the stereotyping of ‘West’, ‘East, ‘Orient’, ‘Occident’ is avoided and the focus is objective depiction of a subjective experience of culture in Ceylon and India. He compares the Siva temples to the temples of Thebes, in Greek myths, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus, and of Memphis. The Aryan civilization migrated to as far as Egypt as it is interesting to note the presence of myths of Bull and Shiva’s lingam in the Egyptian, Mesopotamian coins.

Unlike Joseph Conrad whose description of African lady is considered prudish, Loti emotionally depicts the atrocities on Indians due to imperialism. He is moved by the deprivation in Golconda, where he feels pity to come across thin women with hanging breasts as leather bags. He is not sure about which stance Loti is refused permission to enter should he take. He writes, “Need I say that temples of Siva by Brahmins. It is strange India, the mother and the cradle of to note the presence of feudal system and European race, is a land full of ruins!” its repercussions on the basic survival of (166) he is very critical about the poverty, poor people. He criticizes the forced hunger which the poor people suffer. prohibition to eat flesh. He witness ruins of cultivated rice, crops fields, which now lay arid like desert which he refers to as ‘ashes’. The women weak and pale flock towards him to sell the stinking skin bundles stripped from cattle which died due to hunger. He reiterates: “But the price of a cow which still shows signs of life has fallen to a quarter of a rupee (about five pence), for it is impossible to provide food for cattle, and nothing in the world would ISSN: 2581-8333 Copyright © 2021 SP Publications Page 117

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RESEARCH ARTICLE induce the people of this Brahmin country to eat the flesh. So who wants to buy a stinking hide that warms with flies?” (168) He also visits Udaipur in west and Indore, Jagannath in east.

In Benaras the priests tell him, “Our philosophy begins where your ends.” (250) Even British acknowledged the religious sanctity of India but they attacked the multiple offshoots of Faith due to presences of Islam which sprouted conflict in the ancient Hindu way of life. They used ‘divide and rule’ policy.’ But Loti himself Fig. 1 the serene Banaras Ghat depicted in on quest towards higher faith appraises the India Hindu philosophy in words none British Loti never uses the word ‘orient’ could ever try. “Surely their bodies must be throughout his discourse. Writing about the less earthly and more ethereal than ours, Indian culture became a widespread and by their long heredity of meditation and phenomenon in the nineteenth century, and prayer they must have reached subtleties of was undoubtedly linked, amongst writers perception and a delicacy of intuition and statesmen, to non-literary spheres such impossible to us. But they simply say, ’We as economics, religion, and politics. know nothing and simply seek to learn’.” Inasmuch as Napoleon had been influenced (251) Loti comes across a European woman by the writing of certain orientalists, so his who is staying among priests to seek peace 1798 campaign might have consequently and shelter from the turmoil of the world. inspired many writers to head eastward and He wishes to witness glimmer of faith. He record their views and ideas concerning this attempts to hearken to the inner call that orient that is at once so near and yet so spurs him to seek certain sites, under the mysterious. But Loti never apes the guidance of scripture and certain exegeses superiority complex that taints the work of and commentaries. Thus he relays some his orientalist predecessors, and detailed historical explanations and contemporaries. Considering that analyses by a priest. They suggest him to composition for him was a highly cling to his faith and seek no further. emotional state rooted in movement and place, he is often an exceptionally vivid narrator, albeit one that we must sometimes

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RESEARCH ARTICLE consider unreliable. Nevertheless his ability exterior charm; he desired to to strike something of a balance between blend with it a moral narration and description does distinguish sensibility of the extremist his style to the point that Marcel Proust was refinement, at once sensual influenced by him. and ethereal. Many of his best books are long sobs of His aim to depict culture is not only remorseful memory, so to provide chronological progression and personal, so intimate, that an continuity – though this is extremely English reader is amazed to important – but also to express his vision, find such depth of feeling to epitomize the attitude of his compatible with the power contemporaries as well as those who will of minutely and publicly come after him. He seeks to cast all that recording what is felt. In within the framework of the dialectic spite of the beauty and between life and death, faith and unbelief, melody and fragrance of and the linking and disjoining of heaven Loti's books his mannerisms and earth. It can discerned through Loti’s are apt to pall upon the almost photographic lens, particulars of reader, and his later books of human behaviour and manner of living, pure description were rather including what people eat and drink, and empty. His greatest what they wear. One can enter with him successes were gained in the into the mirror of self, though it is known species of confession, half- that Loti does not tell the whole truth. way between fact and According to critic Edmund Goose: fiction, which he essayed in his earlier books. When all At his best Pierre Loti was his limitations, however, unquestionably the finest have been rehearsed, Pierre descriptive writer of the day. Loti remains, in the In the delicate exactitude mechanism of style and with which he reproduced cadence, one of the most the impression given to his original and most perfect own alert nerves by French writers of the second unfamiliar forms, colors, half of the 19th century. sounds and perfumes, he (104) was without a rival. But he was not satisfied with this

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One might say that Loti’s personality exercises, which is better than the French appears enigmatic and contradictory to the school children. Loti experiences trance in careful reader. In his writing Loti appears to the dance rituals by men and women. He be divided against himself. At one instant depicts, he describes a moment of spiritual illumination and emotional serenity, then he She has a body lithe as a suddenly reverses himself to reveal the serpent, yet firm and plump; other side of the occasion, a most enchanting arms that seems pessimistic and nihilistic side. One might instinct with assurances of call this the Adamic syndrome, after embrace, which twist and Adam’s dissatisfaction with the felicity of writhe like snakes loaded Eden that drove him to disobedience and and encircled to the the loss of the garden, leaving him grieving shoulders by diamonds and and yearning for his lost paradise. rubies. But no! The attraction lies in those eyes The more complex the culture, the whose expression is ever more frequent the sampling of the public changing. (131) and private self and the less frequent the sampling of the collective self. The more Many of Loti’s novels depict stories individualistic the culture, the more of lands he visited, as in Rarahu: Or,The frequent the sampling of the private self and Marriage of Loti, for example, based on his the less frequent the sampling of the seventy-three-day stay in Tahiti, includes collective self. Collectivism, external threat, Tahitian letters adapted from those sent to competition with outgroups, and common one of his acquaintances. Madame fate increases the sampling of the collective Chrysantheme fictionalizes his month-long self. Cultural homogeneity results in “marriage” to a Japanese woman in tightness and in the sampling of the Nagasaki. Such novels usually center on a collective self. Indian culture during Loti’s primitive but rather melancholy love affair visit seems to be a collective self. This is between a native girl and a French sailor, the reason why Loti picks religious and they contain vivid descriptions, in encounter in Banaras, animal description, which the author captures the sights, cities, as collective self. In Pondicherry the sounds, and smells of exotic scenes and school children delight him the most. They places. Other novels are set nearer home. come dressed as rajahs in robes of gold- His most famous work, An Iceland embroidered velvet, and can work out Fisherman, pictures life among the Breton problems on the blackboard and can do fishermen, and Ramuntcho is a story of the

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Basque country. A mood of pessimism address, Said seems to have expressed the pervades these works. In his novels Loti is disenchantment with the extreme emotional rather than thoughtful and more opaqueness and solipsism of contemporary interested in a poetic, romantic style than in literary criticism in general and postcolonial plot construction. studies in particular. He reasserts scholarship as secular effort to concern At a moment where anti-imperialist world beyond being oppositional. He like Franz Fanon exposed the pitfalls of imputes a heroic quality to activity of nationalism in his liberationist manifesto, humanist scholarship as “heroic ideal at its The Wretched of the Earth, the atrocities on core”. (45) He believes hand-written text the psychology of African first people was serves as an expression of this heroic ideal. more traumatic than the condition Loti accounted. According to Said, “Fanon was Hence the cultural encounters in the first major theorist of anti-imperialism India, is secular as it does not adhere to the to realize that orthodox nationalism hegemonic representation. His traveler’s followed along the same track hewn out by position is nothing less than a “heroic ideal” imperialism, which while it appeared to be that gives him unique direction to avoid conceding authority to the nationalist indulging in neither appraisal of dominant bourgeoisie was really extending its British rule with inherent diplomacy, nor hegemony. To tell a simple story therefore ridicule or objectify Indian culture. As is to repeat, extend, and also to engender Henry James, a long time fan of Loti, once new forms of imperialism.”(146) Pierre wrote: “Loti belongs to the precious few Loti experienced acute internal bouts of who are not afraid of being ridiculous”, it spiritual and psychological conflict, even aptly expresses how Loti fearlessly while making this pilgrimage. He presented his cultural stance. Criticism is to constantly expresses his lack of belief and maintain its commitment to non-coercive weakened religious convictions, knowledge and freedom, guard against its particularly when contemplating the simple own consecration. Pierre Loti hence is a believers around him as they perform their secular critic who is honest as an outsider religious rites with unshaken faith and about his opinions about the vivid culture piety, untangled with doubt. Pierre Loti’s of India. work can be seen as a humanist scholarship which is found better than Eurocentric References scholarship as it does not show India as Atmashraddhananda, Swami. (Ed.). (2008). marginalized culture at the disposal of Brihadaranyanka Upanishad. British rule. In the MLA presidential

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