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Home , Leucocytozoon caulleryi, Sarcocystis

IMPORTANT PROTOZOAN DISEASES OF ANIMALS IN INDONESIA (A REVIEW)

Soeprapto Soekardono*

ABSTRACT

An account on important protozoan diseases mostly with obvious clinical symptoms are emphasized and their current status reviewed. Those diseases are surra, trichomonosis in , babesiosis, anaplasmosis, theileriosis, leucocyto- zoonosis in chicken, and . Toxoplasmosis, histomonosis, chicken malaria, balantidiosis and diseases caused by Giardia, and are not reviewed because significant problems caused by these parasites considered important economically do not appear in Indonesia.

INTRODUCTION tion leading to land pressure (in Java), climate The Republic of Indonesia is a big leading to poor nutrition in dry areas (Eastern country consisting of approximately 3600 is- Islands), poor soil conditions (Kalimantan) or lands and is divided into 27 provinces. The to optimum development of certain diseases total population is approximately 165 million. (surra) and less than optimal management, Agriculture is the most important activity and disease surveillance due to a shortage of most common farmers are smallholders or funds and no efficient marketing system in landless farmers. According to the book on some areas. livestock statistics1 from the Directorate The most important animal production General of Livestock Services, in 1985 the in Indonesia are poultry (both indigenous and livestock population in Indonesia consisted commercial) for and eggs, large of approximately 186,000. dairy cattle, ruminants and horses for draught and some 7,081,000 beef cattle, 2,706,000 buffaloes, meat, small ruminants for meat and fish for 8,235,000 goats, 4,416,000 , 3,956,000 protein. and are important protein pigs and 686,000 horses. In 1985 the poultry sources in some areas. population in Indonesia consists of ap- Parasitic diseases, including import- proximately 174,505,000 indigenous chick- ant protozoan diseases which may cause en, 31,090,000 layers, 143,657,000 broilers death and infertility, decrease production of and 25,642,000 ducks. meat, milk, egg and animal power, inhibition The most important constraints in live- of growth and decrease the quality of stock production include human overpopula- products.

- - * Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor, Indonesia

154 Parasitic diseases are thought to be culture technique for the cultivation of economically the most important in In- sp. and spp., a blood donesia2. Many of these diseases are wide- of dairy cattle, in an effort to be able spread, making the control program very to eradicate, treat or control those diseases". difficult. The Bulletin LPP# is a bibliography of research work which has been carried out since 1912 until 1987, containing protozoan ANIMAL PROTOZOAN DISEASES and other diseases in animals. A checklist of important protozoan dis- Only the most important protozoan dis- eases and some other important diseases, eases in animals will be high-lighted in this which occur in important livestock in In- paper. donesia, has been published. The diseases are Work that was done before 1912 has divided into those having some significance been published in journals like Veeartsenij- and those whose significance is still un- kundige Bladen v. Nederlandsch Indie, Medi- known. cal Journals and possibly in other Dutch Very important protozoan diseases are journals that the author was not able to trace. trypanosomosis of cattle and horses, dogs and cats, anaplasmosis and theileriosis of cattle and buffaloes, trichomonosis of cattle, and IMPORTANT PROTOZOAN coccidiosis of cattle, goat, sheep and chicken. DISEASES IN ANIMALS Toxoplasmosis which is an important zoonosis is also included. 1. Surra The significance of some protozoan dis- eases is still unknown, for example the Surra in Indonesia is caused by Trypano- trichomonosis and haemoproteosis in , soma evansi and is found in horses, cattle, giardiasis in domestic animals, trypano- buffaloes, goats, dogs and cats. somosis in birds, histomonosis in chicken, The parasite is thought to occur in the entamoebiasis in monkeys. main islands of Indonesia with the exception of Irian ~a~a~.Few definitive studies have been conducted. HISTORY ON THE STUDY OF T. evansi is spread mechanically by PROTOZOAN DISEASES biting insects and at least 26 can har- bour the parasite in their mouthparts8. The first report on protozoan diseases in Tabanus, Stomoxys, Chrysops, Haematopota, animals in Indonesia which the author was Lyperosih and Haematobia appeared to be able to trace was a report in 1899 by B. important vectors of the disease. But mos- vrijburg3 on "Sakit Mubeng", surra in cattle quitoes, house flies, and ticks are also capable caused by Trypanosoma evansi. to transmit the disease. But de ~oes~reported the presence of Animals which harbour the parasite piroplasmosis and anaplasmosis in Indonesia without showing disease symptoms are im- in cattle and buffaloes in 1896. portant reservoir hosts. The most current report on protozoan Buffaloes are more commonly infected diseases was that by ~st~awati'on "A tissue than cattle9''' based on serology and on

Bul. Penelit. Kesehat. 17 (2)1989 detection of circulating parasites. Using the (Microbabesia divergens). Babesiosis in the ELISA test, around 60% of buffaloes in sen- horse reported from West Sumatra is likely tinel herds in Java were serologically positive caused by Babesia caballi. Babesia in the compared to 35% of cattle 11. is caused by Babesia canis. Surra can be acute (mainly in horses) or Babesia bigemina was first found in chronic (mainly in large ruminants) with Tegal, in a buffalo in 1896 and afterwards in 15 anaemia and loss of weight being the main Sumatra in cattle in 190614. Ressang symptoms'0. But , loss of hair and claimed that piroplasmosis was first found in oedema are also often observed. Keratitis and 1896 by de Does in cattle. He also claimed conjunctivitis are observed in horses and dogs. that the distribution of B. bigemina was not The economic losses caused by surra as extensive as B. bovis (B. argentina) was estimated at US$22,400,000 per year. The ticks which transmit B. bigemina are Boophilus, Rhipicephalus, and Haema- physalis. In Indonesia B. bigemina causes an 2. Trichomonosis in cattle acute disease and haemo lobinuria. Some- Tritrichomonas foetus was found in times it may cause death 14 . B. bovis is often 1967 in dairy cattle in Lembang (near Ban- found in cattle buffalo in Indonesia, but this dung) by Mansjoer and isolated by Balitvet parasite is generally not very pathogenic (Veterin~Research Institute) in 1977 in and usually causes a chronic disease. But in Pasuruan and Lembang. In 1976 the para- Australia B. argentina is more pathogenic site was found by Sidik Muljo and identified than B. bigemina and may cause a mortality by Bouters in Grati (~asuruan)~~. of 70- 80%'~. No studies on the distribution of the Ixodes and Haemaphysalis are the ticks parasite has been done. that can transmit this parasite. But others The parasite is usually transmitted claim that Boophilus can also transmit the sexually but can also be transmitted by artifi- disease. cial insemination or by duty hands or equip- In 1918 B. divergens was reported in ment soiled with infected material. Infected cattle imported from Australia, but the author bulls are usually difficult to treat and are in was able to find the parasite in a blood smear fact usually not treated but brought to the from cattle from Cilacap in 1960. The para- slaughter house. Especially in cases where the sites were located on the margin of erythro- disease is in an advanced stage, infected cows cytes. recover without treatment if they are kept in B. argentina which is now considered a clean pastures for approximately 3 months synonym of B. bovis can be transmitted by and not allowed to mate during this period. ~oo~hilu~'~. The economic loss due to this disease is still Areas which are infected or suspected unknown. to be infected by Babesia are Aceh, North Sumatra, West Sumatra, Jambi, Riau, Lam- 3. Babesiosis pung, West Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, Hal- Babesiosis in cattle in Indonesia is mahera, Irian Jaya, Lombok, Bali and Java. caused by Babesia bigemina, Babesia argen- Babesiosis has not been reported from other tina (Babesia bovis) and Babesia divergens areas of Indonesia14.

Bul. Penellt. Kesehat, 17 (2) 1989 Bos taurus is more susceptible for 4. Anaplasmosis (Call sickness) babesiosis than Bos indicus (zebu). Young animals are more resistant against babesiosis Anaplasmosis in Indonesia is caused by than older animals. The infection rate in Anaplasma marginale, and Anaplasma modem breeds of cattle may reach 90%. The centrale. The first species is pathogenic, mortality rate in cattle is between 5-50 %I5. while the second is not. Formerly Anaplasma The Directorate General of Livestock Ser- belongs to the protozoa, but now it belongs to vices stated that the mortality rate in adult the Rickettsia. cattle may reach 80-90 % if not treated and Anaplasma can attack almost all warm 10-15 % in young cattle (1-2 years old)14. blooded animals such as cattle, buffaloes, Epizootics or acute infections followed by goats, sheep, deer, camels, pigs, horses, asses, death may sometimes occur in newly im- dogs and many other animals. Anaplasma ported cattle or in transported cattle from non does not affect man. infected areas to infected areas in Indonesia. In Indonesia anaplasmosis was first The most important tick which can trans- found in 1987 in cattle and buffalo. In 1912 mit babesiosis in Indonesian cattle is Boo- Anaplasma attacked buffaloes from the philus rni~ro~lus~~.B. canis is transmitted by Cileungsi area in the Bogor Regency, West Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Soiled equipment Java. In 1918 this disease attacked cattle from with infected material may also cause the North Sumatra and in 1934 it attacked cattle transmission of babesiosis. The economic in Bojonegoro and Madiun in East Java. It is that Aria lasma has losses due to this disease has not yet been P4 estimated in Indonesia. all over Indonesia .

Table 1. Diseases of large ruminants

A. Diseases known to have some significance (suggested order of economic impoxtance)

Disease Pathogen Distribution Si@~cance

Fasciolasis Parasite Widespread; end Trypanosornosis 1 . 11 Foot and Mouth virus Localised ; epi. Haemorhagic Septicaernia Bacteriae Widespread; end. . $1 Haemonchosis Parasite 9 Neoascariosis I It . 11 Babesiosis I, Localised ;end. Coccidiosis Widespread; end. Theileriosis I* . It

B. Diseases known to occur (significance: low)

Smocystis Parasitic Localised ; end. ? + Bos taurus is more susceptible than Bos cording to ~styawati'is also not a vector of indicus. Older animals (older than 6 months) T. orientalis. Mortality due to T. mutans is are more susceptible than young animals, less than 1 per cent16 and losses due to T. which may at an older age become carriers of buffeli are most unusual in Australia. But one this disease. Ticks are the natural hosts for parasite, very similar to T. buffeli (T. orien- Anaplasma and may transmit this disease talis ?) has been reported to cause sickness transovarially to their offspring. Ticks are the and death, particularly in imported cattle, in intermediate hosts in the transmission of several eastern Asian countries1'. In Anplasma to cattle and buffaloes (Boophilus, Sukabumi, Indonesia the mortality rate due to Ixodes, etc.). Tabanus, Stomoxys, Aedes and T.orientalis was higher than 1 % in imported Psorophora mosquitoes act as mechanical cattle. The economic losses due to T. orien- vectors. Even a , the jalak (Sturnupostor talis has not yet been estimated in Indonesia. jalla) can transmit the disease mechanically. Soiled medical equipment with infective 6. Leucocytozoonosis in Chickens material can also transmit the disease. Trans- mission in utero sometimes occurs. Leucocytowonosis in chicken in In- donesia is caused by caulleryi and Leucocytozoon sabrazesi, both formerly 5. Theileriosis known as L. schuefieri and found b Theileriosis in Sukabumi, West Java is Prowazek in 1912 in ~umatra~~.Akiba et a1 23 caused by Theileria orientalisl'. According reported the presence of L. caulleryi in to allow" the name Theileria buffeli has Sumatra, Java, and Bali in 1976. ~evine'~ priority if the benign cattle and buffalo theile- reported that besides L. caulleryi chicken in rias are the same. The Australian Theileria is Indonesia were also affected by L. sabrazesi. transmissible from buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) L. caulleryi occurred in Sumatra, Java, Bali, to cattle and for that reason is called Theileria and Sulawesi and L. sabrazesi occurred in buffeli until otherwise advised by Sumatra, Java and ~ali~~.In Bali the mor- taxonomists. These two names are formerly tality rate in young imported/modern bred synonyms of Theileria mutans, but it appears chickens (approximately one month old) is that T. mutans and T. orientalis are serologi- approximately 50 % and the mobidity rate cally different19. 80-100 %. In West Java the mortality rate Theileriosis in Indonesia was first may reach 80 %. In Parung Kuda (West Java) reported as "pseudokustkoorts" by de Blieck the mortality rate in adult importedhodern and Kaligis in 1912~'. Later soekardono21 bred chicken is 15-20 % and the morbidity reported T. mutans in Sukabumi from dairy rate approximately 40 %. Indigenous chicken cattle. According to ~st~awatil~,sera from (village or kampong chicken) showed no cattle with theileriosis from Sukabumi and morbidity or mortality due to infection with other areas of Indonesia were identified as L. caulleryi. This case has been.observed in sera from cattle affected with T. orientalis by ~ali~~.In epiwotics (enzootics) those chick- G.Uilenberg. So it appears that T. orientalis ens are suspected as reservoir hosts or car- is widespread in Indonesia. The main vectors riers. L. sabrazesi usually does not cause mor- of T. bufeli in Australia are Haemaphysalis tality in indigenous and imported/modern longicornis and H. bancrofn and not Boo- bred chickens, but a heavy parasitaemia may philus microplusl'. Boophilus microplus ac- cause morbidity especially in young chicken. Table 2. Dlsuaes of small ruminants

A. Diseases known to have some significance (suggested order of economic importance)

Disease Pathogen Distribution

Gastrointestinal nematodes (Haernonchus most important) Parasite Fasciolasis Mange (Sarcoptes most important) 11 Coccidiosis I* Trypanosomosis Localised /end

B. Diseases known to occur (significance: unknown)

Toxoplasma Parasite Localised / end.

Table 3. Diseases of chicken

A. Diseases known to have some significance (suggested order of economic importance)

Disease Pathogen Distribution Significance

New Castle Disease Virus Widespread / end. and LocalisedJepi. Marek's Disease t Widespread / end. and Localisewepi. Coccidiosis Parasite Widespread / end. Leucocytozoonosis Localised / epi. Ascariosis Widespread / end. Localised / end.

B. Diseases known to occur (significance low)

Histomonosis Parasite Localised / end. ? ?

Bul. Penelit. Kesehat. 17 (2) 1989 159 L. caulleryi in Indonesia is transmitted by E. granulosa, E. ahsata, E. cranadallis, E. arakawai and L. sabrazesi in faurei. E. pallida and E. christensen'18. E. by Simulium geneculare. Leucocyto- arloingi, E. parva, E. ninakohlyakimovae, E. zoonosis due to L. caulleryi in Java and Bali ahsata and E.faurei are found in goat in Bogor may occur all year round if the vector (C. and its E. debliecki has been arakawai) and a reservoir hostlcarrier is found in pigs and E. dedai in rabbits2'. present. But epizootics (usualy endemics) due Many species are widespread. to this parasite are likely to occur in the rainy Coccidiosis is mainly a disease of young season. The economic losses due to L. caul- animals. Those animals which recover, leryi has not yet been estimated properly in develop an immunity to the particular species Indonesia, but could be substantial in big which infects them. However this is not an poultry farms. absolute immunity, and recovered adult animals are often continuously reinfected, so 7. Coccidiosis that they carry light infections which do not harm them, but makes them a source of infec- Coccidia found in chicken are tion for the young. In addition under condi- tenella, E. necatrix, E. brunetti, E. maxima, tions of stress their immunity may be broken E. acervulina, E. hagani, E. mivati, E. mitis down and they may suffer from the disease and E. praecox. The most pathogenic species again. Coccidiosis is considered to be a E. tenella, E. necatrix, E. brunetti, and E. selflimiting disease. If no reinfection occurs, maxima have been found in Indonesia. Also the animal recovers without treatment. E. acervulina, a less pathogenic species, has Proper management supported by the been reported. use of effective coccidiostats will usually Approximately 21 species of coccidia prevent the occurrence of the disease. Some are found in cattle. Species found in Indonesia believe that the application of vaccins sup- are E. bovis, E. zuerni, E. ellipsoidalis, E. ported by the application of coccidiostats will braziliensis, E. alabamensis, E. canadensis, give a good prophylaxis. A vaccine consisting E. subspherica, E. auburnensis and E. bukid- of irradiated oocysts is made by Badan nonen~is~~.In coccidiosis of cattle E. bovis, Tenaga Atom Nasional (BATAN) in Pasar E. zuerni, E. ellipsoidalis, E. auburnensis and Jum'at, Jakarta. E. bukidnonensis are the species most often Many coccidia species are widespread found in the faeces2'. worldwide and pathogenic species may harm The following species which infect sheep farms where no proper management and in Britain and New zealand18 are Eimeria hygienic conditions occur. The infective ahsata, E. arloingi (E. ovina), E. cranadallis, stage is the sporulated oocyst which will E.faurei, E. granulosa, E. ninakohlyakimovae remain alive for approximately one year if (E.ovinoidalis). E. intricata, E. parva, E. pal- lida and E. punctata. E. arlongi (E.ovina), E. stored at 4-5'~ in K2Cr207 (potassium ninakohlyakimovae (E.ovinoidalis), E. faurei, dichromate) 2.5% solution. E.parva and E. ahsata are found in Bogor and Niilo in ~oekardono~~stated that the its surroundings in sheep. South Australian annual loss per calf under one year of age is workers found nine species in goats. These are US$1.00.1n ~oekardono~~,Foster stated that E. arloingi, E. parva, E. ninakohlyakimovae, bovine coccidiosis was responsible for the loss of US$ 10,000,000.- annually in the Giardia, Haemoproteus, Sarcocystis, and USA. trichomonosis and trypanosornosis in birds The population of Indonesia cattle is ap- are considered economically not important proximately 7,081,000, the population of the diseases. Indonesian water buffalo is 2,706,000 and Toxoplasmosis is considered an impor- that of the dairy cattle is approximately tant zoonosis and may cause in 186,000. The total amount of big ruminants is sheep. The presence of toxoplasmosis in 9,973,000'. If one third of the animals are less sheep and goats has been reported from than one year old, the loss due to coccidiosis Surabaya and Malang by ~artono'~and in in cattle in Indonesia could be estimated at 113 pigs and goats from Surabaya by ~asmita~~. x 9,973,000 x US$ 1,- =US$3,324,333.- per But people appear not to be aware of the year. dangers.of the disease, which can be dangerous to workers in this field especially in laboratories with unqualified personnel 8. Other protozoan diseases and supplied with inadequate facilities, Toxoplasmosis, histomonosis, chicken equipment, chemicals/disinfectants and sup- malaria, balantidiosis and diseases caused by ported with a very inadequate (very low) budget.

Table 4. Dlseases of pigs

A. Diseases known to have some significance

Disease Pathogen Distribution Significance

- -- - Ascariosis Parasite Widespread / end. ++ Strongyloidosis I, Localised / end. + to ++ Coccidiosis 11 + to ++ Balantidosis 11 Widespread 7 Toxoplasrnosis I Localised /end. + Trypanosornosis I, I, I, +?

Bul. Penelit. Kesehat. 17 (2) 1989 REFERENCES 13. Direktorat Jendral Petemakan. (1978). Pedoman pengendalian penyakit hewan menular Jilid I. 1. Direktorat Jenderal Petemakan, Direktorat Bina 14. Direktorat Jenderal Petemakan. (1980). Pedoman Program. (1986). Buku Statistik Petemakan. Pengendalian Penyakit Hewan Menular Jilid 2. Skaggs. J.W., M. Mansjoer and P. Soeratno. (1970). IL Veterinary medicine in Indonesia Adv.Vet. 15. Ressang, A.A. (1984). Patologi Khusus Veteriner. Sci. & Comp.Med. 14: 355-364. N.V. Percetakan Bali. 667 hal. 3. Vrijburg, B. (1899). Sakit moebeng. Veearts. B1. v. 16. Levine N.D. (1973). Protozoan Parasites of Domes- N. I. 12: 219. tic Animals and of Man. Burgess Publ. 4. Does, de. (1905). Piroplasmosen in Ned. Indie. Comp., Minneapolis 15, Minnesota. Geneesk. Tijdschr. 45: 515. 17. Astyawati, T. (1987). Diagnosis Piroplasmosis 5. Astyawati, T. (1988). Teknik biakan jaringan pada Sapi Perah dengan Metode Fluoresein hewan untuk pengembangbiakan Protozoa Antibodi Tak Langsung Dibandingkan de- darah Theileria sp. dan Babesio spp. dalam ngan Giemsa May Gruenwald. Dok. Fak. usaha melakukan pengobatan, pemberan- Pasca Sarjana, IPB. tasan dan pengendaliannya pada sapi perah. 18. Callow, L.L. (1984). Animal Health in Australia Seminar hasil-hasil penelitian IPB. Maret, Vol. 5. Protozoal and Rickettsial Diseases. 1988. 246 pp. 6. Lembaga Penelitian Penyakit Hewan (Animal Dis- 19. Astyawati, T. (1989). Personal communication. ease Research Institute). (1975-1988). Bull 20. Blieck, L. de en J.A. Kaligis. (1912). Pseudo- LPPH 7 (10). Bibliography Penelitian Lem- kustkoorts en anaplasmosis bij buffels op baga Penelitian Penyakit Hewan. Bogor. Java Veearts. Bladen. 24: 253. (dengan Appendixnya). 21. Soekardono. S. (1978). Theileria mutans di 7. Adiwinata, T. and A. Dachlan. (1972). A brief note Sukabumi. Media Vet. 1 (2). on Surra in Indonesia. ELVEKA Folio Vete- 22. Soekardono, S. (1986). Leucocytozoonosis pada rinaire (3). Ayam di Jawa dan Bali. Disertaai Doktor Fak. 8. Nieschultz, 0. (1930). Surra uebertragungsver- Kedokteran Hewan-IPB. suche auf Java und Sumatra. Mededeel. v.h. 23. Akiba, K., K. Iwatsuki, Y. Sasaki, Y. Furuya and Dept. v. Landb., Nijv. en Handel no. 75, Y. Ando. (1976). Report on the Investigation Utrecht. (Mededeel. Dept. v. E.Z., 1930). of Poultry Diseases in Indonesia Inter- 9. Wilson A.J., S. Partoutomo, Suhardono and P. national Coopefition Agency. 47 pp. Stevenson. 1983. Observations on the epi- 24. Soekardono. S. (1982). Coccidia pada Sapi di demiology of Trypanosoma evansi infection Bogor. in Proceed. Pertemuan Ilmiah in cattle and buffalo in Java. meed.WAAP, Ruminansia Besar. 1983 in Cisarua (Bogor). 10th Conf. Perth, W.A. 25. Soekardono, S. (1989). Unpublished material. 10. Partoutomo. S.. A.J. Wilson, P. Stevenson, M. 26. Soekardono, S. (1972). Redescription of the Life- Soleh and A. Day. (1984). The value of Sen- cycle of the Bovine Coccidium. Eimeria tinel populations to monitor production and alabamensis Christensen, 1941. M.S. Thesis, disease in small holder herds in cattle and Auburn University. buffalo in Java with special reference to 27. Hartono, T. (1988). Swaikista Surra., Proc. 8th Ann. Cod. Malay. Parasit. pada kambing/domba di Surabaya dan Soc. Kuala Lumpur, March, 1984. Malang. Makalah pada Seminar Parasitologi 11. Luckins. A.C. (1983). Development of serological Nasional V di Bogor, 20-22 Agustus 1988. assays for studies on trypanosomiasisof live- stock in Indonesia Consultants Report No. 28. Sasmita R. et 01. (1988). Insiden toxoplasmosis pada babi dan kambing di Rumah Potong 13. RIAD, Bogor, Indonesia Hewan Surabaya. Makalah Seminar Para- 12. Partoutomo, S. and Soetedjo (1977). Tricho- 20-22 moniasis pa& seekor sapi F.H. pejantan di sitologi Nasional V di Bogor, Agustus Pasuruan. Bull. LPPH 14: 38. 1988.

Bul. Penelit. Kesehat. 17 (2) 1989 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Question: 1. Could you explain, why older animals are more susceptible than the younger to Babesia infection ?

2. What kind of vaccine can be used to control coccidiosis in chicken ?

3. Has the vaccine already released in the market in Indonesia ? Answer : 1. A possibility is that younger animals may still have maternal immunity. Older animals may already have lost their immunity and may be exposed to another strain. 2. In the U.S. coccivac (measured vaccination) supported with coccidiostats has been applied, apparently succesfully, but improvement in the application aad effectivity is needed. 3. There are that "coccivac" or a similar product has been used in certain farms.