SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY SECTOR STUDIES: TEXTILES
GENETICALLY
ENGINEEREDSynthetic Biology’s New Spin CLOTHES: on Fast Fashion Acknowledgements
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion
September, 2018
About ETC Group: ETC Group works to address the socioeconomic and ecological issues surrounding new technologies that could have an impact on the world’s marginalized people. It operates at the global political level and works closely with partner civil society organizations (CSOs) and social movements, especially in Africa, Asia and Latin America. ETC Group is headquartered in Val David, Canada, and Davao, Philippines, with offices in Mexico City and Guelph, Canada. ETC Group acknowledges support from the Frontier Co-op Giving Fund, The CS Fund and The AgroEcology Fund in our ongoing work on synthetic biology.
About Fibershed: At Fibershed, we work to develop regional natural fiber systems that generate lasting prosperity for our local economies, stabilize our global climate, while enhancing the health and diversity of our eco- system. We understand that the way we produce and consume clothing needs to be transformed. Our work is focused upon generating new work- ing models that strike a balance between the intersection of meaningful livelihoods and the protection & regeneration of natural systems. Executive Summary
Source: PaigeGreenPhotography
Synthetic biology start-ups and giant chemical such as silk, they claim that in time microbes can companies want to genetically engineer the shirt be engineered to produce synthetic proteins that on your back to grab a piece of the $1.3 trillion mimic the performance qualities and properties of retail apparel market.1 virtually any fibre or material – natural or synthetic.3 Synthetic biologists (the next generation of The longer-term goal is to converge high-tech extreme genetic engineers) are using machine- fabrics with other technologies – including made DNA to engineer microbial cells that can nanotechnology, 3D printing and electronics – to produce novel substances – including biomaterials bring on a “fashion revolution” with clothes that that can be spun into fibres. The high-tech can “see, hear, sense, communicate, store and 4 genetically engineered (GE) fibre future is being convert energy, and monitor health.” sold to eco-conscious consumers as “green” and “Fast fashion” describes an industrial textile “sustainable,” but it threatens to undermine the economy that is profoundly broken. It is wasteful, livelihoods of millions of natural fibre producers polluting and climate-destroying.5 Fast fashion and unleash new environmental hazards. means disposable, low-quality apparel including Fledgling synthetic biology (also known as syn those derived primarily from synthetic, fossil-fuel- bio) companies like Bolt Threads (US), Spiber, Inc. based polyester (plastic) fibres that are associated (Japan) and AMSilk (Germany) tout their high-tech with toxic chemicals, outsized carbon footprint and GE fermentation processes as a game changer microplastic pollution. Fast fashion also relies on with the potential to up-end the trillion-dollar complex, long-distance supply chains and cheap textile market.2 They are engineering microbes and economically disenfranchised labour. High- (like yeast and bacteria) to secrete proteins that tech approaches, including synthetic biology’s mimic the qualities of spider silk or other natural genetically engineered fibres, don’t necessarily fibres. Although syn bio companies such as Bolt put the brakes on fast fashion, and could amplify Threads are now focusing on high-value fibres the most damaging effects of industrial textile production.
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 1 No one yet understands the environmental and lasting ecological and economic prosperity via the health risks posed by the genetically engineered creation of cooperatively-based direct markets.7 organisms used to produce synthetic biology Fibershed systems foster economic development fibres – including the biological waste from the through livelihood creation, and by supporting and fermentation process – but that’s not stopping creating farming systems grounded in ecologically- synthetic biology companies from touting their enhancing forms of agriculture. novel fibres as sustainable and environmentally Increasing sustainable fibre options – and benign, and even a techno-fix for the textile securing support for those options – is imperative. industry’s dirty, fast fashion. In reality, the payoff Evaluation of novel fibre technologies must go of syn bio fibre production is cheaper high-value beyond a narrow technical risk/benefit evaluation fibres produced in factory-based fermentation to include a broader, participatory technology tanks that require fewer workers – all under the assessment. It will require a system-wide lifecycle green guise of “natural” sustainability. approach that considers all phases of fibre A closer look reveals that there is nothing natural production, consumption and disposal, including a or sustainable about synthetic biology’s high-tech full assessment of the social and economic impacts (and potentially high-risk) approach to novel fibre of new fibre technologies. A new textile economy production. Far from the promise of sustainability, must feed farmers and workers, restore natural the current development of “smart” techno-fibres systems, and build sustainable communities. raises the appalling spectre of amplifying new sources of industrial pollution: Beyond electronic waste (e-waste) and microfibre plastic pollution, synthetic biologists open the door to a new kind of biotech waste (b-waste). Furthermore, if synthetic biologists succeed in enlisting microbial metabolism to mimic silk or other natural fibres on a commercial scale at a competitive price, it could disrupt natural fibre markets and destroy the livelihoods of millions of people who produce and process authentically natural fibres. We must build an alternative textile economy. Even major textile industry players acknowledge that fast fashion will lead to “potentially catastrophic” outcomes: the status quo is not an option.6 The good news is that sustainable fibres are already all around us: plant and animal-based natural fibres are 100% biodegradable, renewable and they support the livelihoods of millions of rural communities worldwide. Natural fibres as they are produced today are not Farmer harvesting coreopsis flowers for dye. Source: a one-size-fits-all panacea for the world’s apparel/ PaigeGreenPhotography textile needs, especially when it comes to chemical and water intensive production of conventional This report examines current efforts to harness cotton. Around the world, a growing movement synthetic biology to produce high-tech fibres, of fibre producers, processors and workers are cuts through the jargon, unravels industry hype building (or in some regions, re-building) regional and highlights the solutions that are our best and regenerative textile economies based on hope for an authentically sustainable textile the creation of place-based textiles (known as economy. fibersheds). Fibersheds are designed to create
2 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion Introduction: Synthetic Biology as a New Production Platform
Genetic engineering is changing. Nearly two a compound called lactic acid, which thickens generations of consumers have been buying the the milk and sours its taste. However, when an products of ‘conventional’ genetically engineered engineered, artificial metabolic pathway is inserted fibres (i.e., genetically modified cotton) – whether into a microbe, the fermentation process can alter they knew it or not. Now a new industrial platform both the feedstock and the by-product so that involving more “extreme” genetic engineering has the microbe produces a compound it would never entered the market place – whether we want it or not. have produced on its own. This process is often What is Synthetic Biology? Synthetic biology (syn called synthetic biosynthesis. Fuels, pharmaceutical bio) can refer to various bioengineering techniques compounds, fragrances, and food ingredients that involve the digital design of genetic systems can be artificially biosynthesized using synthetic using machine-made DNA. The current ascendant biology techniques. Scaling such biosynthesis up application of syn bio is to, in effect, turn microbes to commercial volumes has so far been technically (like yeasts and common bacteria) into “living challenging (producing biofuels via synthetic factories”8 that can be “retrofit” at will to produce biology failed largely because the process was hard 11 a desired end product. Synthetic biologists to scale ). Because of this, most current synthetic engineer and construct “metabolic pathways” biosynthesis research and development (R&D) that are inserted into microorganisms. When the is focused on producing high-value, low-volume altered microorganisms are given a carbon-based compounds that can replace those that have been 12 food such as glucose from corn or sugarcane, traditionally botanically sourced. However, other the metabolic pathway can produce a valuable products of synthetic biosynthesis are beginning to compound as a by-product. More than a decade gain attention and investment, including a renewed ago, ETC Group called synthetic biology “genetic focus on materials. engineering on steroids.”9 Now biotechnology is In some contexts, the commercial success of an converging with automation technologies including artificially biosynthesized material will depend on machine-made DNA, nanotechnology, robotics, its performance and cost – for example, coatings data mining and artificial intelligence and making used in surgery that could prove more durable it possible to manipulate existing organisms and and biocompatible than the industry standard, or design entirely new ones at an ever-increasing geotextiles that could keep soils in place rather scale and pace. One synthetic biology company than sliding onto roadways. With other consumer describes this burgeoning industry as the “directed products, performance and cost may still matter, creation of genetic diversity.”10 but the product’s “story” could be equally The use of natural strains of microbes for industrial consequential. Right now, a handful of companies purposes has a long history. Commercial-scale in the apparel sector have begun to fabricate and fermentation to make yogurt is a familiar example: market a story of high-tech biosynthesized textiles specific species of bacteria are fed milk, they as high-performance, eco-friendly and fashionably eat the sugars in the milk (lactose) and produce sustainable.
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 3 Why Are High-Tech Fibre Companies Pursuing the Synthetic Biology Platform?
The synthetic biology platform offers three major fibres” or “sustainable fashion” – despite the theoretical “advantages” to the fast fashion murkiness that surrounds these terms.15 industry: »» Buying into sci-fi trends. Furthermore, »» Factory-based fermentation platforms synthetic biology start-ups may hope to offer the potential to secure cheaper, more capitalize from the glitz of high-tech, ultra- uniform, stable and accessible sources hip fashion – from 3D printed clothing to of raw materials and products. In theory, superhero-evoking spider silk to “aerospace- factory-based fermentation would require tech dress shirts.”16 fewer workers and slash labour costs. Fibre »» With the ability to engineer organisms companies would no longer face the logistical that don’t exist in nature there is potential complexity of sourcing materials from farmers to manufacture made-to-order fibres with or other suppliers in remote locations. In the technical qualities that out-perform both words of one syn bio company’s promotional existing natural and synthetic fibres. In literature, the technology promises to solve theory, syn bio companies could improve “the supply chain issues of nature” including and customize fibre/material products, all of 13 “lack of convenience factors.” which will be proprietary. Both the synthetic »» The ability to claim biosynthesized fibres microbes and the resulting protein fibres/ as “natural” and “eco-friendly” products. materials are typically protected by a web Synthetic biology companies assert that of exclusive monopoly patents. For syn bio biosynthesized fibres manufactured via companies, the appeal of “biocontainment” microbial fermentation are “nature-identical”14 in industrial fermentation facilities isn’t just to the naturally-derived version, and therefore about biosafety; it may have more to do with do not require new regulatory oversight and building walls around proprietary microbes assessment. There is growing appeal for “eco- and products.
produce.17 A half-century later, using metabolic Ready-to-Wear Microbes? Fashion Meets pathway engineering technology from Genencor the New Materials Science (now a subsidiary of DowDuPont), “Bio-PDO” While some synthetic biology companies are was developed over a seven-year period, followed developing performance biomaterials for outdoor by commercial-scale production through a joint technical sports and military applications, others venture between DuPont and the sugar king Tate & are hoping to entice technophile, ‘eco-conscious’ Lyle.18 and affluent consumers in the fashion apparel Today Bio-PDO is churned out by “highly market. engineered”19 and patented E. coli bacteria DuPont First Over the Bridge: The pioneer of (engineered with more than 40 genetic changes), biosynthesized fibre production for the textile/ which eat up glucose from corn sugars. The apparel market is the US chemical colossus DuPont Bio-PDO is shipped from the production facility (now DowDuPont). DuPont was one of the first in Tennessee to different factories (one is in companies to enter the fermentation-derived North Carolina and another in China) where it’s biomaterial market with its bio-synthesized version mixed with a petroleum-based compound called of a compound called 1,3 propanediol (PDO), a terephthalic acid (TPA) and made into plastic main ingredient in some kinds of plastics. PDO was pellets.20 discovered in DuPont’s labs back in the early 1940s, DuPont’s Bio-PDO/TPA polymer is called Sorona but was shelved because it was too expensive to and has been in commercial production for more
4 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion than a decade. Carpets were Sorona’s first textile 17,500 tons,25 in comparison with its current annual application. Now Sorona is prominently used production of about 64,000 tons.26 in the apparel sector, blended with natural and Despite DuPont’s successful promotion of other synthetic fabrics. According to DuPont, Sorona as a green, eco-friendly alternative to apparel brands including Izod, Timberland, Calvin fossil fuel-based synthetic fibres, Sorona shares Klein Golf and Spun Bamboo use Sorona fibres some of the same environmental drawbacks with 21 in their product lines. More recently, outdoor conventional polyester. Sorona contains at most apparel companies L. L. Bean, Royal Robbins, The 37% of renewably-sourced Bio-PDO – the rest is North Face and Anta have added Sorona blends petroleum-derived TPA. Also, Sorona is neither to some of their apparel offerings. Unifi, a US- biodegradable nor compostable, thus contributing based company turning post-consumer plastic to microplastics pollution (see below).27 Sorona, bottles into fibre for clothing, recently announced made from industrially grown corn starch, is also a collaboration with DuPont Sorona to develop implicated in the negative environmental impacts 22 insulation for cold weather outer wear. of chemical-intensive, mono-crop agriculture.28 Producing Sorona requires land and water for growing the genetically modified corn used as feedstock, which competes with food production and relies on intensive herbicide use.29 Virtually every syn bio company, including DuPont, claims it will one day be able to use “wasted” biomass to not compete with food production, or even use captured greenhouse gases as feedstocks in microbial bio-production. DuPont’s ubiquitous claim that Sorona “uses 30% less energy and releases 63% fewer greenhouse gas emissions than conventional nylon made from petroleum”30 is impressive only when compared to the horrific environmental impacts of conventional, petroleum- based synthetic fibre production. It doesn’t fare so well when evaluated against natural fibres (see Source: Alibaba below). Additionally, the fermentation process that Sorona’s Success Story – Greenwashing the produces DuPont’s Sorona bio-ingredient creates Textile/Fibre Industry: There is no denying that not only CO but also waste – currently about DuPont’s Sorona is a commercial and public 2 relations success. Before it was even on the market, 12,000 tons of “spent microbial biomass” (SMB) Sorona earned DuPont the Presidential Green annually from its Tennessee production facility, which is shipped to landfills for disposal.31 Chemistry Award (2003)23 and in 2017, market In research firm Frost & Sullivan named DuPont conventional fermentation-based industries the European Bio-based Materials Company of such as beer-making, SMB is used in agricultural the Year. Frost & Sullivan explained that Sorona production as feed or fertilizer. Because DuPont’s “demonstrates the company’s commitment to microbes have been extensively genetically implementing innovative practices that lower engineered, its SMB hasn’t been used in agriculture 32 reliance on fossil fuels and elevate product quality “due to concerns over horizontal gene transfer.” and manufacturing efficiency.”24 DuPont recently DuPont would like to change that: the company has commissioned at least two research studies announced a second expansion of its Bio-PDO exploring the safety and efficacy of using its factory in Tennessee since its first expansion in SMB on soils as a source of nitrogen for crops. 2010. It aims to increase annual production by If allowed, DuPont’s disposal of SMB on farmers’
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 5 fields would create an additional revenue stream including securing feedstocks, continues to pose a while enabling the company to tout its re-use/ daunting challenge across the syn bio industry.) recycling of bio-waste.33 From a biotech industry viewpoint, DuPont’s most enviable successes to date have been its ability to scale-up its syn bio bacterial fermentation and to sell Sorona’s questionable ‘eco-friendly’ story to affluent and eco-conscious consumers.
A Model Marvel – Microbial Production of Silk-Like Proteins With Sorona, DuPont commercialized a polyester fibre partially produced via syn bio fermentation and forged a path for a partially biosynthesized product to enter the synthetic textile industry – but it is still plastic fibre. Other companies aim to biosynthesize fibres that more closely replicate the properties of high-value natural fibres. Still others are using the syn bio fermentation platform to insert machine-made, recombinant DNA into microbes to get them to churn out “spider silk- Is it really “spider silk”? like proteins” when they metabolize sugars.34 The proteins can then be spun into fibres that, Future commercial sellers of biosynthesized fibres theoretically, match the texture, strength, elasticity advertised as ‘spider silk’ may find themselves and biodegradability of spiders’ dragline silk. entering a legal grey zone. While the ‘spider’ tag lends marketing cred, the reality is that the Why create a biosynthetic silk? Due to its unique bioengineered fibres do not come from spiders mechanical properties of both strength and but from a genetically engineered microorganism. 35 elasticity – and its apparent biocompatibility – Calling this ‘silk’ may also raise concerns from spider silk is being considered for use in medicine natural silk producers. The synthetic fibres Rayon as a new biomaterial for drug delivery and tendon and Nylon were both originally presented as a silk and ligament replacement/repair. Biosynthesized alternative, but we would never call it ‘silk’ today. spider “silk-like proteins”36 are also being targeted for use in high fashion, athletic gear, 3D printing (to In the world of food products, consumer actions be mixed with thermoplastics to increase strength and other lawsuits have been brought for misuse and decrease weight)37 and military gear. Some of words such as “natural,” or misleadingly labelling demonstration-scale apparel has been produced artificial substitutes as ‘milk,’ ‘meat’ or ‘mayonnaise.’ using syn bio synthetic spider silk, but just one Labelling genetically engineered protein from company has products on the market: Germany’s a yeast or bacteria ‘spider’ or ‘silk’ may also be AMSilk sells its “Biosteel” fibres as coatings for viewed by consumers as misleading, especially if it medical implants38 – arguably not as flashy as the is not clearly communicated that they are from a proof-of-concept “Futurecraft Biofabric” shoes bioengineered source. the company unveiled in late 2016 with corporate Additionally, the actual engineered proteins partner Adidas.39 AMSilk also sells its spider silk-like produced by, for example, Bolt Threads’ proteins in powder form to cosmetics companies bioengineered yeast may in fact be novel proteins for use in high-end skin lotions.40 (Medical device not previously found in nature that are functionally and personal-care ingredient applications imply and physically different from actual naturally- lower volume production than apparel does, which derived spider silk proteins.41 Bolt Threads explains is significant because cost-effective scale up, that they use spider silk proteins as “inspiration”
6 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion for their engineered proteins but that they intend to adapt the properties of the proteins to match market needs (e.g. strength, elasticity, waterproof). Even the DNA of the engineered microorganisms is not directly taken from spiders. Bolt says on its website that, “We look at the DNA of spiders and then create sequences engineered for product performance. The whole process is informed by our understanding of how spiders make silks.”42
Bolt Threads microsilk tie label (Source: tevonews.com). It may be that the only claim on this label that is technically correct is that Bolt Threads products are made in Emeryville CA. A more truthful label might read “100% bioengineered fibre protein, made by yeast in Emeryville, CA.”
…[C]onsumer apparel…speaks Cotton in flower. Source: PaigeGreenPhotography so closely to our own personal The Bottom Line: We don’t know if companies will identity — how we look every ultimately succeed in scaling up the biosynthesis of fibres that mimic natural fibres and ‘super’ day, how we present to others… natural fibres like spider silk for the apparel market Young people and affluent – even within the ‘high-value, low-volume’ model people care deeply and will pay adopted by other sectors aiming to move toward for sustainability. And if you’re biosynthesis-based production (e.g., fragrance and food ingredients). We do know, however, that failed any brand on this planet…I bet technologies can still have a significant market they would love to have the impact – if only by displacing competitors who fear demographics of young and the looming presence of a potentially disruptive technology and opt to exit the marketplace, or by affluent, like those sound like discouraging would-be competitors that conclude pretty good ones to me. the risk is too great to enter the market.43 A very —Dan Widmaier, co-founder of Bolt Threads, real concern is that the money, hype and scientific speaking on the “Loose Threads” brain power being invested in synthetic biology podcast, 31 October 2017. platforms could foreclose opportunities for truly sustainable fibre options.
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 7 Table 1: Companies Using Microbe-Based Biosynthesis for Fibre Manufacturing Targeting the Apparel Sector Host Microbe, Feedstock, Location of Fermenter(s), Company Biosynthesized Product if known if known if known
DuPont Industrial Bio-PDO monomer (polymer Proprietary, Biosciences (unit Corn sugar brand-name Sorona Loudon, TN, US (adjacent to recombinant strain of DowDuPont), (dextrose) manufactured in Grifton, NC, Tate & Lyle’s corn wet mill) of E. coli US US and Jiangsu, China)
Fibroin-like protein and Proprietary, Glucose,44 silk-like fibres, brand name “Prototyping studio,” Spiber, Inc., Japan recombinant strain source QMONOS Tsuruoka, Japan45 of E. coli unknown
Proprietary, Lab in Emeryville, CA, US; recombinant strain Corn sugar “Improved silk fibres”47 partnered with Michigan Bolt Threads, US of yeast, species (dextrose)46 branded “microsilk” Biotechnology Institute, unknown Lansing, MI, US (2015)
Proprietary, Glucose, “Silk biopolymers,” brand AMSilk, Germany recombinant strain source Planegg, Germany name Biosteel of E. coli unknown
Proprietary, Synthetic Biomanufacturing recombinant strain Glucose, “Synthetic spider silk” for Facility, Utah State Araknitek, US of E. coli (also uses source high-performance fabrics, University, Logan, UT, US alfalfa and goats as unknown composite materials, coatings (R&D scale) hosts)
Korean Advanced Institute of Proprietary, Glucose, Science and “silk-like” protein, “silk-like” recombinant strain source Daejeon, Korea (R&D scale) Technology fibre48 of E. coli unknown (KAIST), South Korea
Unclear, likely Bacteria (unclear, Spidey Tek a recombinant “real Spider Silk,” Arachno Los Angeles, US likely E. coli) strain of E. coli
Survival Strategies: With no “spider silk-like,” biosynthesized fibres on the apparel market beyond short runs of demonstration pieces, companies currently find themselves in the so-called “valley of death”: an R&D phase of post-invention, pre-market in which companies seek investment (e.g., venture capital, government grants) and technical and/or financial partners to remain viable.49 Keeping investor and consumer enthusiasm alive is crucially important while companies slog through the “valley of death.” A seemingly robust and/or broad intellectual property (IP) portfolio can also help persuade potential investors that a company will be in a strong market position once in the marketplace.50 Table 2 below shows examples of IP held by and investment in the “spider silk” start-ups as they hope to successfully navigate the valley of death innovation phase.
8 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion Table 2: Biosynthesized “Spider Silk” Fiber Start-ups, Patent Activity, Investment and Corporate Partners
Amount of Capital Corporate Raised (Seed, Company Selected Relevant Intellectual Property Development Partners, Venture or Grants), Announced (if known) Announced (if known)
WO2017090665A1: Method for producing fibroin-like protein; US9689089 (patent): Solution-dyed protein fiber and method Spiber, Inc., Goldwin, Inc. (The North for producing same; US8979992 (patent): $161 million* Japan Face distributor in Japan) Polypeptide solution, artificial polypeptide fiber production method and polypeptide purification method using same
WO2016149414A1: Improved Silk Proteins; WO2017214618: Recombinant Protein Fiber Yarns with Improved Properties; Bolt Threads, Patagonia, Stella WO2015042164A3: Methods and compositions $213 million** McCartney USA for synthesizing improved silk fibers; US20150293076: Cellular Reprogramming for Product Optimization
US20150047532 / WO2015023798A1: Synthetic Araknitek, spider silk protein compositions and methods USA (Randolph Lewis, Assignee)
Korean Advanced US20120231499: High-molecular-weight Institute of recombinant silk or silk-like protein and micro- Science and Spiber, Inc. or nano-sized spider silk or silk-like fiber Technology produced therefrom (KAIST), South Korea
US20150056256: Method for treatment of spider silk-filament for use as thread or a Inspidere, composition in the manufacture of cosmetic, Netherlands medical, textile or industrial applications such as bio-artificial cell tissue or skin based on (recombinant) spider silk
* https://www.spiber.jp/en/archives/category/finance (01.12.2018) ** https://techcrunch.com/2018/01/03/spider-silk-startup-bolt-threads-closes-on-123-million-in-series-d-funding/
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 9 Glowing media attention can give fledgling models” and the screening of a video showing Bolt companies a boost. For example, Bolt Threads Threads’ first spider silk necktie being packaged has successfully pushed the stronger-than-steel- up to send to Stan Lee, creator of Spider Man, c/o spider silk story, even while acknowledging that Marvel Comics.54 its current “spider silk” – still in the demonstration Co-branding – a kind of contagious credibility – stage – is not especially durable, stretchy or can boost investor confidence and help attract 51 even waterproof. Particularly now, in the era of new money. Bolt Threads, again, has been crowdfunding, the public often serves multiple successful in hooking up with major players and roles in the product development process – as a managed to pull off co-branding wins in both gauge of potential consumer interest, as actual the high fashion and down-to-earth worlds (see investors and, eventually, as consumers. (Two box). In 2017, Bolt Threads announced it had “cellular agriculture” companies developing syn bio entered into a collaboration with Stella McCartney, meat, for example, have raised almost $400,000 the eponymous high-fashion design company from the public via the crowdfunding website associated with animal rights activism and 52 Indiegogo. ) In 2017, Bolt Threads held a lottery to sustainability. Stella McCartney used Bolt Threads’ select 50 people who were given the opportunity biosynthesized silk to create a one-off gold dress to pay $314 for a “spider silk” tie. Bolt Threads’ that was exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art co-founder and CEO Dan Widmaier presented in New York. In April 2018, Bolt Threads and Stella the lottery as “marking the end of a chapter of McCartney unveiled another one-off for a museum this technology where it was all research,” as well exhibit: this one used biosynthesized mycelium as “marking the moment where we’re ready and from Bolt Threads (using technology licensed from 53 able to make cooler products.” Lottery winners Ecovative) to produce a Stella McCartney “Falabella were announced at the hip SXSW technology/arts bag” that will be exhibited at the Victoria & Albert’s conference in Austin, Texas as part of a “stellar new London exhibit, “Fashioned from Nature.”55 marketing strategy,” including “star-studded
Source: Bolt Threads
10 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion From Organic Pioneer to Biotech Backer: Patagonia’s Eco-Conscious Contradiction
Source: Patagonia YouTube ad / “Why Patagonia is Fighting for Public Lands”.
Many consumers perceive US apparel company all the risks before we let genetically modified Patagonia as a socially-responsible company that organisms loose on the world or continue to is committed to environmental sustainability, fair eat them in our food.”56 Indeed, Patagonia has labour practices and supply chain transparency. even gone further to try to position itself as an In the past, Patagonia has deliberately positioned organic pioneer (organic production excludes itself as a precautionary anti-GMO (genetically genetic engineering as a key tenet): All cotton modified organism) brand - supporting initiatives in Patagonia’s own clothing line are organically to promote the labelling of GMOs in foods, sourced and the company is currently trying to refusing to sell genetically engineered (GE) enter the organic food market as a major player cotton, and rejecting PLA, a corn-based fiber with its new Patagonia Provisions brand while made with GE corn feedstocks. In 2002, founder playing a lead part in the establishment of a high- Yvon Chouinard penned a key essay “What bar ‘regenerative organic’ standard that explicitly does a Clothing Company Know About Genetic excludes next generation genetic engineering Engineering?” and the company subsequently techniques. ran campaign ads that argued “Let’s not repeat Patagonia’s former activist-style embrace of the mistakes we have made in the past with such all things non-GMO and organic stands in stark inadequately tested technologies as DDT and contrast to its newer business decision to lend nuclear energy. We don’t know enough about its name to the risky venture of synthetic biology the dangers of genetic engineering. Let’s find out textile production. This in turn sends a very
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 11 confused signal to its consumers and industry partners about exactly what sort of agricultural For the sake of full transparency, system Patagonia believes in. Does it stand with sustainable natural fibre farmers or is now more if Patagonia decides to u-turn enraptured by Silicon Valley technofixers? It’s on genetic engineering and back a contradiction that Patagonia seems to prefer biotech textiles, they should at not to address. In early 2018, even while CEO Rose Marcario told organic executives in a key least come clean with consumers speech in Los Angeles that her company cares about their contradictions: about “issues of food sovereignty”, corporate Patagonia should as a minimum 57 concentration and “fairness for farmers,” promise to unambiguously Patagonia executives at the same meeting privately told civil society that Patagonia was label as such any genetically comfortable to continue its partnership with engineered textiles that it sells syn bio start-up Bolt Threads - a company and seriously re-evaluate its whose business model is exactly to displace farmer-based production of natural fibres with positioning as an organic and proprietary biotech proteins.58 GMO-free pioneer brand. Patagonia’s response to food and farm activists who have shared their concerns with the company is that it has not yet made a firm decision on whether to use Bolt Thread’s fibres in its commercially available clothing and that the company’s interest is currently purely on the technical level - evaluating the claims for strength and elasticity that Bolt are making for their fibres.59 Patagonia, however, admits to working in close collaboration with Bolt Threads to help improve their fibres towards potential commercial use and won’t rule out selling genetically engineered clothes in the near future. More significantly, Bolt Threads as a company has in turn continuously used the fact of this collaboration with Patagonia in its publicity to investors and to the media to bolster its own appearance of commercial success while borrowing the environmental sheen of Patagonia to greenwash its product. Most media reports of Bolt Thread’s production of ‘spider silk’ lean heavily on this perceived endorsement by Patagonia (as well as designer Stella McCartney) as a key source of eco- credibility for this genetic engineering firm.60 Patagonia has seemingly not asked its biotech partner to stop namedropping.
A Patagonia anti-GMO ad.
12 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion Source: Shreya Sonar 1000 PM
Biosynthetic Silk and Microplastic Pollution: A False Solution
The fast fashion industry has recently been getting silk, such as fashion designer Stella McCartney, are bad press for how synthetic textiles contribute also outspoken on the topic of addressing ocean to microplastic pollution in the oceans.61 Plastic microplastic pollution.64 marine pollution – so vast that it can be seen from However, the long-term degradability of space – severely threatens aquatic habitats and bioengineered silk threads cannot simply be marine organisms, with as-yet-uncalculated costs assumed or extrapolated from natural spider silk. to human health. Microplastic pollution of marine The proteins being developed by biotechnology and freshwater environments has been recognized companies are novel and distinct from natural as a planetary crisis for nearly two decades. Only spider silk and should be independently assessed recently has it become clear that tiny particles of for degradation claims and impacts once released synthetic fibres (plastic microfibres) shed from into water and soil. human-made, synthetic textiles (like polyester, nylon, acrylic, and spandex), are one of the major More significantly, there is no clear economic contributors to microplastic pollution: recent link between putting a biosynthetic silk on the estimates suggest that as much as 20% to 35% market and reducing the burden of synthetic of all primary source microplastics in the marine fibres entering the world’s oceans. Bolt Threads, environment are fibres shed from synthetic for example, has acknowledged that its threads clothing, particularly while washing, and the primarily compete with natural silk (which is already biodegradable) and will “never compete amount is increasing.62 Biosynthetic fibres that with polyester just on cost,” but hopes to one mimic synthetic polyester, like DuPont’s Sorona day engineer specialty stretchy textiles that are fibres, only deepen and extend these concerns – biodegradable for small niche markets such as Sorona is neither biodegradable nor compostable. yoga clothes or lightweight jackets.65 Because biosynthetic silk appears to mimic natural This may be a fibres that do have biodegradable properties good strategy to capture profits from well-heeled (such as natural spider silks), there have been eco-conscious consumers, but it does not appear suggestions that bioengineered silk could be part to be an effective strategy for addressing the flood of the fashion industry’s response to this mounting of cheap fast fashion clothing responsible for ocean 66 crisis.63 Some high-profile supporters of spider plastic pollution.
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 13 Spinning Failure as Success: Synthetic Biology’s Commercial Track Record
Biosynthetic pathway engineering is highly malarial drug cheap and plentiful: “If we scale complex, expensive and far from routine. Although this up, in six months we will be at a point syn bio companies point to commercial success in where 400 reactors (that run continuously) the scale-up of high-value, low-volume products will be sufficient to produce the entire world’s (such as flavours, fragrances and small-batch supply. Our reactors (…) could shave the total specialty chemicals), the biosynthesis platform has cost of the drug by a third.”68 Attempts to a mixed record when it comes to industrial scale-up scale-up and commercialize synthetic biology’s of large volume products. highly-celebrated anti-malarial compound »» Biofuels: One decade ago, synthetic biology were vastly over-hyped and short-lived. The start-ups and petrochemical industry pharmaceutical factory that briefly produced partners were making grandiose claims the biosynthesized anti-malarial compound 69 about using designer microbes to produce was unceremoniously sold in 2016. plentiful, sustainable, low-cost biofuels in »» Flavours & Fragrances: Synthetic biology giant fermentation tanks. Synthetic biology companies have proven able to manufacture entrepreneur Craig Venter boasted of high-value, low-volume flavour and fragrance synthetic biology’s “tremendous potential, compounds in engineered microbes. Evolva’s possibly within a decade, to replace the vanillin flavour and Isobionics/DSM’s orange petrochemical industry.”67 Despite the hype, fragrance are already commercially available- efforts to biosynthesize cheap substitutes for and many more flavour and fragrance petrochemicals went bust because companies compounds are in the pipeline.70 Existing couldn’t achieve commercial scale-up at regulations in the EU and US may allow these competitive prices. products (derived from fermentation and other »» Anti-Malarial Drug: Similarly, millions of microbiological processes) to be labelled as dollars in R&D were invested in high-profile “natural” ingredients/products, positioning attempts to biosynthesize artemisinin – a key them to compete with botanically-derived ingredient in the world’s most effective anti- compounds as well as with their synthetic malarial drugs. (The anti-malarial compound (chemically-derived) counterparts. Under is traditionally sourced from an estimated current labelling regulations in the EU and US, 100,000 small farmers in Asia and Africa who consumers of natural flavours and fragrances grow Artemisia annua – the sweet wormwood have no way of knowing if the natural crop). Synthetic biology enthusiasts boasted ingredient they seek is derived from botanicals that syn bio’s platform would make the anti- or biosynthetic organisms.
14 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion Past and Present Efforts to Genetically Engineer Fibres: Three Not-So-Easy Pieces
The genetic engineering of fibres is nothing new. generations of transgenic goats endowed with Over the past two decades, bioengineers have silk-making genes from golden orb spiders.77 introduced at least three approaches to genetically A start-up in The Netherlands, Inspidere, has engineer fibres: worked with the synthetic spider silk from the 1. GE Cotton: Thanks to Monsanto and a Nexia engineered goats to develop a proof of handful of agrochemical giants, genetically concept ‘bulletproof’ skin that mixes spider 78 engineered (GE) cotton was planted on an silk and human skin cells and offers synthetic 79 estimated 22 million hectares worldwide spider silk on its website. Other companies in 2016.71 Despite its commercial success, seek to modify the silkworm’s natural ability GE cotton hasn’t helped small farmers72 or to spin silk fibres. Kraig Biocraft Laboratories, benefited consumers – but it has generated Inc. has inserted its patented spider silk gene blockbuster sales for Monsanto’s flagship sequences into silkworms. The company’s chemical weed killer, glyphosate (tradename GE silkworms are now spinning proteins RoundUp). Since 1996, GE cotton has been composed of a mixture of both spider and 80 engineered for two genetic traits: 1) to tolerate silkworm silk. In Japan, Immuno-Biological heavy doses of chemical herbicides, especially Laboratories Company has successfully glyphosate; 2) to resist some insect pests with created a GE silkworm that produces 6-7 mg built-in insecticidal toxins.73 Over time, both of human collagen from a single cocoon. The insects and weeds are increasingly evolving collagen harvested from modified silkworms resistance to both GE cotton traits, leading is already being used in commercial cosmetic 81 to documented GE cotton crop failures in products. the field.74 In August 2018, Australian media 3. Synthetic GE Microbes: As discussed in this reported that a team of synthetic biologists report, synthetic biologists are now using from government science programme CSIRO synthetic DNA to build microorganisms (i.e., were working on developing a bioengineered yeast and bacteria) that are engineered cotton with altered cell wall structure to to secrete fibrous materials in industrial mimic many of the properties of synthetics, fermentation tanks. See Table 1: Companies such as being stretchy, non-creasing and even Using Microbe-Based Biosynthesis for Fibre waterproof, while retaining its natural fibre Manufacturing Targeting the Apparel Sector. feel. “We’ve got a whole bunch of different cotton plants growing; some with really long thin fibres, others like the one we call ‘Shaun the Sheep,’ with short, woolly fibres,” explained CSIRO scientist Dr Madeline Mitchell.75 2. GE Animals: Other synthetic biologists are focusing on the genetic engineering of animals (goats and silk worms) to produce novel fibres that these animals could never produce in nature. Beginning in the late 1990s, Montreal- based Nexia Biotechnologies introduced silk-spinning genes from spiders into goats, with the goal of harvesting a super-strong silk protein from goat’s milk.76 Nexia is long gone, but the “spider goats” eventually made their way to Utah State University where researchers continue to develop new
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 15 tusks, a task that is especially complex Beyond Syn Bio Silk because ivory consists of two materials, Although recent media attention highlights efforts collagen and hydroxyapatite (a calcium-based to develop genetically engineered silk-like fibres, mineral).86 technology start-ups also aim to use synthetic »» Syn Bio Dyes: UK-based start-up Colorifix biology’s designer organisms to develop other bio- is using genetically altered bacteria to inspired products for the fibre/fashion/materials make pigments for fabrics. The company industry. These include, for example: claims that its engineered microbes not only »» Biofabricated Leather Analogs: Modern produce pigments, but also the company’s Meadow, a Brooklyn-based biotech start-up, process “fixes” the pigments onto fabric.87 is growing proprietary strains of genetically Colorifix asserts that, if scale-up is successful, engineered yeast that secrete leather-like biosynthesized pigments will save water, proteins in fermentation tanks. The company reduce waste and eliminate the need for claims its lab-grown proteins are identical to harmful chemicals (solvents, acids and heavy bovine collagen – a fibrous protein that forms metals) that are typically used in the textile connective tissue and gives animal skin its dying industry. Additionally, leading synthetic strength and elasticity. The company’s collagen biology company Ginkgo Bioworks has been fibres can be assembled into layers, resembling experimenting with biosynthesized dyes for sheets of raw leather that can then be fabrics. They have been working with bio- tanned, dyed and finished like animal-derived design artist Natsai Audrey Chieza who has leather – without the animals. By tweaking engineered the soil bacteria streptomyces its genetically modified yeast products, the coelicolor to express blue, pink and purple company aims to optimize collagen fibres dyes.88 Chieza, who is establishing her own with made-to-order functional properties (i.e., company, Faber Futures, says she is currently texture, weight, appearance).82 working with two brands (one luxury boutique brand and a sports apparel brand) to test the “It’s biology meets engineering. commercial impact of producing her syn bio We diverge from what nature does, dyes at scale.89 and we can design it and engineer »» Engineered Living Materials: A New York- it to be anything we want.”83 based company, Ecovative, was founded on the premise that mycelium (the root system —Andras Forgacs, CEO of Modern Meadow of a mushroom) is “nature’s glue” – and can be used to bind agricultural waste and wood »» Lab-grown Horns and Tusks: US-based syn together to make furniture and household bio start-ups Pembient and Ceratotech are products. In April 2018, Ecovative announced biofabricating keratin – fibrous proteins that a partnership with Bolt Threads to produce a are a major component of skin, hair, wool, high-end mycelium handbag that it will launch nails, hooves, horns and teeth. Their goal is to under the Stella McCartney brand.90 Last year, produce lab-grown rhino horn substitutes that Ecovative won a $9 million R&D contract from they believe will reduce the incentive to poach the US Defense Advanced Research Projects endangered wildlife. Pembient initially used Agency (DARPA) to develop next generation engineered yeast cells to produce keratin and building materials “with attributes of living used a 3D printer to mold a prototype horn.84 systems.” Ecovative is collaborating with Pembient and Ceratotech are now using syn bio researchers to grow a living hybrid tissue-engineering to coax stem cells from a composite building material, that can be rhino or other animal to grow into the cells genetically programmed to have “responsive that produce keratin.85 A team of University functionality” (e.g., wound repair, protective of Oxford (UK) researchers is attempting to surfaces, and/or infection response).91 biosynthesize the ivory that makes up elephant
16 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion In 2016, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) launched its Advanced Functional Fabrics Institute (AFFI) with $320 million in start-up funds from industry and the US Department of Defense. The AFFI network includes academic, industry and government researchers who are dedicated to transforming “traditional fibers, yarns, and textiles into highly sophisticated integrated and networked devices and systems.”94 By embedding semiconductors and sensors into textiles, AFFI researchers seek to accelerate commercialization of “fabrics that see, hear, sense, communicate, store and convert energy, regulate temperature, monitor health and change color.”95 AFFI research is not limited to multifunctional fibres/fabrics. The research network is “poised to deliver revolutionary advances across the entire fabric supply chain” including weaving and knitting capabilities and end-product fabrication.96 The “smart” fabric and apparel products include the following prototypes, for example: »» Biohybrid Wearables: A team of eighteen MIT researchers has designed prototypes of “biohybrid wearables” – a breathable exercise
MIT’s “moisture responsive workout suit” is lined with microbial suit and a fluorescent running shoe with cells that shrink and expand to create vents in response to the ventilating bio-flaps that open and close in athlete’s body heat. Photo: Hannah Cohen/MIT News Office response to human body heat and sweat.97 The small flaps are lined with genetically modified High-Tech Threads on Steroids bacterial cells that shrink and expand in response to changes in humidity.98 The team’s The application of new technologies to fibres and prototype running shoes feature moisture- fabrics extends far beyond bioengineered fibres. sensitive cells that light up in response to In the long term, high-tech fashion firms may humid conditions. According to the lead integrate a suite of new technologies to transform scientist, Wen Wang, “We use fluorescence as traditional fibres, textiles and materials – including an example (…) In the future we can combine electronics, synthetic biology, nanotechnology odor-releasing functionalities through genetic and more. Inspired by last century’s advances in engineering. So maybe after going to the gym, the semiconductor chip manufacturing industry, the shirt can release a nice-smelling odor.”99 techno-optimists envision the convergence of semiconductor technology into fibre and textile »» Climate-Control Apparel: In 2017, a team of manufacturing – the so-called “Moore’s Law for fourteen Stanford University material scientists Fibers.”92 and engineers unveiled a new “smart” fabric that keeps you warmer or cooler depending on “We are just at the beginning, how it’s worn.100 The researchers engineered only starting to imagine what a piece of plastic polyethylene material with nano-sized pores that has two layers of a fabric could do if it’s packed coatings embedded within it. One coating with all the stuff of technology.” is nanoscale carbon, a chemical that emits —MIT material scientist, Alexander Stolyarov93 thermal energy. The other coating is copper,
Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion 17 a metal that traps heat. The wearer can adjust raise a fundamental question of “for whom?”: Do body temperature – warmer or cooler – by athletes need “sweat responsive” workout clothes turning the material inside out.101 lined with microbial sensors or living cells that »» Military Threads: The MIT-based “Defense glow-in-the-dark? Novel 3D printers and knitting Fabric Discovery Center” (DFDC)102 opened machines aren’t spitting out fibres that are more its doors in 2017 with the mission to “develop sustainable or enhancing the livelihoods of workers. advanced fiber and fabric technology to protect the US military and address national security problems.”103 DFDC is developing prototype fabrics that will integrate advanced sensing, energy, and communication microelectronics into the fabric of soldiers’ uniforms and gear. Possible applications include multi-material fibres and textiles that can be used to thwart improvised explosive devices (IEDs), camouflage vehicles, generate Flax for linen flowering in the field. energy to charge batteries, and monitor Source: PaigeGreenPhotography soldiers’ vital signs. Synthetic Biology’s Potential »» Commercial Fibre Hacking: Beyond futuristic Environmental and Human Health Impacts prototypes, Ministry of Supply, a Boston- based high-tech fashion start-up, is selling its The environmental and human health impacts “science-based clothing line.” In the words of associated with synthetic biology are currently company co-founder, Gihan Amarasiriwardena, poorly understood. There is broad agreement that “Instead of hacking code, we’re hacking existing regulatory systems and risk assessment protocols may be inadequate to address the fibers.”104 The company’s products include potential risks of new products derived from “aerospace-tech dress shirts”105 and socks that synthetic biology, and the UN Convention on use coffee grounds (molecularly bonded to Biological Diversity is exploring the development of the yarn’s surface) to mitigate odour. In 2017, new international guidelines for risk assessment of the company unveiled the fashion industry’s synthetic biology. first 3D-knitting machine to make personalized blazers on demand.106 According to the In the US context, a review conducted by the company’s website, “Warp-knitting unlocks Synthetic Biology Project of the Woodrow Wilson structural stretch that doesn’t rely on materials International Center concluded that the existing that break down over time.” That’s because US regulatory system is “ill-suited to address the company uses spun petroleum-based all the regulatory implications of new products polyester (i.e., synthetic plastic fibres). derived from synthetic biology.”107 A fundamental The bottom line: Despite the technological challenge in assessing the safety (especially wizardry, the enormous investment in R&D and environmental safety) of the production of new the brain power of some of the world’s most bioengineered fibres is that genetically engineering highly-trained scientists, our ecosystems simply organisms (including production strains) may lead can’t endure more plastic-based fibres and fabrics to unexpected changes including the potential embedded with chemical coatings to keep our production of additional toxins and contaminants. bodies warm or cold. Far from the promise of For example, engineered microorganisms for fibre sustainability, the development of “smart” clothes production may continue to be active after they with built-in data storage or communication are disposed of, and in a worst-case scenario, they capability raises the appalling spectre of amplifying may continue to secrete fibre proteins into soils, electronic waste and microfibre plastic pollution waterways or, if ingested or taken onto the skin, in one integrated package. The technologies also into or onto living beings.
18 Genetically Engineered Clothes: Synthetic Biology’s New Spin on Fast Fashion COMPARING NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC SIL PRODUCTION
NATURAL SYNTHETIC Millions of farmers earn livelihoods Synthetic biology companies use from producing silk. In China, genetically-modified organisms to produce sericulture dates back 5,000 years. proteins similar to silk produced by spiders.
Cultivate Mulberry Identify Extract spider DNA genetic Mulberry se uences for leaf harvest silk production Design novel Silkworm se uences eggs hatch on computer
Raise silkworms Synthesi e DNA Engineer synthetic DNA into yeast* Multiply yeast place in Cocoon forms fermentation vat Add sugar source or gas to Boil cocoon fermenter vat
Unwind Turn cocoon dissolved reel silk powder into unravel to a a li uid with silk thread consistency of molasses* Remove fermentation li uid Twist silk extract silk into stronger protein as powder threads